Comparisons of cities, megatrends, and resilience priorities.
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5404",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Raman Spectroscopy and Applications",title:"Raman Spectroscopy and Applications",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Raman spectroscopy has a number of applications in various fields including material science, physics, chemistry, biology, geology, and medicine. This book illustrates necessary insight and guidance in the field of Raman spectroscopy with detailed figures and explanations. This presents deep understanding of new techniques from basic introduction to the advance level for scientists and engineers. The chapters cover all major aspects of Raman spectroscopy and its application in material characterization with special emphasis on both the theoretical and experimental aspects. This book is aimed to provide solid foundation of Raman spectroscopy to the students, scientists, and engineers working in various fields as mentioned above.",isbn:"978-953-51-2908-0",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2907-3",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4112-9",doi:"10.5772/62717",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"raman-spectroscopy-and-applications",numberOfPages:364,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"7d447d2811c5d3fc696761bb12fe3166",bookSignature:"Khan Maaz",publishedDate:"February 15th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5404.jpg",numberOfDownloads:32191,numberOfWosCitations:85,numberOfCrossrefCitations:40,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:82,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:207,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 29th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 19th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 24th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 22nd 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 21st 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"107765",title:"Dr.",name:"Maaz",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"maaz-khan",fullName:"Maaz Khan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/107765/images/system/107765.png",biography:"Dr. Maaz Khan is working as Deputy Chief Scientist (Professor) at PINSTECH, Pakistan. He has done Ph.D. and post doctorate in the field of Material Science (Nanoscience). His research interests include fabrication of nanomaterials and their structural, optical, magnetic, and electrical characterizations. He has authored more than 100 research articles and published 10 books. Presently, he is the Editor-in-Chief of ‘Journal of Materials, Processing and Design\\' and \\'The Nucleus\\'. He is also the Executive Editor of \\'International Journal of Nano Studies and Technology\\'. Dr. Maaz also serves as the editorial board member of several journals of Material Science.",institutionString:"Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"9",institution:{name:"Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"512",title:"Spectroscopy",slug:"chemistry-physical-chemistry-spectroscopy"}],chapters:[{id:"54023",title:"Raman Microscopy: A Suitable Tool for Characterizing Surfaces in Interaction with Plasmas in the Field of Nuclear Fusion",doi:"10.5772/65649",slug:"raman-microscopy-a-suitable-tool-for-characterizing-surfaces-in-interaction-with-plasmas-in-the-fiel",totalDownloads:1648,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Raman microscopy, which is sensitive to chemical bonds, defects, structure, is a suitable tool that can give information on how a material can be modified by interacting with ions. We will first give concrete examples on how it can be used to characterize with a micrometric resolution samples extracted from tokamaks. We will then give concrete examples on what information can be obtained by doing a study on laboratory synthesized materials, benchmarking Raman microscopy with quantitative techniques. The first part of the chapter is focused on carbon‐based material analysis. We will show how Raman spectra are sensitive to the presence of hydrogen, a major safety issue in the field. The second part of the chapter will be focused on beryllium‐ and tungsten‐based material analysis. We will show that hydrogen can be stored as an hydride after ion implantation and that it can be released easily in tungsten oxide.",signatures:"Cedric Pardanaud, Celine Martin and Pascale Roubin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54023",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54023",authors:[{id:"187581",title:"Dr.",name:"Cedric",surname:"Pardanaud",slug:"cedric-pardanaud",fullName:"Cedric Pardanaud"},{id:"189415",title:"Dr.",name:"Celine",surname:"Martin",slug:"celine-martin",fullName:"Celine Martin"},{id:"189416",title:"Prof.",name:"Pascale",surname:"Roubin",slug:"pascale-roubin",fullName:"Pascale Roubin"}],corrections:null},{id:"53162",title:"Raman Investigations of Atomic/Molecular Clusters and Aggregates",doi:"10.5772/66098",slug:"raman-investigations-of-atomic-molecular-clusters-and-aggregates",totalDownloads:2010,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Efforts to tune optic responses of molecular aggregates often alter the characteristics and performance of functional materials, revealing that chemical properties largely rely on molecular stacking and interactions. Although the intrinsic nature of materials is primarily determined by single-molecule structures, molecular aggregation behavior that determines material property resembles the architectural style of a building in which the bricks themselves could be less important. While the establishment of surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) inspired numerous research interest for trace analysis up to single-molecule level, Raman spectroscopy is also recognized for its importance in solving several issues relating to molecule aggregates owing to the capability of non-destructive detection and spectral fingerprints by which chemical structures and aggregation states can be identified. Raman spectroscopy is not only applied to identify chemicals at the gas phase, liquid phase and solid state and to monitor in-situ reactions of materials at reduced sizes but also to probe gas-to-particle conversion in aerosols, microcrystal magnetization and phase transition at aggregated states, which are believed to attract uprising research interest in the near future.",signatures:"Zhixun Luo and Jiannian Yao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53162",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53162",authors:[{id:"188770",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhixun",surname:"Luo",slug:"zhixun-luo",fullName:"Zhixun Luo"},{id:"194840",title:"Prof.",name:"Jiannian",surname:"Yao",slug:"jiannian-yao",fullName:"Jiannian Yao"}],corrections:null},{id:"52746",title:"Raman Mapping: Emerging Applications",doi:"10.5772/66097",slug:"raman-mapping-emerging-applications",totalDownloads:2287,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Raman mapping is a noninvasive, label‐free technique with high chemical specificity and high potential to become a leading method in biological and biomedical applications. As opposed to Raman spectroscopy, which provides discrete chemical information at distinct positions within the sample, Raman mapping provides chemical information coupled with spatial information. The laser spot scans the investigated sample area with a preset step size and acquires Raman spectra pixel by pixel. The Raman spectra are then discriminated from each other by chemometric analysis, and the end result is a false color map, an image of the sample that contains highly precise structural and chemical information. Raman imaging has been successfully used for label‐free investigations at cellular and subcellular level. Cell compartments, cell responses to drugs and different stages of the cell cycle from the stem cell to the completely differentiated cell were successfully distinguished. This technique is also able to differentiate between healthy and cancer cells, indicating great potential for replacing conventional cancer detection tools with Raman detection in the future.",signatures:"Cristina Coman and Loredana Florina Leopold",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52746",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52746",authors:[{id:"188136",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristina",surname:"Coman",slug:"cristina-coman",fullName:"Cristina Coman"}],corrections:null},{id:"52411",title:"Semiconductor Nanowires: Raman Spectroscopy Studies",doi:"10.5772/65113",slug:"semiconductor-nanowires-raman-spectroscopy-studies",totalDownloads:2143,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nanowires (NWs) are filamentary crystals with diameters of tens of nanometers and lengths of few microns. Semiconductor NWs have recently attracted a great interest, because they are emerging as building blocks for novel nanoscale devices. Since physical properties are size dependent, NWs display novel properties with respect to their bulk counterparts. Raman scattering is a nondestructive inelastic light scattering technique enabling the assessment of fundamental properties of NWs, such as crystal phase, electronic band structure, composition, and strain field. Here, we summarize the basic principles of Raman spectroscopy and measurement setup, with focus on the scattering geometries typically used for NWs. We show that changing experimental conditions, such as light polarization, excitation energy, and pressure, allows gaining information on specific NW properties, even in a spatially resolved manner along the NW length. As examples, we discuss Ge and GaAs NWs to highlight some differences between Raman spectra of NWs and the bulk, GaAs NWs to show how Raman permits to establish the crystal phase, and InGaAs/GaAs core/shell nanoneedles to explain how compositional homogeneity and strain field can be addressed by Raman spectroscopy. Finally, we discuss resonant Raman experiments on wurtzite InAs NWs that allowed the determination of their electronic band structure.",signatures:"Marta De Luca and Ilaria Zardo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52411",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52411",authors:[{id:"188888",title:"Prof.",name:"Ilaria",surname:"Zardo",slug:"ilaria-zardo",fullName:"Ilaria Zardo"},{id:"194567",title:"Dr.",name:"Marta",surname:"De Luca",slug:"marta-de-luca",fullName:"Marta De Luca"}],corrections:null},{id:"52782",title:"Raman Study of the Crystalline-to-Amorphous State in Alpha- Decay–Damaged Materials",doi:"10.5772/65910",slug:"raman-study-of-the-crystalline-to-amorphous-state-in-alpha-decay-damaged-materials",totalDownloads:1846,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The stabilization and immobilization of high‐level radioactive wastes in solid forms have become one of the most pressing industrial problems. Different crystalline mineral phases have been proposed as actinide‐bearing crystalline hosts for waste materials. Self‐radiation damage from alpha‐decay of the incorporated actinides (such as U, Th) and other rare earth elements can lead to metamict state (amorphous state) and can affect the durability and long‐term performance of these actinide‐bearing phases. To investigate the impact of radiation on the nuclear waste forms and to obtain a better comprehension of the damage process and amorphization mechanism are important. The issues of interactions between high‐energy particles and solids and radiation‐induced structural modifications in crystalline‐to‐amorphous state are, in fact, an important and active area of fundamental researches. To study metamict state and metamictization is also important for geochemistry as the U‐Pb isotope system is commonly used for age dating. Although radiation effect and naturally occurring radiation damage (the process is known as metamictization) have been the subject for many research investigations, there remain important and fundamental issues which need to be understood, for example, the structural changes at the atomic level caused by metamictization, the crystal structure of radiation‐induced amorphous phases, solubility and diffusion of radioactive elements in damaged host phases, the effect of pressure and temperature on metamictization process and interaction of water and fluids with nuclear waste forms. Raman spectroscopy is found to be a very powerful tool for study and analysis of the damage effect and metamictization. This chapter describes and reviews recent Raman applications in zircon and titanite, which are proposed for nuclear waste forms. These applications are focused on radiation effect and structural damage process caused by alpha‐decay process as well as recrystallization due to thermal annealing.",signatures:"Ming Zhang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52782",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52782",authors:[{id:"189183",title:"Prof.",name:"Ming",surname:"Zhang",slug:"ming-zhang",fullName:"Ming Zhang"}],corrections:null},{id:"52306",title:"Raman Spectroscopy for Monitoring Strain on Graphene and Oxidation Corrosion on Nuclear Claddings",doi:"10.5772/65111",slug:"raman-spectroscopy-for-monitoring-strain-on-graphene-and-oxidation-corrosion-on-nuclear-claddings",totalDownloads:1681,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Raman scattering can explore a material’s structure, composition, and condition. In this chapter, we demonstrate the application of Raman scattering to monitor the change in the physical properties and chemical composition of materials. We provide two examples: (1) the Raman peak profile and shift reveal the strain in graphene induced by nanostructure and (2) the appearance and intensity of the Raman peaks indicate the oxidation corrosion on Zircaloy nuclear fuel cladding. The Raman spectroscopy is capable of providing evident and precise signals for the monitoring tasks. Through this research, we propose Raman spectroscopy to be a sensitive, accurate, and nondestructive tool for monitoring material conditions.",signatures:"Hongyi Mi, Zhenqiang Ma and James P. Blanchard",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52306",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52306",authors:[{id:"189167",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhenqiang",surname:"Ma",slug:"zhenqiang-ma",fullName:"Zhenqiang Ma"},{id:"189314",title:"Dr.",name:"Hongyi",surname:"Mi",slug:"hongyi-mi",fullName:"Hongyi Mi"},{id:"189315",title:"Prof.",name:"Jams. P",surname:"Blanchard",slug:"jams.-p-blanchard",fullName:"Jams. P Blanchard"}],corrections:null},{id:"53414",title:"Boosting the Amount of Molecular Information Through Polarized Resolved Resonance Raman Scattering",doi:"10.5772/65482",slug:"boosting-the-amount-of-molecular-information-through-polarized-resolved-resonance-raman-scattering",totalDownloads:1610,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Vibrational Raman spectroscopy, one of the experimental techniques available, is applied for characterization and analysis of molecular samples in different areas such as medical, food and environmental analysis. Application of the Raman technique is mostly similar to the application of infrared and near-infrared absorption spectroscopy, i.e. only the spectral distribution is analysed. The goal of the present chapter is to demonstrate that the amount of molecular information (also for solutions and powders) can be increased considerably by analysing also the polarization of the Raman and resonance Raman-scattered light. The goal is achieved through: (1) a discussion of the basic properties of Raman scattering with special focus on polarization and polarization dispersion. The discussion includes the rotational invariants of Raman tensors, the non-commuting generator approach to molecular symmetry as a tool for construction of state and Raman tensors for single molecules and dimers and higher aggregates and thereby predict the polarization; (2) a discussion of two illustrative case studies: Case study 1: Aggregation of haemoglobin in red blood cells (RBC); and Case study 2: In vitro polarization resolved RRS study of dye-sensitized solar cells.",signatures:"Søren Hassing",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53414",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53414",authors:[{id:"187500",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Søren",surname:"Hassing",slug:"soren-hassing",fullName:"Søren Hassing"}],corrections:null},{id:"52296",title:"Petrographical and Mineralogical Applications of Raman Mapping",doi:"10.5772/65112",slug:"petrographical-and-mineralogical-applications-of-raman-mapping",totalDownloads:2076,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:20,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Raman spectroscopy has undergone rapid development over the last few decades. The ability to acquire a spectrum in only a few tens of milliseconds allows use of Raman mapping as a routine technique. However, with respect to classical single spectrum measurement, this technique is not still as widely used as it could be, in particular for mineralogy and petrography. Here, we explain the advantages of Raman mapping for obtaining additional information compared to single spot analyses. The principle and the limits of the technique are first explained in 2D and 3D. Data processing techniques are then described using different types of rocks and minerals to demonstrate the utility of Raman mapping for obtaining information about the general composition, identification of small phases, as well as for distinguishing minerals that are spectrally very close. More “exotic” uses of the collected signal are also described. Finally, a gallery of images from representative samples is used to illustrate the discussion.",signatures:"Frédéric Foucher, Guillaume Guimbretière, Nicolas Bost and Frances\nWestall",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52296",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52296",authors:[{id:"187894",title:"Dr.",name:"Frédéric",surname:"Foucher",slug:"frederic-foucher",fullName:"Frédéric Foucher"},{id:"187896",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillaume",surname:"Guimbretière",slug:"guillaume-guimbretiere",fullName:"Guillaume Guimbretière"},{id:"187897",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicolas",surname:"Bost",slug:"nicolas-bost",fullName:"Nicolas Bost"},{id:"187898",title:"Dr.",name:"Frances",surname:"Westall",slug:"frances-westall",fullName:"Frances Westall"}],corrections:null},{id:"53578",title:"Stimulated Raman Scattering for All Optical Switches",doi:"10.5772/66320",slug:"stimulated-raman-scattering-for-all-optical-switches",totalDownloads:1600,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"We theoretically and experimentally investigate an all optical switch based on stimulated Raman scattering in optical fibers. The experimental setup consists of a Raman circuit of two stages connected in series through a bandpass filter. In the first stage, we have a saturated amplifier, in this stage the pump pulses are saturated when pump and signal are launched to the input or the pump pulses remain without saturation when pump only is launched at the input. The second stage works as the Raman amplifier; for this stage amplification is directly dependent on the pump power entering from the first stage. For the case when pump pulse only is launched at the input pass to the second stage without saturation and amplifies the signal entering in the second stage, very intense signal pulses appear at the output of this stage. For the case when both pump and signal pulses are launched to the input, the pump pulse is saturated in the first stage and the filter rejected the amplified signal, so that only low power pump enters the second stage and consequently no signal pulses appear at the output. We show that the contrast can be improved when using fibers with normal and anomalous dispersion connected in series in the first stage. The best contrast (the ratio of energies) obtained was 15 dB at 6 W pump peak power.",signatures:"Ariel Flores-Rosas, Evgeny A. Kuzin, Orlando Díaz-Hernández,\nGerardo J. Escalera-Santos, Roberto Arceo-Reyes, Baldemar Ibarra-\nEscamilla and Víctor I. Ruiz-Pérez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53578",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53578",authors:[{id:"187926",title:"Dr.",name:"Ariel",surname:"Flores-Rosas",slug:"ariel-flores-rosas",fullName:"Ariel Flores-Rosas"}],corrections:null},{id:"52839",title:"Raman Spectroscopy of Amino Acid Crystals",doi:"10.5772/65480",slug:"raman-spectroscopy-of-amino-acid-crystals",totalDownloads:2756,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:27,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, we investigate the Raman spectra of proteinogenic amino acid crystals. Amino acids are fundamental organic molecules that compose polypeptides (a linear chain of amino acids) and proteins (folded polypeptides with specific functions) found in all living beings. Surprisingly, the number of these basic molecules is not more than 22 (20 of them commonly known as the standard amino acids, plus pyrrolysine and selenocysteine). They are defined as a molecule formed by an NH2 group, a COOH group, a lateral chain (the R group), and a hydrogen atom, all of them connected to a single carbon, the α-carbon. Interestingly, α-amino acids show chirality, i.e., they present different distributions of group of atoms around the α-carbon, being defined as l- and d-form. For amino acids and proteins found in the living beings, the l-form is the dominant form, although some exceptions have been discovered in the last decades. In this chapter, we present the Raman spectra of all standard amino acids and discuss the different kinds of vibrations found, comparing them. As complementary part of the work, we present results on vibrational properties of some amino acids using Raman spectroscopy when subjected to specific conditions, with variation in temperature or pressure. Finally, we present some perspectives as the investigation of purines, a group of molecules associated with the DNA molecule.",signatures:"Paulo T.C. Freire, Felipe M. Barboza, José A. Lima, Francisco E.A.\nMelo and Josué Mendes Filho",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52839",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52839",authors:[{id:"91843",title:"Dr.",name:"Paulo De Tarso",surname:"Freire",slug:"paulo-de-tarso-freire",fullName:"Paulo De Tarso Freire"},{id:"128451",title:"Dr.",name:"José",surname:"Lima Jr.",slug:"jose-lima-jr.",fullName:"José Lima Jr."},{id:"128455",title:"Dr.",name:"Josué",surname:"Mendes Filho",slug:"josue-mendes-filho",fullName:"Josué Mendes Filho"},{id:"128456",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",surname:"Melo",slug:"francisco-melo",fullName:"Francisco Melo"},{id:"194594",title:"MSc.",name:"Felipe",surname:"Barboza",slug:"felipe-barboza",fullName:"Felipe Barboza"}],corrections:null},{id:"52628",title:"Raman Spectroscopy with X-Rays",doi:"10.5772/65427",slug:"raman-spectroscopy-with-x-rays",totalDownloads:2531,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The Raman effect in the X-ray wavelength regime as applied to spectroscopy is described in this chapter: The concepts of these X-ray Raman spectroscopies, (nonresonant) X-ray Raman spectroscopy, and resonant X-ray Raman spectroscopy, better known under the name resonant inelastic X-ray scattering, have been shortly described, and this chapter further focuses on (why) using these spectroscopic methods by showing some current applications of these techniques. As well, some possible future applications are mentioned.",signatures:"Piter Sybren Miedema",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52628",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52628",authors:[{id:"188272",title:"Dr.",name:"Piter",surname:"Miedema",slug:"piter-miedema",fullName:"Piter Miedema"}],corrections:null},{id:"52633",title:"Using Raman Spectroscopy to Improve Hyperpolarized Noble Gas Production for Clinical Lung Imaging Techniques",doi:"10.5772/65114",slug:"using-raman-spectroscopy-to-improve-hyperpolarized-noble-gas-production-for-clinical-lung-imaging-te",totalDownloads:1666,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Spin-exchange optical pumping (SEOP) can be used to “hyperpolarize” 129Xe for human lung MRI. SEOP involves transfer of angular momentum from light to an alkali metal (Rb) vapor, and then onto 129Xe nuclear spins during collisions; collisions between excited Rb and N2 ensure that incident optical energy is nonradiatively converted into heat. However, because variables that govern SEOP are temperature-dependent, the excess heat can complicate efforts to maximize spin polarization—particularly at high laser fluxes and xenon densities. Ultra-low frequency Raman spectroscopy may be used to perform in situ gas temperature measurements to investigate the interplay of energy thermalization and SEOP dynamics. Experimental configurations include an “orthogonal” pump-and-probe design and a newer “inline” design (with source and detector on the same axis) that has provided a >20-fold improvement in SNR. The relationship between 129Xe polarization and the spatiotemporal distribution of N2 rotational temperatures has been investigated as a function of incident laser flux, exterior cell temperature, and gas composition. Significantly elevated gas temperatures have been observed—hundreds of degrees hotter than exterior cell surfaces—and variances with position and time can indicate underlying energy transport, convection, and Rb mass-transport processes that, if not controlled, can negatively impact 129Xe hyperpolarization.",signatures:"Jonathan Birchall, Nicholas Whiting, Jason Skinner, Michael J.\nBarlow and Boyd M. Goodson",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52633",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52633",authors:[{id:"188631",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Jonathan",surname:"Birchall",slug:"jonathan-birchall",fullName:"Jonathan Birchall"},{id:"189277",title:"MSc.",name:"Jason",surname:"Skinner",slug:"jason-skinner",fullName:"Jason Skinner"},{id:"189278",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",surname:"Barlow",slug:"michael-barlow",fullName:"Michael Barlow"},{id:"189281",title:"Prof.",name:"Boyd",surname:"Goodson",slug:"boyd-goodson",fullName:"Boyd Goodson"},{id:"194514",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicholas",surname:"Whiting",slug:"nicholas-whiting",fullName:"Nicholas Whiting"}],corrections:null},{id:"52493",title:"Inverse Raman Scattering in Femtosecond Broadband Transient Absorption Experiments",doi:"10.5772/65479",slug:"inverse-raman-scattering-in-femtosecond-broadband-transient-absorption-experiments",totalDownloads:1651,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter reports on one of the nonlinear spectral features, the inverse Raman scattering (IRS), observed upon the interaction of ultrafast‐pulsed lasers in a Raman‐active medium. Hereby, a comprehensive theoretical description of the IRS is exposed. Furthermore, the investigation carried out on synthetic eumelanin dispersions is addressed to show how the transient absorption measurements can be influenced by the IRS, if probing at energies close to Stokes and anti‐Stokes vibrational modes of the medium. A thorough analysis demonstrates that the IRS affects the sign of dynamics but not relaxation times. A specific kind of spectroscopy based on the IRS effect (ultrafast Raman loss spectroscopy) is eventually illustrated as valuable tool to characterize the structure of molecules and to investigate their dynamics during chemical reactions, even occurring at ultrafast timescales.",signatures:"Antonio Aloi and Raffaele Tommasi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52493",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52493",authors:[{id:"188413",title:"Prof.",name:"Raffaele",surname:"Tommasi",slug:"raffaele-tommasi",fullName:"Raffaele Tommasi"}],corrections:null},{id:"53275",title:"Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering",doi:"10.5772/66084",slug:"surface-enhanced-raman-scattering",totalDownloads:2941,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The steady and fast development of surface and interfacial science have set up innovative openings for new diagnostic probes for analytical characterization of the adsorbates and determination of the microscopic structure of surfaces and interfaces. Regrettably Raman spectroscopy, being a weak scattering surface phenomenon, had seized no part in it, until the discovery and development of Surface Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS) in the early 1970’s that has opened up broad research fields both in the physics and chemistry of interfaces. The discovery of SERS by Fleischmann and coworkers in 1974 at the University of Southampton, United Kingdom is closely connected with the electrochemical systems. They reported an extraordinary million-fold enhancement of weak Raman signal from pyridine molecules adsorbed onto electrochemically roughened silver electrode compared to that from free molecules in liquid environment. In early 1976, Richard P. Van Duyne and David Jeanmaire at Northwestern University observed the effect and in early 1977, M. G. Albrecht and J. A. Creighton reported similar observation. This review article deals with the development of SERS research with special importance is given to the fabrication of various SERS-active substrates, mechanism of SERS effect and its various potential applications ranging from sensors to biomedical applications.",signatures:"Ujjal Kumar Sur",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53275",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53275",authors:[{id:"27764",title:"Dr.",name:"Ujjal Kumar",surname:"Sur",slug:"ujjal-kumar-sur",fullName:"Ujjal Kumar Sur"}],corrections:null},{id:"52607",title:"The Intricate Nature of SERS: Real‐Life Applications and Challenges",doi:"10.5772/65478",slug:"the-intricate-nature-of-sers-real-life-applications-and-challenges",totalDownloads:1837,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Testing for the presence of microorganisms in biological samples in order to diagnose infections is very common at all levels of health care. There is a growing need to ensure appropriate diagnosis by also minimizing the analysis time, both being very important concerns related to the risk of developing an antimicrobial resistance. Moreover, there are important medical and financial implications associated with infections. In this chapter, we will discuss the latest ultrasensitive and selective, but simple, rapid and inexpensive bacteria detection and identification methods by using receptor‐free and innovative immobilization principles of the biomass. Raman spectroscopy, which combines the selectivity of the method with the sensitivity of the surface‐enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) effect, is used in correlation with chemometric techniques in order to develop biosensors for pathogenic microorganisms.",signatures:"Nicoleta Elena Dina and Alia Colniță",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52607",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52607",authors:[{id:"189494",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicoleta Elena",surname:"Dina",slug:"nicoleta-elena-dina",fullName:"Nicoleta Elena Dina"},{id:"194498",title:"Dr.",name:"Alia",surname:"Colnita",slug:"alia-colnita",fullName:"Alia Colnita"}],corrections:null},{id:"52021",title:"Precision Target Guide Strategy for Applying SERS into Environmental Monitoring",doi:"10.5772/64813",slug:"precision-target-guide-strategy-for-applying-sers-into-environmental-monitoring",totalDownloads:1911,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) is a promising analytical technique that exhibits various applications in trace detection and identification. When it is applied into environmental monitoring, we should concern several key points to improve detection sensitivity and selectivity for the detection in complex matrix. In this tutorial review, we mainly focus on the strategies for improving the use of SERS into environmental application. The strategies are summarized for enhancing the ability of the substrate to selectively capture specific targets, and for achieving separation and concentration of the analytes from the matrix and the assembly structures for multiple phase detection. We have also introduced several newly developed detection systems using portable instruments and miniaturized devices that are more suitable for infield applications. 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\r\n\tThe main objective of the present volume is to diffuse the latest information related to the Auditory Hearing system from the periphery to the Auditory cortex with a strong emphasis on the Vestibular system and the various types of hearing problems associated with otolith dysfunction. The sections will include material on the current hearing assessment protocols and technologies. Sections of the book are also dedicated to hearing loss, imbalance in the elderly, hearing restoration strategies (old & novel) including cochlear implants and hearing aids.
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He is the author of more than 175 book chapters, peer-review papers, and congress presentations. He has participated in numerous European Concerted Action Projects in the areas of otoacoustic emissions, genetics, and nanotechnologies.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Andrea Ciorba, after completing his degree in Medicine in 1999 and his diploma in Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery in October 2003, obtained his Ph.D. degree in Audiology in 2008. He is the author of about 120 peer-reviewed papers and book chapters. He is an editorial board member of peer-reviewed journals. 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After completing his degree in Medicine in 1999 and diploma in Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery in October 2003, he obtained his PhD degree in Audiology in March 2008. He is the author of about 120 peer-reviewed papers and book chapters. He is an editorial board member of peer-reviewed journals. 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According to recent analyses, an estimated 400 million people already live in cities with significant water shortages today, and with an 80% increase in urban water demand (over today’s levels) projected by 2050, 1 billion city dwellers and 36% of (one in three) cities are expected to face water crises by 2050 [1]. Even earlier, by 2040, more than 66% of the world’s populations could suffer from sever water shortage—all while 25% of water is lost before even used in urban areas (up to 60% in some cities), due to poor maintenance or infrastructure. In addition, on average, only 10% of wastewater is treated before returning to water bodies in developing countries [2].
\nCurrent lack of reliable infrastructure, high levels of pollution, increasing frequency and intensity of extreme weather events (e.g. droughts, flooding, wildfires), power outages for water and wastewater utility services in and around cities—all these factors will continue to affect reliable water supply, quality of services, and health—from Flint, Michigan; Cape Town, South Africa; to Delhi, India. This does not bode well for cities lacking long term strategies that respond to challenges of rising water demands for urban, agricultural, energy, and industrial production systems; and new global risks.
\nEthical dilemmas and painful choices are emerging from ‘lock-in’ effects and environmental change to outdated governance and institutional regulatory/decision structures that have been driven by siloed systems decisions and unsustainable approaches to consistently delivering basic water, energy, food, and waste management services in an increasingly urban world. Aging infrastructure, increasingly over-allocated water resources and lack of strategies to mitigate risks (associated with urbanization, economic and environmental stress, and cybersecurity) have, in many parts of the world, brought ethical dilemmas to the forefront. In fact, this chapter outlines how many global cities are still relying on nineteenth century water policies and twentieth century infrastructure yet are now confronted with paralyzing twenty-first century challenges. In general, there is a ‘rear-view mirror’ approach and urban water management—continuing to look to the past to guide infrastructure planning and public policy (e.g. the loss of stationarity in water planning) with limited funds to modernize services.
\nCase studies that highlight and quantify critical pain points, narrate emerging ethical dilemmas, and outline breakthrough, interdisciplinary responses will be needed to enable new opportunities for improving quality of life, prosperity, sustainability and resilience of communities and cities. There are many examples of inaction or reaction to stresses and shocks in the urban water sector. They include current crises in water availability and quality issues in cities from Los Angeles, California to Flint, Michigan in the United States; to Sao Paolo, Brazil; Cape Town, South Africa; and Sana’a, Yemen globally; as well as increasing frequency and intensity of weather extremes and natural disasters (e.g. floods experienced in San Juan, Puerto Rico; to extreme heat in Lahore, Pakistan; to population migration in Beirut, Lebanon due to water-driven security risks in Syria; to persistent and water-related food insecurity in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; to limited drinking water in Gaza and significant wastewater effluent discharges into the Mediterranean, increasingly leading to events of shutting down of Ashkelon’s desalination plant, that now supplies up to 20% of Israel’s drinking water) [6].
\nIn this chapter, we define a spectrum of failures in current ‘rear-view mirror’ approaches to urban water strategy and their consequences. This is followed by the development of a preliminary urban response maturity model, in the next chapter, that’s based upon learnings from recent water crisis events and other sectors (e.g., telecommunications to energy) which are also undergoing transformational change. For example, Bangladesh moving from almost zero mobile cellular subscriptions per 100 people in 2000 to over 78.8 per 100 people in 2015. In addition, solar PV prices declined almost 75% from 2010 to 2017 and onshore wind electricity by 25% to $0.06USD/kWh in 2017.
\nTransformational changes often come from defining vectors forward toward ‘leapfrogs’ in technologies decision systems and systems integration processes that move from reactive crisis response-modes, voluntary programs, and inadequate data systems to proactively accepting responsibility for informed market-enabling technologies, that could spur many new shared economy or water and energy development models—especially focused on rapidly urbanizing areas. A focus on integrated, ethics, and performance-based urban nexus strategies is defined as follows:
\nUrban NEXUS strategies (UNS) will refer in this chapter to an emerging approach and process that aims to integrate actors, knowledge, data, and assessment tools to inform the design of best practices that can be leveraged and shared across sectors and domains to deliver sustainable, healthy, and resilient water and energy systems and infrastructure services that improve quality of life while catalyzing urban innovation.
\nWhile the majority of this chapter explores the complex urban water challenges and responses needed ahead, an aspiration of ‘leapfrogs’ forward via urban nexus strategies are anticipated to help target more ambitious goals and integrated metrics for risk mitigation, to enhance a city’s global competitiveness—in a rapidly evolving market place for innovative solutions to urban water crises. Trends of on-demand, data-driven analytics informing integrated, or nexus (rather than siloed)-based governance of critical resource-based services may also bring forward new ethics-driven decision and behavioral approaches as a key component to systems integration for UNS.
\nThroughout history, civilizations and cities have primarily located where water is plentiful—along coastlines, rivers, lakes, and mountains. Cities without water are a catalyst for many forms of instability—from economic and social to environmental, agricultural and political. This is an increasing challenge for many of the world’s megacities, as well as smaller to mid-size cities that are urbanizing and industrializing at a rate of change that’s been unparalleled in history. Between 2000 and 2025, it is expected that the number of megacities will roughly double, and with urban populations of 1 million reaching 2 million in timeframes as short as 8–12 years. This has significant implications for abilities to keep up with growth and maintain sustainable water services (Figure 1).
\nMega-cities in 2000 vs. 2025 (note: today megacities represent 10% of world urban population, with smaller to mid-size cities often having more limited resources to adapt to change) [
Cities in wet to dry geographies are now facing increasing population and resultant resource demands. They are also in a unique position to transform water, energy and food nexus stress into strategies to vastly improve resilience and create abundance. An integrated strategy to manage nexus stress is needed for cities to thrive, economically and socially, in the twenty-first century. Figure 2 illustrates the interactions and interdependencies of these trends and key urban resilience challenges.
\nInterdependencies of the energy water food nexus.
The CDP Water program has developed research on the responses of global cities to these risks. The research indicates the cities most concerned about their water supply are in Asia and Oceania (84%), with serious risks also identified in Africa (80%) and Latin America (75%). Sixty-three percent of North American cities consider climate change a risk to water supply, with fewer cities concerned in Europe (34%). One hundred and ninety-six cities reported risks of water stress and scarcity, 132 a risk of declining water quality and 103 a risk of flooding.
\nCDP’s new infographic report ‘Who’s Tackling Urban Water Challenges’, produced in partnership with AECOM, the global infrastructure firm, and funded by Bloomberg Philanthropies, offers a first dataset of global water action by cities and companies. Using information gathered from 569 cities and 1432 companies, each reporting their water management activity, the database illustrates how global cities and companies are responding to the escalating challenge of resource constraints, rising demands, and changing conditions.
\nBusinesses are also reporting to CDP on impacts from water scarcity and flooding. In 2017, 535 companies (70%) have board level oversight of water issues and are reaping the rewards, including market differentiation, shareholder confidence and business resilience. In 2017, companies committed US$23.4 billion across more than 1000 projects to tackle water risks across 91 countries worldwide, including desalination, reclaiming waste-water and improving irrigation to avoid droughts [4].
\nData re-analyses of the CDP Cities and Water Security self-reported database are shown in Figure 3. This includes exploring data from 312 cities in terms of water insecurity risk type, level of severity and the temporal nature of these risks (keeping in mind a need to balance the biases that may be associated with self-reported data). This is followed by a greater emphasis in next section on solutions, decision systems, and maturity levels—to operationalize the framework—on urban water strategy maturity, focusing on systems integration and service innovation across sectors and ‘siloes’ (Figures 4 and 5).
\nUrban risk timescales, magnitude, CDP cities water security database [
One hundred and ten global cities that are categorized into lower, medium and higher water risk categories. Re-analysis of September 2017 data from CDP [
Proportional assessment of types of risks shaping water insecurity [
An overview of impacts in the cities with some of the highest risk of water insecurity are provided below.
\nScarcity of clean water, especially in areas near the coast of North Jakarta and West Jakarta
Pollution caused by industrial and household activities
Increased frequency of rain affecting the area, with increased inundation/flood areas
Water riots expected as 1 Billion gallon per day requirement is only met with 600 Mgd
Currently, the output of all the water sources for the city is 570,000 cubic meters against a demand of 740,000 cubic meters. This means we only meet 77% of current water demand.
The current reticulation infrastructure is very old and, as a result, contributes to huge water losses due to leakages.
With the flooding associated with the heavy downpours that the city experiences, there have been instances where water pipes have been swept away.
Risk of release of hazardous polluting substances, leading to failure of technological modes of sewerage networks and sewage treatment plants.
Risk of accidents on sewerage networks, pumping stations and wastewater treatment plants in connection with wear and insufficient volume of measures for their renovation, as well as in connection with failure of external power supply.
Risk of accidental pollution of water sources, existing due to anthropogenic pressures, leading in particular to deterioration of water quality, primarily on organoleptic and microbiological indicators, the content of organic substances and petroleum products.
Mass development of cottages development in water-collecting area and discharge of untreated waste water lead to gradual degradation of small rivers, deterioration of self-purification capacities of water bodies, and algal blooms. Deterioration of water supply systems also affects the quality of the water supplied to consumers.
The city has generally been able to successfully manage and reduce demand growth; however, Cape Town is currently suffering from a drought lasting several years (currently in year 3) which has severely impacted the City’s water storage.
Stringent level 3b water restrictions have been put in place to reduce demand further. It is anticipated that in the longer term, water demand will continue to grow and place stress on the supply system.
The city is currently conducting cooperative planning with the national Department of Water and Sanitation to ensure that additional water supply infrastructure is constructed to avoid a long-term water deficit in the region. Climate change is expected to change rainfall patterns, and this has been included as a scenario in the planning for future infrastructure. Climate change is expected to reduce rainfall, increase evaporation and increase demand due to increased temperature.
Inadequate rainfall results in droughts, damaged crops, declining wildlife and deaths
Hydroelectricity issues, for instance—no electricity in homes at certain intervals due to road shading and you only see power for only 2 hours.
People consuming contaminated water, due to dried and stagnant water sources, leads to water borne diseases.
The city has identified and mapped flooding impacts for vulnerable areas—targeting 5.6 million inhabitants.
So far there are over 41.1% leaks in the water system. There is constant pressure on the aquifer and the 2040 water plan has identified this as the highest level of risk.
Wastewater treatment plants available are not sufficient to treat wastewater for the whole city
Over abstraction of ground water from aquifers
Mismanagement of water resources, such as leaking taps, lead to scarcity of water availability
Reduction in quantity of water available for domestic, industrial and commercial use
A crippling drought that was associated with El Niño severely affected South Africa’s summer rainfall in regions including Johannesburg.
Dam levels were at critical low levels such that water restrictions had to be imposed and penalties on those who used excessive water.
Deferred maintenance on water system
As Lake Mead’s level declines, concerns of declining water quality due to increased salinity.
Recent third intake project at lowest part of lake to mitigate water quality concerns.
Water restrictions; yet if Lake Mead continues to decline, a Federally mandated cut in Southern Nevada’s water allocation may occur, and nearly did during 2015-2016.
This section focuses on city and regional-decision making processes that will matter. Below offers example ‘cities most likely to run out of drinking water’, with some related trends, the potential consequences in these changing urban environments, and multi-level (e.g. city, state, national) responses. While data integration across systems may help to inform future risk communication, increased availability of data and a need for data integration and transparency requires new analytics coupled with decision processes, enabling a higher level of maturity in response levels that move from reactive to proactive. Several predictive factors are therefore noted from both data and literature-reviewed in these cities, offering contexts where scarcity may increase to insights on where ‘abundance strategies’ may prove of value (see Sarni and Sperling).
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The similarities among these examples are: 1) continued lack of data and metrics on water use and management; 2) lack of incentives or markets for solutions; 3) aging, centralized systems for infrastructure; 4) lack of business models for small, modular systems that may increase abundance and resilience; and 5) inadequate institutional mapping of roles to inform accountability/transparency in crisis response. These examples offer a diverse range of the sets of challenges, consequences, and emerging risks and responses. Table 1 offers another summary of literature review approach, comparing Mexico City, London, Tokyo, and Miami, on recent crises related to resource quantity, quality, supply, demand, equity, and choices. These examples present a picture of the grand urban water challenges of the 21st century, with both differences and similarities between cities. Proactive strategies and integrated responses focused on the growing number of cities at risk as frontlines for innovation may continue to emerge. These examples also motivate questions for ongoing exploring of long-term impacts, using data to generate understanding on how best to help reduce costs, improve water security, modernize infrastructure assets, build resilience and ensure sustainable revenue models.
\nCity | \nResource quantity | \nResource quality | \nSupply/demand challenges | \nDistributional & procedural equity | \n‘Painful’ choices and resilience priorities | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mexico City | \nDeclining water resources; growing population; groundwater dependence limiting aquifer recharge | \nPoor water quality adaptations: increased purchasing of bottled water; plastic contributing to flood and drainage risks | \nWater scarcity; uncontrolled urban expansion; 30–40% of water supply lost to leaky systems & 1000s of informal taps | \nWater resources transferred over long distances, connecting city populations to resources in distant places; prioritization processes; ongoing flood risk | \nInvestments in expensive water storage/supply-side water-management strategies reliance; new deep wells /water transfers from state of Veracruz; reuse strategies only recently emerging | \n
London | \nLondon has a high level of leakage with around a quarter of London’s water lost | \nIncreased population/ heavy rainfall to further burden a drainage system that is in places already at capacity | \nHalf of London’s water mains pipe infrastructure is over 100 years old and a third is over a 150 years old | \n14,000 properties are at high risk (0.33% annual probability) of fluvial flooding and 140,000 properties are at high risk of surface water flooding | \nLondon flooding in 2000, 01, 03, 06, 07, 14 and 16. Infrastructure upgrading & reducing vulnerabilities to tidal, river, surface water, groundwater and sewer flooding | \n
Tokyo | \n80% from Tonegawa & Arakawa River; 20% Tama River | \nDeclining water quality | \nIncreased water stress | \nInadequate and aging infrastructure | \nRisks of flooding; investments in infrastructure and resource efficiency gains | \n
Miami | \nBuilt on Biscayne aquifer | \nContamination by seawater threatens quality of Miami water supplies | \nIncreased water stress and scarcity | \nWater table overwhelming septic systems | \nFlooding risk and toxic chemicals on Superfund and other industrial sites into aquifer; ‘desalination may one day be Miami’s only option.’ | \n
Comparisons of cities, megatrends, and resilience priorities.
New paradigms are emerging with water, energy, and related technologies identified as grand challenges. Innovation can create opportunities to both better leverage data and meet a global need for safe, secure and affordable water and through higher degrees of systems integration between water, energy, and ‘X’ systems (X is defined as a variable that may include food, land, waste resource recovery, environmental, economic, and urban systems – depending on local context priorities). Building on the National/Global Academies of Engineering twenty-first century grand challenges of ‘restore and improve urban infrastructure’, ‘secure cyberspace’, and ‘provide access to clean water’, this section of the chapter evaluates the critical opportunities to increase water, energy, environmental, social, economic, and security benefits, while significantly reducing costs, societal and business risks (e.g. supply chain vulnerabilities, conflict, economic outputs exposed and vulnerabilities to multiple hazards).
\nGiven uncertainties associated with interrelated challenges, it’s critical to not only define the grand water security challenge(s) for cities in the twenty-first century, yet further build up a more robust evidence base for integrated solutions. For purposes of defining urban community challenges in this chapter, we start with the fact that one in four of the world’s 500 largest cities are already in a situation of “water stress” (ref, 2014) and that water crises, since 2011, have consistently been ranked in the top five of global risks in terms of impact (WEF Global Risks, 2018).
\nThe economic consequences for inaction and holding on to old technology solutions are clear. The World Bank Report High and Dry: Climate Change, Water and the Economy, lays out a grim vision of inaction. Below are a few of the conclusions from the report:
“Water scarcity, exacerbated by climate change, could cost some regions up to 6% of their GDP, spur migration, and spark conflict.
The combined effects of growing populations, rising incomes, and expanding cities will see demand for water rising exponentially, while supply becomes more erratic and uncertain.
Unless action is taken soon, water will become scarce in regions where it is currently abundant—such as Central Africa and East Asia— and scarcity will greatly worsen in regions where water is already in short supply—such as the Middle East and the Sahel in Africa. These regions could see their growth rates decline by as much as 6% of GDP by 2050 due to water-related impacts on agriculture, health, and incomes.
Water insecurity could multiply the risk of conflict. Food price spikes caused by droughts can inflame latent conflicts and drive migration. Where economic growth is impacted by rainfall, episodes of droughts and floods have generated waves of migration and spikes in violence within countries.”
The report also maps out the benefits of addressing the water crisis, such as improved economic development, and a call for action in improving agricultural water efficiency, better planning and investments in infrastructure to ensure more secure water supplies and availability. Most recently, a report released by NASA illustrates the impact of unstainable pumping of aquifers. According to NASA, “The world’s largest underground aquifers—a source of fresh water for hundreds of millions of people—are being depleted at alarming rates, according to new NASA satellite data that provides the most detailed picture yet of vital water reserves hidden under the Earth’s surface. Twenty-one of the world’s 37 largest aquifers—in locations from India and China to the United States and France—have passed their sustainability tipping points, meaning more water was removed than replaced during the decade-long study period, researchers announced Tuesday. Thirteen aquifers declined at rates that put them into the most troubled category. The researchers said this indicated a long-term problem that’s likely to worsen as reliance on aquifers grows.”
\nPopulation growth is also placing significant stress on energy and food production, which is further exacerbated by water scarcity. The global population is currently increasing by approximately 70 million people each year. As a result, the total global population is projected to reach 9.6 billion by the year 2050 [25]. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) estimates that by 2050, water, energy, and food demands will increase by 55, 80, and 60%, respectively [26].
\nThis growth will increase the pressure on limited water, energy, and food resources. Energy consumption is estimated to increase by 1.6% each year, amounting to an increase of about 36% by the year 2030. Additionally, pressure on agricultural resources will increase through societal habits such as consumption of more livestock and vegetable oils. The number of calories that a person ingests each day is expected to increase from 2373 kcal/person/day in 1969/1971 to 3070 kcal/person/day in 2050. Urbanization will yield more industrialization and water usage, and water demand will increase globally from 4,500 billion cubic meters to 6,900 billion cubic meters by the year 2030. This estimation assumes that the efficiency in water technologies does not improve, and the projected demand is about 40% over our currently accessible and reliable supply [27]. These challenges demonstrate the need for data, nexus solutions, and the combining of emerging solution pathways for technology and services, regional planning, policy and governance, and new behaviors and decisions if urbanization is to be steered toward a sustainable trajectory.
\nIn conclusion, a new set of water and energy ethics are needed to maximize human and ecosystem health and prosperity. Bringing systems together via urban nexus strategies—that amplify synergies, reduce tradeoffs, and can transition resources from scarcity to abundance—will be foundational to a more resilient human, natural, to cyber-physical system that supports diverse activities today and for future generations. As noted, multiple risks, vulnerabilities, and early signs of stress abound. Therefore, the abilities and capacities to harmonize human to ecological needs will require new, integrated ways of using and managing water, energy and other systems and services. Elegant designs will emerge soon, from crises or proactive actions in urban contexts.
\nIntechOpen - where academia and industry create content with global impact
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\\n\\nBut, one thing we have in common is -- we are all scientists at heart!
\\n\\nSara Uhac, COO
\\n\\nSara Uhac was appointed Managing Director of IntechOpen at the beginning of 2014. She directs and controls the company’s operations. Sara joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Journal Publishing, a new strategically underdeveloped department at that time. After obtaining a Master's degree in Media Management, she completed her Ph.D. at the University of Lugano, Switzerland. She holds a BA in Financial Market Management from the Bocconi University in Milan, Italy, where she started her career in the American publishing house Condé Nast and further collaborated with the UK-based publishing company Time Out. Sara was awarded a professional degree in Publishing from Yale University (2012). She is a member of the professional branch association of "Publishers, Designers and Graphic Artists" at the Croatian Chamber of Commerce.
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\\n\\nAdrian Assad De Marco joined the company as a Director in 2017. With his extensive experience in management, acquired while working for regional and global leaders, he took over direction and control of all the company's publishing processes. Adrian holds a degree in Economy and Management from the University of Zagreb, School of Economics, Croatia. A former sportsman, he continually strives to develop his skills through professional courses and specializations such as NLP (Neuro-linguistic programming).
\\n\\nDr Alex Lazinica
\\n\\nAlex Lazinica is co-founder and Board member of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his Ph.D. in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. There, he worked as a robotics researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group, as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and, most importantly, co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, the world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career since it proved to be the pathway to the foundation of IntechOpen with its focus on addressing academic researchers’ needs. Alex personifies many of IntechOpen´s key values, including the commitment to developing mutual trust, openness, and a spirit of entrepreneurialism. Today, his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.
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Novel computational algorithms for image analysis, scene understanding, biometrics, deep learning and their software or hardware implementations for natural and medical images, robotics, VR/AR, applications are some research directions relevant to this topic.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",keywords:"Image Analysis, Scene Understanding, Biometrics, Deep Learning, Software Implementation, Hardware Implementation, Natural Images, Medical Images, Robotics, VR/AR"},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",scope:"Evolutionary computing is a paradigm that has grown dramatically in recent years. This group of bio-inspired metaheuristics solves multiple optimization problems by applying the metaphor of natural selection. It so far has solved problems such as resource allocation, routing, schedule planning, and engineering design. Moreover, in the field of machine learning, evolutionary computation has carved out a significant niche both in the generation of learning models and in the automatic design and optimization of hyperparameters in deep learning models. This collection aims to include quality volumes on various topics related to evolutionary algorithms and, alternatively, other metaheuristics of interest inspired by nature. For example, some of the issues of interest could be the following: Advances in evolutionary computation (Genetic algorithms, Genetic programming, Bio-inspired metaheuristics, Hybrid metaheuristics, Parallel ECs); Applications of evolutionary algorithms (Machine learning and Data Mining with EAs, Search-Based Software Engineering, Scheduling, and Planning Applications, Smart Transport Applications, Applications to Games, Image Analysis, Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition, Applications to Sustainability).",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",keywords:"Genetic Algorithms, Genetic Programming, Evolutionary Programming, Evolution Strategies, Hybrid Algorithms, Bioinspired Metaheuristics, Ant Colony Optimization, Evolutionary Learning, Hyperparameter Optimization"},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",scope:"The scope of machine learning and data mining is immense and is growing every day. It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence"},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:{title:"Artificial Intelligence",id:"14"},selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems.
\r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",annualVolume:11966,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"252368",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ong",fullName:"Meng-Chuan Ong",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRVotQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-20T12:04:28.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"187907",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Anne",fullName:"Olga Anne",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBE5QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-07T09:42:13.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Klaipeda State University of Applied Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}}]},{id:"39",title:"Environmental Resilience and Management",keywords:"Anthropic effects, Overexploitation, Biodiversity loss, Degradation, Inadequate Management, SDGs adequate practices",scope:"\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
",annualVolume:11967,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",institutionString:"Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Spain",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"177015",title:"Prof.",name:"Elke Jurandy",middleName:null,surname:"Bran Nogueira Cardoso",fullName:"Elke Jurandy Bran Nogueira Cardoso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGxzQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-25T08:32:33.jpg",institutionString:"Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil",institution:null},{id:"211260",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Ricart",fullName:"Sandra Ricart",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/211260/images/system/211260.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",keywords:"Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Fauna, Taxonomy, Invasive species, Destruction of habitats, Overexploitation of natural resources, Pollution, Global warming, Conservation of natural spaces, Bioremediation",scope:"