Growth factors in dentin matrix and their role.
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5311",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Updates in Volcanology - From Volcano Modelling to Volcano Geology",title:"Updates in Volcanology",subtitle:"From Volcano Modelling to Volcano Geology",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Updates in Volcanology - From Volcano Modeling to Volcano Geology is a new book that is based on book chapters offered by various authors to provide a snapshot of current trends in volcanological researches. Following a short Introduction, the book consists of three sections, namely, ''Understanding the Volcano System from Petrology, Geophysics to Large Scale Experiments,'' ''Volcanic Eruptions and Their Impact to the Environment,' and ''Volcanism in the Geological Record.'' These sections collect a total of 13 book chapters demonstrating clearly the research activity in volcanology from geophysical aspects of volcanic systems to their geological framework. Each chapter provides a comprehensive summary of their subject's current research directions. This book hence can equally be useful for students and researchers.",isbn:"978-953-51-2623-2",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2622-5",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5079-4",doi:"10.5772/61961",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"updates-in-volcanology-from-volcano-modelling-to-volcano-geology",numberOfPages:424,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"a579041bbfa682d2376a58326d0483e6",bookSignature:"Karoly Nemeth",publishedDate:"September 21st 2016",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5311.jpg",numberOfDownloads:26727,numberOfWosCitations:27,numberOfCrossrefCitations:30,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:74,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:3,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:131,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 19th 2015",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 10th 2015",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 29th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"June 27th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 27th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"51162",title:"Dr.",name:"Károly",middleName:null,surname:"Németh",slug:"karoly-nemeth",fullName:"Károly Németh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/51162/images/system/51162.png",biography:"Károly Németh is a professor in Geology at Massey University, New Zealand and at the Institute of Earth Physics and Space Science, Hungary. He obtained a Ph.D. in Geology from the University of Otago, New Zealand, in 2001, and a Ph.D. in Environmental Sciences from the University of Sopron, West Hungary, in 2003. His expertise includes sedimentology, volcanology and geoheritage. He was a member of the Executive Committee of the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth Interior (IAVCEI) from 2011 to 2015 for which he led commissions on volcanogenic sediments, monogenetic volcanism, and volcanic geoheritage. He was/is an editorial board member for Bulletin of Volcanology, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, Open Geosciences, Water, Geosciences, and Geoconservation Research. He has managed special issues of journals including Geoheritage, JVGR, Bulletin of Volcanology, Central European Journal of Geosciences, Sedimentary Geology, and Geoheritage and Sustainability.",institutionString:"Massey University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Massey University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"New Zealand"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"658",title:"Volcanology",slug:"volcanology"}],chapters:[{id:"51699",title:"Introductory Chapter: Updates in Volcanology – From Volcano Modeling to Volcano Geology",doi:"10.5772/64734",slug:"introductory-chapter-updates-in-volcanology-from-volcano-modeling-to-volcano-geology",totalDownloads:2312,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Károly Németh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51699",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51699",authors:[{id:"51162",title:"Dr.",name:"Károly",surname:"Németh",slug:"karoly-nemeth",fullName:"Károly Németh"}],corrections:null},{id:"51527",title:"Studying Volcanic Plumbing Systems – Multidisciplinary Approaches to a Multifaceted Problem",doi:"10.5772/63959",slug:"studying-volcanic-plumbing-systems-multidisciplinary-approaches-to-a-multifaceted-problem",totalDownloads:2425,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:13,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Magma transport and storage beneath active volcanoes occurs in the so-called volcanic plumbing system (VPS), a network of different magmatic sheet intrusions and magma reservoirs. The complex physical and chemical processes, which occur in the volcanic plumbing system, are key parameters that control the occurrence of an eruption, as well as type and size of the eruption. It is therefore imperative to assess plumbing system processes and their dynamics. Traditionally, plumbing system research is done as a part of various scientific disciplines, each with its own research questions, methods, and terms. As a consequence, there is often little overlap and communication between the disciplines. In this chapter, we give an overview of the history of plumbing system research and outline the state of the art of the main scientific disciplines involved. We summarise the potential and limitations of each discipline and then discuss three key components to foster multidisciplinary research—namely communication, information, and education—which are essential to promote a better understanding of the complexity of volcanic plumbing systems.",signatures:"Steffi Burchardt and Olivier Galland",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51527",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51527",authors:[{id:"183976",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Steffi",surname:"Burchardt",slug:"steffi-burchardt",fullName:"Steffi Burchardt"},{id:"183978",title:"Dr.",name:"Olivier",surname:"Galland",slug:"olivier-galland",fullName:"Olivier Galland"}],corrections:null},{id:"51228",title:"Photogrammetric Survey in Volcanology: A Case Study for Kamchatka Active Volcanoes",doi:"10.5772/63577",slug:"photogrammetric-survey-in-volcanology-a-case-study-for-kamchatka-active-volcanoes",totalDownloads:1841,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The photogrammetric method has been used to study active volcanoes in Kamchatka for more than 100 years. It is still the most effective method for consistently monitoring short-term changes in the morphology of volcanic structures and for obtaining accurate parameters of eruptions. This chapter shows the specific features of photogrammetry application in volcanological research and development of this method in the context of investigating Kamchatkan volcanoes. We also present the results of the study of volcanic objects with various morphologies, composition, and types of activity with regard to the specific features of the 2001–2012 growth of the dome at Molodoy Shiveluch Volcano, the effects of the 1975–1976 Great Tolbachik Fissure Eruption and of the 2012–2013 Tolbachik Fissure Eruption, the morphodynamics of Troitsky Crater on Maly Semyachik Volcano, and the morphological changes of Akademii Nauk Caldera after the catastrophic 1996 eruption. The chapter shows the way forward for the development of the photogrammetric method in volcanology.",signatures:"Viktor Dvigalo, Alina Shevchenko and Ilya Svirid",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51228",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51228",authors:[{id:"183878",title:"Mr.",name:"Viktor",surname:"Dvigalo",slug:"viktor-dvigalo",fullName:"Viktor Dvigalo"},{id:"183879",title:"Ms.",name:"Alina",surname:"Shevchenko",slug:"alina-shevchenko",fullName:"Alina Shevchenko"},{id:"183880",title:"Mr.",name:"Ilya",surname:"Svirid",slug:"ilya-svirid",fullName:"Ilya Svirid"}],corrections:null},{id:"50635",title:"Recent Developments and Trends in Volcano Gravimetry",doi:"10.5772/63420",slug:"recent-developments-and-trends-in-volcano-gravimetry",totalDownloads:1641,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The aim of this chapter is to take a look at some developments and new trends in volcano gravimetry. First, we will review the objectives of the research work within this subfield of geophysics, discuss the data and methods it uses, and outline the outputs it strives for. Then, we will turn our attention to three areas where innovative approaches possibly can forward this field of study. The first has to do with the coupling between vertical deformations of the topographic surface (elevation changes) and the observed gravity changes or, in other words, with the removal of the deformation-induced gravimetric signal from the observed gravity changes to obtain the net gravity changes caused by volcanic signals. The second and third areas regard the inversion of the observed gravity changes and deal with two recently or newly developed inversion approaches that both are characterized by the ability to produce a suite of diverse solutions that can be analyzed and discriminated based on additional independent constraints stemming from other earth science disciplines or from the cognition of the interpreter. With this in mind, the final goal is a better understanding of the mechanisms and processes of volcanic unrest or reawakening of a volcano and forecasting the threat of consequent activity and impacts.",signatures:"Peter Vajda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50635",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50635",authors:[{id:"183457",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",surname:"Vajda",slug:"peter-vajda",fullName:"Peter Vajda"}],corrections:null},{id:"51442",title:"Structural Analysis of Calderas by Semiautomatic Interpretation of the Gravity Gradient Tensor: A Case Study in Central Kyushu, Japan",doi:"10.5772/64557",slug:"structural-analysis-of-calderas-by-semiautomatic-interpretation-of-the-gravity-gradient-tensor-a-cas",totalDownloads:1477,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In order to understand the formation history and mechanism of volcanoes and their related structures, including calderas, their subsurface structures play an important role. In recent years, gravity gradiometry survey has been introduced, and new analyses techniques for gravity gradient tensors obtained by the survey have been developed. In this chapter, we first describe the gravity gradient tensor and its characteristics, and the method for obtaining the tensor from the gravity anomaly. Next, we review the semiautomatic interpretation methods for extracting information on subsurface structures, and apply some of the techniques to the volcanic zone of central Kyushu, Japan. The results showed that the horizontal and vertical gravity gradient methods, and the CLP method were useful for extracting outlines of important volcanic and tectonic structures in this region. Using the maximum eigenvector of the gravity gradient tensor, the caldera wall dip of the Aso caldera was successfully estimated to be in the range of 50–70°, and the dip of the Median Tectonic Line which was the largest tectonic line in the southwest Japan was consistent with seismic reflection surveys. In addition, a large circular structure surrounding the Shishimuta caldera with a diameter of 35 km was distinguished in some analyses.",signatures:"Shigekazu Kusumoto",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51442",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51442",authors:[{id:"51974",title:"Dr.",name:"Shigekazu",surname:"Kusumoto",slug:"shigekazu-kusumoto",fullName:"Shigekazu Kusumoto"}],corrections:null},{id:"51392",title:"Investigating Source Conditions and Controlling Parameters of Explosive Eruptions: Some Experimental-Observational- Modelling Case Studies",doi:"10.5772/63422",slug:"investigating-source-conditions-and-controlling-parameters-of-explosive-eruptions-some-experimental-",totalDownloads:1959,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Explosive volcanic eruptions are complex systems that can generate a variety of hazardous phenomena, for example, the injection of volcanic ash into the atmosphere or the generation of pyroclastic density currents. Explosive eruptions occur when a turbulent multiphase mixture, initially predominantly composedf of fragmented magma and gases, is injected from the volcanic vent into the atmosphere. For plume modelling purposes, a specific volcanic eruption scenario based on eruption type, style or magnitude is strictly linked to magmatic and vent conditions, despite the subsequent evolution of the plume being influenced by the interaction of the erupted material with the atmosphere. In this chapter, different methodologies for investigating eruptive source conditions and the subsequent evolution of the eruptive plumes are presented. The methodologies range from observational techniques to large-scale experiments and numerical models. Results confirm the relevance of measuring and observing source conditions, as such studies can improve predictions of the hazards of eruptive columns. The results also demonstrate the need for fundamental future research specifically tailored to answer some of the still open questions: the effect of unsteady flow conditions at the source on the eruptive column dynamics and the interaction between a convective plume and wind.",signatures:"Fabio Dioguardi, Tobias Dürig, Samantha L. Engwell, Magnus T.\nGudmundsson and Susan C. Loughlin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51392",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51392",authors:[{id:"182944",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Fabio",surname:"Dioguardi",slug:"fabio-dioguardi",fullName:"Fabio Dioguardi"},{id:"183886",title:"Dr.",name:"Tobias",surname:"Dürig",slug:"tobias-durig",fullName:"Tobias Dürig"},{id:"183887",title:"Dr.",name:"Samantha L.",surname:"Engwell",slug:"samantha-l.-engwell",fullName:"Samantha L. Engwell"},{id:"183888",title:"Prof.",name:"Magnus T.",surname:"Gudmundsson",slug:"magnus-t.-gudmundsson",fullName:"Magnus T. Gudmundsson"},{id:"183889",title:"Dr.",name:"Susan C.",surname:"Loughlin",slug:"susan-c.-loughlin",fullName:"Susan C. Loughlin"}],corrections:null},{id:"50249",title:"Pyroclastic Density Current Hazards at the Baekdusan Volcano, Korea: Analyses of Several Scenarios from a Small-Case to the Worst-Case Colossal Eruption",doi:"10.5772/62340",slug:"pyroclastic-density-current-hazards-at-the-baekdusan-volcano-korea-analyses-of-several-scenarios-fro",totalDownloads:1910,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The Baekdusan volcano was formed through three stages of activity: (a) a basalt shield (aging between 22.6 and 1.48 Ma), (b) a trachytic comendite stratocone (aging between 1.19 and 0.02 Ma), (c) a trachyte-comendite ignimbrite deposits (aging from 20 ka till date). Volcanic seismicity, ground deformation, and volcanic gas geochemistry yield new evidence for magmatic unrest of the volcano between 2002 and 2006. The monitoring data suggest that Mt. Baekdusan is a potentially active volcano and that its close monitoring is needed. One of the possible volcanic hazards from this volcano is the pyroclastic density currents. In order to evaluate the small-scale pyroclastic flow emplacement scenario of the 1903 AD eruption, Titan2d mass-flow model is used. The 1668–1702 AD and the Millennium eruption are characterized by 4–5 and ~7 VEI, respectively. The Millennium eruption can be considered as the last colossal super-eruption like Tambora, and so Baekdusan volcano could have even a global effect. The parameters used are as follows: volume (5–10 × 107, 1 × 109, 2 × 1010 m3), the vents of the 1903, 1668–1702, and Millennium eruptions; the pyroclastic flow runout calculated in the field are small (3,000 m :1903 eruption), intermediate (5,000 m :1668–1702 eruptions), and large (7–80,000 m, Millennium eruption). The initial velocities (m/s) range from 50 (1903 eruption) to as high as 300 (Millennium eruption). The input parameters have constructed three scenarios (1903, 1668–1702, and Millennium eruptions) following the recent volcanic history of Baekdusan volcano. These eruptions embrace all the possibly explosive eruptive scenarios that can occur at Baekdusan volcano in the future. The 1903 type scenario has been performed; according to the vent location, the flow moves in diverse directions (NE, SE) with a thickness of 3 m, and if the vent is the center of the caldera the flow fills the caldera with a thickness of 5 m. The emplacement of the 1668–1702 AD scenarios will involve at least two populated cities nearest to Baekdusan volcano. The scenario of the Millennium eruption will be much more severe and it will hit all the cities and towns within a range of 80 km. The impact will be from regional to global. This, however, is an underestimation of the runout for the diluted pyroclastic density currents.",signatures:"Angelo Paone and Sung-Hyo Yun",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50249",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50249",authors:[{id:"182871",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelo",surname:"Paone",slug:"angelo-paone",fullName:"Angelo Paone"},{id:"183601",title:"Prof.",name:"Sung-Hyo",surname:"Yun",slug:"sung-hyo-yun",fullName:"Sung-Hyo Yun"}],corrections:null},{id:"50946",title:"Magnitude‐Frequency Distribution of Slope Failures in Japan: Statistical Approach to a True Perspective on Volcanic Mega‐Collapses",doi:"10.5772/63131",slug:"magnitude-frequency-distribution-of-slope-failures-in-japan-statistical-approach-to-a-true-perspecti",totalDownloads:1635,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The relationship between magnitude and frequency of mega‐collapses (i.e., sector collapses), mainly of volcanic edifices, in Japan is examined by using existing datasets for volcanic mega‐collapses and smaller but more frequent events. Statistical analysis of these datasets showed that the magnitude‐frequency distribution of slope failures with volumes greater than or equal to 107 m3 can be expressed by a simple exponential function: logN(x) = a – bx, where N(x) is the cumulative number of mass‐movement events with magnitude ≥x. When this function was fitted to the datasets, the slope coefficient, b, was 0.7 or 0.8. The frequency distribution of mega‐collapses was similar to that of smaller (volume >105–6 m3) events. Records from the past millennium in Japan suggest that this magnitude‐frequency relationship may be applicable to the last several tens of thousands of years. Therefore, it is possible to predict event probability and the recurrence interval of events of a certain magnitude. In this way, mega‐collapses with a volume of over 109 m3 may be estimated to occur at least every 1000–2000 years somewhere in Japan. Therefore, mega‐collapses in Japan should not be considered “rare”; rather, they are “normal” events on a geomorphological timescale.",signatures:"Hidetsugu Yoshida",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50946",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50946",authors:[{id:"183652",title:"Dr.",name:"Hidetsugu",surname:"Yoshida",slug:"hidetsugu-yoshida",fullName:"Hidetsugu Yoshida"}],corrections:null},{id:"50662",title:"Radiative Impacts of Volcanic Aerosol in the Arctic",doi:"10.5772/63421",slug:"radiative-impacts-of-volcanic-aerosol-in-the-arctic",totalDownloads:1570,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"High latitude volcanic eruptions are high-frequency and intensity events capable of releasing large amounts of aerosols into the environment. Studies have shown that the Arctic is particularly sensitive to radiative perturbations due to aerosols, and a high sensitivity to volcanic aerosols would be expected. Despite the potential for volcanic aerosols to significantly perturb the Arctic radiation balance, the radiative impacts of volcanic aerosols in the Arctic are poorly understood and have received less attention than the effects of other aerosol types that are often present in the region, both natural and anthropogenic. A novel review of this topic is presented in detail in this chapter, focusing on the current state of the knowledge and the natural complexities involved with the problem, the important research tools, and the improvements that can be made over the status quo. The Arctic environment is both unique and complicated, and the perturbations caused by volcanic aerosol need to be examined in a regional context. An introduction to remote sensing and data collection in the Arctic is provided because there are often specific challenges, including high surface reflectivities, persistent meteorological clouds, the lack of winter daylight, and harsh conditions that hamper both in situ and remote data collection. Methods for tracking both aerosol and gas plumes in the Arctic that can help mitigate these issues are introduced. In addition to the physical constraints of data collection presented by the Arctic environment, volcanic aerosol is a complex mixture of varying aerosol compositions and sizes. Dealing with the nature of volcanic aerosol for optical calculations is further described, leading into a detailed discussion of the radiative impacts of volcanic plumes in the atmosphere. Radiative forcing comparisons of other aerosol types with comparable plume characteristics (e.g., thicknesses and optical depths) suggest that aerosol layers composed of significant proportions of volcanic ash can dominate the aerosol forcing in the region. Similar comparisons for ash deposits with other types of deposits that can be present in the region emphasize the ability of volcanic ash to produce large, and in some cases extreme, loadings that reduce albedo, which can have profound impacts on the Arctic radiation balance and hydrological cycle. The strengths and shortcomings of volcanic ash transport and dispersion models are reviewed and recommendations are made for future research that would strengthen the use of these models in Arctic environments. In particular, ash aggregation (or the sticking together of ash particles) is often not considered fully in transport modeling, and the consequences of this are discussed. Finally, we present a review of secondary volcanic impacts to oceans and ecosystems that have not been constrained in an Arctic context but are potentially important to the Arctic environment and the global CO2 cycle.",signatures:"Cindy L. Young and Jennifer W. Telling",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50662",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50662",authors:[{id:"183919",title:"Dr.",name:"Cindy",surname:"Young",slug:"cindy-young",fullName:"Cindy Young"},{id:"185962",title:"Dr.",name:"Jennifer",surname:"Telling",slug:"jennifer-telling",fullName:"Jennifer Telling"}],corrections:null},{id:"50891",title:"Effect of Volcano-Polluted Seawater on the Corrosion Behaviour of Different Alloys",doi:"10.5772/63523",slug:"effect-of-volcano-polluted-seawater-on-the-corrosion-behaviour-of-different-alloys",totalDownloads:2066,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"During a subsea volcano eruption, gases and thermal water emissions are released. This might change the behaviour of the materials that are in contact with the seawater caused by the decrease of the pH value. For this reason, the materials for marine applications are selected to maintain the integrity of the structure and to be corrosion resistant. In spite of this, corrosion can cause great damage to marine steel infrastructures such as bridges, wharfs, platforms and pipeline systems. These corrosion problems could be aggravated if the medium is altered, due to volcano emissions, since the resistance of the surface film is influenced by the environmental conditions.",signatures:"Rita Sánchez-Tovar, Ramón Fernández-Domene, Rafael Leiva-\nGarcía, Clara Escrivà-Cerdán, Bianca Lucas-Granados and José\nGarcía-Antón",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50891",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50891",authors:[{id:"19081",title:"Dr.",name:"José",surname:"García-Antón",slug:"jose-garcia-anton",fullName:"José García-Antón"},{id:"170092",title:"Dr.",name:"Rita",surname:"Sanchez-Tovar",slug:"rita-sanchez-tovar",fullName:"Rita Sanchez-Tovar"},{id:"170093",title:"Dr.",name:"Clara",surname:"Escriva Cerdan",slug:"clara-escriva-cerdan",fullName:"Clara Escriva Cerdan"},{id:"187318",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramón",surname:"Fernández Domene",slug:"ramon-fernandez-domene",fullName:"Ramón Fernández Domene"},{id:"187319",title:"MSc.",name:"Bianca",surname:"Lucas-Granados",slug:"bianca-lucas-granados",fullName:"Bianca Lucas-Granados"},{id:"187320",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafael",surname:"Leiva Garcia",slug:"rafael-leiva-garcia",fullName:"Rafael Leiva Garcia"}],corrections:null},{id:"51948",title:"Fumarolic Minerals: An Overview of Active European Volcanoes",doi:"10.5772/64129",slug:"fumarolic-minerals-an-overview-of-active-european-volcanoes",totalDownloads:2286,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:24,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The fumarolic mineralogy of the Icelandic active volcanoes, the Tyrrhenian volcanic belt (Italy) and the Aegean active arc (Greece) is investigated, and literature data surveyed in order to define the characteristics of the European fumarolic systems. They show broad diversity of mineral associations, with Vesuvius and Vulcano being also among the world localities richest in mineral species. Volcanic systems, which show recession over a longer period, show fumarolic development from the high-temperature alkaline halide/sulphate, calcic sulphate or sulphidic parageneses, synchronous with or immediately following the eruptions, through medium-temperature ammonium minerals, metal chlorides, or fluoride associations to the late low-temperature paragenesis dominated by sulphur, gypsum, alunogen, and other hydrous sulphates. The situation can be different in the systems that are not recessing but show fluctuations in activity, illustrated by the example of Vulcano where the high-temperature association appears intermittently. A full survey of the mineral groups and species is given in respect to their importance and appearance in fumarolic associations.",signatures:"Tonči Balić-Žunić, Anna Garavelli, Sveinn Peter Jakobsson, Kristjan\nJonasson, Athanasios Katerinopoulos, Konstantinos Kyriakopoulos\nand Pasquale Acquafredda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51948",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51948",authors:[{id:"183593",title:"Dr.",name:"Tonci",surname:"Balic-Zunic",slug:"tonci-balic-zunic",fullName:"Tonci Balic-Zunic"},{id:"183700",title:"Prof.",name:"Anna",surname:"Garavelli",slug:"anna-garavelli",fullName:"Anna Garavelli"},{id:"183701",title:"Dr.",name:"Sveinn Peter",surname:"Jakobsson",slug:"sveinn-peter-jakobsson",fullName:"Sveinn Peter Jakobsson"},{id:"183702",title:"Prof.",name:"Athanasios",surname:"Katerinopoulos",slug:"athanasios-katerinopoulos",fullName:"Athanasios Katerinopoulos"},{id:"188833",title:"Dr.",name:"Kristjan",surname:"Jonasson",slug:"kristjan-jonasson",fullName:"Kristjan Jonasson"},{id:"188834",title:"Dr.",name:"Konstantinos",surname:"Kyriakopoulos",slug:"konstantinos-kyriakopoulos",fullName:"Konstantinos Kyriakopoulos"},{id:"188835",title:"Dr.",name:"Pasquale",surname:"Acquafredda",slug:"pasquale-acquafredda",fullName:"Pasquale Acquafredda"}],corrections:null},{id:"51456",title:"Submarine Volcanism of the Cabo de Gata Magmatic Arc in the Betic-Rif Orogen, SE Spain: Processes and Products",doi:"10.5772/63579",slug:"submarine-volcanism-of-the-cabo-de-gata-magmatic-arc-in-the-betic-rif-orogen-se-spain-processes-and-",totalDownloads:1979,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Volcanic eruptions in subaqueous settings have been traditionally characterized by the study of ancient deposits and, more recently, by indirect observation of the sea floor with different geophysical means. Subaqueous volcanism is largely governed by the physical properties of water and the way water interacts with magma. Among the characteristic products of subaqueous volcanism are hyaloclastite breccias of dense clasts and of pumiceous clasts produced by the quench fragmentation of hot magma in effusive eruptions. Pumice breccias driven by fragmentation of magma in explosive eruptions are not infrequent. The Miocene volcanic zone of Cabo de Gata in southeastern Spain provides excellent exposures where to test the current understanding on subaqueous volcanism. In particular, submarine lavas with a coherent core and an outer carapace of vesicular hyaloclastite together with pumice breccias and crystal tuffs of the El Barronal Formation provide clues to understand transient conditions during explosive and effusive eruptions. Debris avalanches deposits are rather common in Cabo de Gata, such as those of the Los Frailes Formation and the Cerro Estorvillas Formation, and help to understand the instability processes of submarine volcanic edifices and the resultant mass flows. Interbedding of volcanic rocks with shallow water sedimentary rocks allows inferring water depth conditions for volcanism and the subsidence history of the volcano-sedimentary basin.",signatures:"Carles Soriano, Ray A.F. Cas, Nancy R. Riggs and Guido Giordano",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51456",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51456",authors:[{id:"183461",title:"Dr.",name:"Carles",surname:"Soriano",slug:"carles-soriano",fullName:"Carles Soriano"}],corrections:null},{id:"51105",title:"How Polygenetic are Monogenetic Volcanoes: Case Studies of Some Complex Maar‐Diatreme Volcanoes",doi:"10.5772/63486",slug:"how-polygenetic-are-monogenetic-volcanoes-case-studies-of-some-complex-maar-diatreme-volcanoes",totalDownloads:1955,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:16,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The increasing number of field investigations and various controlled benchtop and large‐scale experiments have permitted the evaluation of a large number of processes involved in the formation of maar‐diatreme volcanoes, the second most common type of small‐volume subaerial volcanoes on Earth. A maar‐diatreme volcano is recognized by a volcanic crater that is cut into country rocks and surrounded by a low‐height ejecta rim composed of pyroclastic deposits of few meters to up to 200 m thick above the syn‐eruptive surface level. The craters vary from 0.1 km to up to 5 km wide and vary in depth from a few dozen meters to up to 300 m deep. Their irregular morphology reflects the simple or complex volcanic and cratering processes involved in their formation. The simplicity or complexity of the crater or the entire maar itself is usually observed in the stratigraphy of the surrounding ejecta rings. The latter are composed of sequences of successive alternating and contrastingly bedded phreatomagmatic‐derived dilute pyroclastic density currents (PDC) and fallout depositions, with occasional interbedded Strombolian‐derived spatter materials or scoria fall units, exemplifying the changes in the eruptive styles during the formation of the volcano. The entire stratigraphic sequence might be preserved as a single eruptive package (small or very thick) in which there is no stratigraphic gap or significant discordance indicative of a potential break during the eruption. A maar with a single eruptive deposit is quantified as monogenetic maar, meaning that it was formed by a single eruptive vent from which only a small and ephemeral magma erupted over a short period of time. The stratigraphy may also display several packages of deposits separated either by contrasting discordance surfaces or paleosoils, which reflect multiple phases or episodes of eruptions within the same maar. Such maars are characterized as complex polycyclic maars if the length of time between the eruptive events is relatively short (days to years). For greater length of time (thousands to millions of years), the complex maar will be quantified as polygenetic. These common depositional breaks interpreted as signs of temporal interruption of the eruptions for various timescales also indicate deep magma system processes; hence magmas of different types might erupt during the formation of both simple and complex maars. The feeding dikes can interact with groundwater and form closely distributed small craters. The latter can coalesce to form a final crater with various shapes depending on the distance between them. This observation indicates the significant role of the magmatic plumbing system on the formation and growth of complex and polygenetic maar‐diatreme volcanoes.",signatures:"Boris Chako Tchamabé, Gabor Kereszturi, Karoly Németh and\nGerardo Carrasco‐Núñez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51105",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51105",authors:[{id:"51162",title:"Dr.",name:"Károly",surname:"Németh",slug:"karoly-nemeth",fullName:"Károly Németh"},{id:"62029",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabor",surname:"Kereszturi",slug:"gabor-kereszturi",fullName:"Gabor Kereszturi"},{id:"182834",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris",surname:"Chako Tchamabé",slug:"boris-chako-tchamabe",fullName:"Boris Chako Tchamabé"},{id:"183809",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerardo",surname:"Carrasco-Núñez",slug:"gerardo-carrasco-nunez",fullName:"Gerardo Carrasco-Núñez"}],corrections:null},{id:"50033",title:"Ordovician and Carboniferous Volcanism/Plutonism in Central Inner Mongolia, China and Paleozoic Evolution of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt",doi:"10.5772/62303",slug:"ordovician-and-carboniferous-volcanism-plutonism-in-central-inner-mongolia-china-and-paleozoic-evolu",totalDownloads:1672,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Adakite was originally proposed as a genetic term to define intermediate to high silica, high Sr/Y and La/Yb volcanic and plutonic rocks derived from melting of young, subducted lithosphere. However, most volcanic rocks in modern island arcs and continental arcs are probably derived from melting in the mantle wedge. Trace element chemistry with high Sr/Y ratios is a distinguishing characteristic of adakites. Ordovician and Carboniferous volcanic/plutonic rocks with high Sr/Y ratios occur in Central Inner Mongolia, which is situated on the southern margin of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB). The samples are mostly granodiorite, tonalite and quartz-diorite in composition with intermediate to high-silica, high Na2O (3.08–4.26 wt.%), low K2O (0.89–2.86 wt.%) and high Na2O/K2O and Sr/Y ratios. Their chondrite-normalized REE patterns are characterized by LREE enrichment. In mantle-normalized multi-element variation diagrams, they show typical negative Nb anomalies, and all samples display positive εHf(t) and εNd(t) values, and low ISr. The Ordovician rocks, however, show higher Sr/Y and La/Yb ratios than the Carboniferous samples, implying that the older granitoids represent adakitic granitoids, and the Carboniferous granitoids are typical subduction-related arc granitoids but also with adakite-like compositions. The results are compatible with the view that the Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB) in Inner Mongolia evolved through operation of several subduction systems with different polarities: an early-middle Paleozoic subduction and accretion system along the northern margin of the North China Craton and the southern margin of the Mongolian terrane, and late Paleozoic northward subduction along the northern orogen and exhumation of a high-pressure metamorphic terrane on the northern margin of the North China Craton.",signatures:"Yuruo Shi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50033",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50033",authors:[{id:"182708",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuruo",surname:"Shi",slug:"yuruo-shi",fullName:"Yuruo Shi"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9992",title:"Updates in Volcanology",subtitle:"Transdisciplinary Nature of Volcano 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Sclerosis",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/67322.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67322",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67322",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/67322",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/67322",chapter:{id:"66966",slug:"sexual-dysfunction-in-patients-with-systemic-sclerosis",signatures:"Barbora Heřmánková",dateSubmitted:"July 16th 2018",dateReviewed:"April 5th 2019",datePrePublished:"May 3rd 2019",datePublished:"September 18th 2019",book:{id:"8269",title:"New Insights into Systemic Sclerosis",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"New Insights into Systemic Sclerosis",slug:"new-insights-into-systemic-sclerosis",publishedDate:"September 18th 2019",bookSignature:"Michal Tomcik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8269.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"193284",title:"Dr.",name:"Michal",middleName:null,surname:"Tomcik",slug:"michal-tomcik",fullName:"Michal 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This book covers sample preparation for mass spectrometric analysis for proteomics, clinical studies, and food analysis. In addition, it explores possible directions for further developing the technology and its potential applications.",isbn:"978-1-83881-862-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-861-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-863-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91573",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"mass-spectrometry-in-life-sciences-and-clinical-laboratory",numberOfPages:154,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"5f2fa81e1939bbe34ac689fb983ca4c1",bookSignature:"Goran Mitulović",publishedDate:"June 2nd 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10387.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:3059,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitations:5,numberOfTotalCitations:8,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 29th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 16th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 15th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 3rd 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 4th 2021",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Head of the Proteomics Core Facility of the Medical University of Vienna, Austria, and developer of nano-HPLC separation techniques and technologies for proteomics and clinical applications.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"212804",title:"Dr.",name:"Goran",middleName:null,surname:"Mitulović",slug:"goran-mitulovic",fullName:"Goran Mitulović",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212804/images/system/212804.png",biography:"Dr. Goran Mitulović (ORCID 0000-0003-1964-3965) is the head of the Proteomics Core Facility, Medical University of Vienna. He has more than twenty years of experience developing hardware and analytical methods for multidimensional nano HPLC-MS separation and detection methods for proteins and peptides. 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Enamel and dentin constitute different concentrations of organic, water and mineral contents. This accounts for their specific physical-mechanical properties and their integration allow the tooth to be functionally stable in adverse oral conditions [1]. Dentin tissue underlines the enamel and constitutes the bulk of the tooth. The inorganic to organic ratio is different in various tissues, these variations affect the properties of these tissues. The enamel is tougher and most highly resistant to force in comparison to other hard tissue in the body owing to its high inorganic content. On the other hand the dentin with high organic content serves as a resilient layer under enamel and cementum [2]. Enamel shows higher mineralization than cementum as there is more carbon 49% (wt) in cementum than enamel 3% (wt). Enamel being the hardest tissue and dentin being softer whereas X-ray diffraction (XRD) shows cementum has poorest crystallinity. Following decalcification process for separation of organic and inorganic content the organic components of the dentin are retained thereby maintaining the dentin shape. However due to 90% mineral content of the enamel it is lost after decalcification.
Tooth enamel possess remarkable structural and mechanical properties making it an unique tissue. Tooth enamel is a complex mineralized tissue comprising of long and parallel apatite crystals configured into decussating enamel rods [3, 4]. The enamel consists of 96% inorganic and 4% organic and water content and is the most mineralized tissue. The organic content of enamel is less than that of dentin. The organic content consist of some unique proteins present only in enamel and lipids [5]. The enamel is formed only once before the eruption of the tooth. Following eruption the tooth organ permanently loses the ability to form new enamel [3].
Being highly mineralized enamel could be expected to be brittle and have low fracture resistance. However, the experimental studies proved that the fracture toughness of enamel is equivalent to or even better than some tough ceramics [6, 7].
During the development of enamel, ameloblasts secrete enamel matrix protein. Proteins are large complex molecules that are required for the structure, function and regulating body’s tissues and organs. Enamel matrix proteins bind to the hydroxyapatite structuring the enamel and modulating crystal growth [8, 9]. Initial developing enamel matrix constitutes 60-70% water, 20-30% proteins and 15-20% of mineral ions. Mineralization process leads to resorption of enamel proteins and water leaving very little amount of organic content in matured enamel [3]. Major components of the enamel matrix protein (EMP) are the amelogenins constituting greater than 90% of all the organic content in the enamel [10, 11]. The other type of protein group is the non – amelogenin including enamelins, tuftelin and sheathlins. Other than these two enzymes, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-20 and enamel matrix serine proteinase (EMSP)-1 are also present in the EMP (Figure 1) [10].
Types of enamel matrix proteins.
Enamel proteins consist of 1-2% of the total composition. These proteins are located mainly at the enamel rods interface. The proteins play a role in modulation of the stress in enamel and contributes to the elastic and viscoelastic behavior [12]. Any kind of damage or denaturation of the enamel or dentin non-collagenous proteins can decrease the durability of the tooth [12]. Tooth whitening procedures or treatment with potassium hydroxide leads to loss of enamel proteins causing enamel to be more prone to fracture [12, 13]. Radiation therapy for treatment of oral cancers is also known to damage the enamel proteins [12]. In a study the enamel proteins were extracted using potassium hydroxide treatment from the enamel sections of the molar cusps. The results showed a 40% reduction in fracture toughness in comparison with a fully proteinized control. The organic content of the enamel is very small, but it is of importance crack growth toughening. This is because it helps in forming unbroken ligament and fortify its efficacy [14].
The synthesis and secretion of the organic extracellular matrix is controlled by ameloblasts and deposited along the dentino-enamel junction which eventually controls enamel biomineralization [15].
Amelogenins are hydrophobic in nature, they are rich in proline (25%), glutamine (14%), leucine (9%) and histidine (7%) amino acid residues [4, 15]. Amelogenin functions in regulating orientation, shape and length of enamel crystals [16]. Tuftelin is suggested to function at the level of ameloblast differentiation, it may play a role in extracellular matrix secretion. Tuftelin is also expressed in different soft tissues, which suggest it may have multifunctional role [17]. Ameloblastin also known as sheathlin and amelin present in Tomes’ processes of the secretory ameloblasts the sheath space between rod and inter-rod enamel suggest that this protein may play a role in biomineralization. Enamelin is also believed to play a role in enamel biomineralization. Enamelin is hydrophilic and an acidic protein rich in glycine, aspartic acid and serine [4]. The enamel proteins with unique properties requires specific proteases for their removal during enamel maturation whose spatiotemporal expression is impeccably regulated. This requirement is met by serine protease kallikrein-4 and MMP20 [18]. Enamel proteases processes secreted amelogenins, ameloblastin and enamelin in the matrix and eventually degrades and remove them from the mineralizing matrix when maturation of amelogenesis occurs. The sulfated enamel proteins are present in very small amount in the enamel matrix [15].
Enamel matrix derivative (EMD) is approved by FDA to be used as a material for periodontal regeneration since 1997 [19]. EMD is commercially obtained by heat treated lyophilized proteins that are isolated from porcine enamel at specific stage of development [20]. Emdogain, a mixture of enamel matrix proteins mainly composed of amelogenin is used for repair of hard and soft periodontal tissues [11, 21, 22, 23]. Emdogain has shown similar results to guided tissue regeneration with added advantage of easy to use with minimal complications [23].
Owing to its unique properties like toughness and relative fracture resistance researchers are focusing on developing an enamel-like biomaterial. Enamel biomimetics hold a great promise as structural components in a wide range of fields for biomedical and engineering applications. Some examples are like tooth repair, restoring a orthopedic defect site, functional insulator components, brakes and exhaust pollutant filters [3, 24]. Enamel proteins and calcium phosphate growth solutions seems to be a convincing formulation for biologically synthesizing tooth enamel. Based on the established role of enamel proteins, using an EMP researchers were successfully grew elongated and parallel apatite crystals within decussating enamel prisms (Figure 2) [3]. The research until now using biochemical approaches can only mimic limited features of apatite and calcium phosphate crystal growth.
Scanning electron micrograph images of engineered enamel. In this study apatite was grown within a decellularized enamel protein matrix, resulting in decussating enamel prisms containing distinct and separated individual enamel crystals. A SEM image overview of the engineered enamel apatite, b depicts parallel bundles of enamel crystals, and c depicts newly formed decussating enamel rods [
The dentin consists of 65% inorganic and 35% organic and water content. The presence of more organic content in dentin than enamel makes it very similar to that of bone. The organic part of dentin is composed of collagenous fibrils embedded in ground substance of mucopolysacchrides [5]. Type I collagen is the principal type of collagen in dentin. It contributes about 90% of the organic content, the remaining 10% contains several proteins and proteoglycans, acidic glycoproteins referred to as non-collagenous proteins [25, 26]. Also type I collagen is abundantly present organic constituent of the bone extracellular matrix [27]. The collagen fibrils form a scaffold network and are densely mineralized. The dentin consists of little amounts of type V and III collagen. The odontoblasts synthesize and secretes the non-collagenous proteins as well collagen fibrils [28].
Dentin constitutes tubules ranging in size of micrometer and surrounded by highly mineralized peritubular dentin, embedded in a matrix rich in collagen called intertubular dentin. Lamina limitans a sheet-like structure divide the peritubular and the intertubular dentin and primarily composed of proteoglycans protein cores. The proteoglycans contribute to mechanical behavior of dentin. They link the collagen fibrils securing the collagenous network together [12]. Peritubular dentin is primarily made of glycosaminoglycans and lacks collagen fibrils [29]. Intertubular matrix chiefly constitutes type I collagen fibrils with non-collagenous proteins and proteoglycans which forms a three-dimensional organic network buttressed by apatite mineral crystallites [30].
The adhesive systems used for dentin bonding rely on formation of a hybrid layer. This hybrid layer is formed by demineralized collagen fibrils reinforced by resin matrix. As the resin monomers are unable to infiltrate the mineralized tissues, so adhesive bonding systems are used which has an acid, primer and an adhesive. The acid helps in removing mineral crystals and exposing the collagen. The primer which is a hydrophilic solution permits the infiltration of resin monomer into the demineralized dentin. Finally, the adhesive consisting of a mixture of monomers penetrates the treated surface thereby forming mechanical adhesion with dentin. Removing the unbound water from hybrid layer and suppressing the endogenous enzymatic activity have helped in increasing biocompatibility by inhibiting degradation of the hybrid layer [31].
The dentin matrix and bone proteins are similar. Type I collagen designs an effective and instructional template for guiding deposition of calcium phosphate polymorphs and subsequently transforming into crystalline hydroxyapatite crystals. The highly complex process of hydroxyapatite nucleation and collagen mineralization is also controlled by non-collagenous proteins. The amount of these non-collagenous proteins in dentin and bone is small, but they play an indispensable role in bone formation and remodeling. Some examples of non-collagenous proteins found in both are osteocalcin, osteopontin and bone sialoprotein. The dentin matrix proteins are of interest because of their calcium binding property in the extracellular matrix which leads to calcification of tissue [32]. Many studies have shown similarities between dentin and bone. Apart from type I collagen being the leading extracellular matrix element, other common proteins and proteoglycans are osteonectin/SPARC, osteocalcin, osteopontin, bone sialoprotein, decorin and biglycan [33].
Dentin proteoglycans plays a key role in mineralization of the dentin and bone, so they perform structural, metabolic, and functional role. The proteoglycans are classified as small leucine-rich proteoglycans (SLRP) and the large aggregating proteoglycans. The SLRP are further divided into 5 classes: decorin; biglycan; fibromodulin; lumican and osteoadherin. Among the large aggregating proteoglycan is only versican has been described well in dentin [25].
Osteocalcin and osteonectin are classified under secretory calcium-binding phosphoprotein a category of non-collagenous proteins. Osteocalcin is a vitamin K-dependent gamma-carboxylated protein. It is a small calcium binding protein consisting of three glutamic acid residues. It is found in dentin in small amounts as compared to the bone [25]. Osteonectin binds collagen, hydroxyapatite and growth factors. It is known to regulate proliferation of cells, prompts angiogenesis and formulation of matrix metalloproteinases [34]. Another subset of the secretory calcium binding phosphoprotein is the Small Integrin-Binding ligand, N-linked Glycoprotein (SIBLING) family. It includes osteopontin, bone sialoprotein, dentin matrix protein 1, dentin sialophosphoprotein, and matrix extracellular phosphoglycoprotein [35].
Dentin phosphoprotein (DPP) and dentin sialoprotein (DSP) were earlier thought to be unique to dentin [5, 33]. Later some immunohistochemical studies established that DSP is also present in the alveolar bone, cellular cementum, osteocytes, cementocytes and their matrices [36]. DPP is rich in aspartic acid and phosphoserine and bind calcium in considerable amounts. DSP is a glycoprotein rich in aspartic acid, serine, glutamic acid, and glycine. Both DPP and DSP are synthesized by odontoblasts and pre-ameloblast cell types. In contrast the bone matrix proteins are not exclusively made by the osteoblasts. This makes dentin unusual based on these dentin specific proteins [33]. DSP has been shown to play a role in prompting differentiation of dental pulp cells in odontoblast-like cells [36].
Growth factors are natural activation signals or substances able to stimulate cellular proliferation, wound healing, and sometimes cellular differentiation. Generally, a growth factor is secreted protein or a steroid hormone [37, 38]. They are necessary for regulating various cellular processes that take part in tissue regeneration procedure [39, 40].
Growth factors are generally acting as signaling molecules between the cells, like cytokines and hormones binding to specific receptors on the target cells surfaces. Examples of growth factors in dentin are TGF-
Promoting tertiary dentinogenesis and in primary odontoblastic differentiation. | |
Upregulated on DPSCs differentiation into a mineralizing phenotype | |
Promotes odontoblastic differentiation | |
Promotes vitro and in vivo odontoblastic differentiation, DSPP induction and increases alkaline phosphatase activity | |
Increases odontoblastic differentiation | |
Promotes DPSCs phenotype mineralization | |
Promotes proliferation and differentiation of DPSCs and SCAP into a mineralizing phenotype | |
Promotes stem cell homing (chemotaxis), angiogenesis, and stemness | |
Promotes angiogenesis, chemotaxis of MSCs modulates the process of odontoblastic differentiation, synergistic act with other growth factors | |
Promotes axonal function and regeneration after injury and plays important role in neuronal maintenance | |
Potent angiogenic factor that promotes blood vessel formation in tooth slices implanted subcutaneously in SCID mice | |
Promotes survival, proliferation, and migration of MSCs | |
Promotes odontoblastic differentiation through activation of p38 | |
Enhances neurogenic differentiation of DPSCs and SCAP | |
Promotes osteogenic and angiogenesis differentiation of MSCs | |
Promotes neuronal growth and axonal targeting | |
Promotes in vivo nerve regeneration and pulp cell proliferation. Increased expression during odontogenic differentiation. |
Growth factors in dentin matrix and their role.
We can group these growth factors by their actions as: Angiogenisis (FGF-2, PDGF, VEGF, NGF); Differentiation (TGF-β, PDGF, FGF-2, BMPs, IGF, NGF); Proliferation (PDGF, FGF-2, IGF, VEGF, TGF-β, SDF-1); Chemotaxis (PDGF, FGF-2, TGF-β, SDF-1) and Neuronal growth (NGF) [41].
The growth factors diffusion into the dentinal-pulpal junction is postulated to activate reactionary dentinogenesis and simultaneous reparative dentinogenesis along with pulp tissue inflammatory reaction [42, 43]. The surviving odontoblasts secrete reactionary dentin as a response to environmental stimuli causing metabolic activity increase in the cells. The inductive molecules determining the success of the pulp healing might be released from damaged dentin and adjacent pulp tissue [44]. Dentin-pulp regeneration process can vary as it depends on the causative agent whether trauma or pathological conditions. An inflammatory reaction is caused by these events, which is supposed to be the beginning of tissue regeneration process [39]. Dentin-pulp defensive and reparative mechanisms mimic the embryonic tooth development stage and growth factors derived from dentin may play a key role in regulating these events [42]. The dentinal matrix constitutes angiogenic growth factors and their release after injury can contribute to overall reparative response of the dentinal-pulpal complex [45].
There are multiple growth factors in dentin that also exist in bone like insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), insulin-like growth factor-2 (IGF-2), transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β), fibroblast growth factors (FGFs), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), parathyroid bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), and certain members of the growth differentiation factor (GDF) group of proteins [46, 47, 48]. That is why recent studies have shown good results after using dentin as a bone graft and stated that dentin has shown to be clinically safe and has good bone-forming capacity [49, 50].
Also known as autogenous tooth biomaterial it is derived from an extracted tooth through demineralization process. It is useful as graft material because of its osteoconductive properties [51]. This biomaterial can be used alone or combined with other materials for example with platelet-rich fibrin [52], bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells [53] or bone morphogenetic protein (BMP-2) [54] for enhanced bone regeneration effects. Recently a dentin derived barrier membrane acting as an osteoinductive collagen membrane showed successful outcome in guided bone regeneration and dental implantation. The membrane was derived from block type autogenous demineralized dentin matrix with advantage of overcoming the mechanical instability of the collagen membrane. It is mostly composed of type I collagen, making it suitable for use in implant procedures [55].
Enamel has 3 essential enamel proteins to build healthy well mineralized enamel which is secreted from ameloblasts “amelogenin, ameloblastin and enamelin” with the help of two enzymes, MMP20 and kallikrein-4 (Klk4) to form the enamel properly and sequent proteolysis of enamel protein [56]. In the event of alteration in the process of protein removal, enamel and dental defects will emerge like for example, amelogenesis imperfecta (AI), Chalky/Molar Hypomolarization (MH), Dentinogenesis Imperfecta (DI) or fluorosis [57]. Figure 3 depicts the protein content in healthy and diseased tooth.
Protein content is compared between healthy and diseased tooth enamel. Different proteins are presented in (rows) as analyzed different tooth conditions (columns). Healthy teeth is presented as reference in light gray, chalky/molar Hypomolarization (MH): Enamel affected by molar hypomineralization, fluorosis and Amelogenesis imperfecta (AI): Hypocalcified and hypomaturation amelogenesis imperfecta enamel; range of percent by weight (wt %) of protein abundance in comparison to healthy enamel show in 4 colors: Healthy range of 0.1–1 wt % (light gray); 2–3 times increase (light teal); 3–30 times increase (dark teal); 0–30 times increase (gray-teal gradient) [
Amelogenesis imperfecta is a rare, inherited enamel development disorder where mutations in the amelogenin gene results in malformation of the enamel layer. It is subdivided to 4 main types hypoplastic (type I), hypomaturation (type II), hypocalcified (type III), hypomaturation/hypoplasia/taurodontism (type IV).
Clinical and radiographical features and enamel thickness, of different subtypes are dependent on mode of inheritance and gene mutation. AI occurs due to mutations in several genes, including enamelin, amelogenin, MMP20, Klk4 and FAM83H [58, 59, 60, 61]. The mutations can lead to hypoplastic, hypomature, or hypocalcified form of the enamel [62]. AI can be easily seen clinically and radiographically as teeth appears in abnormal color like (yellow, brown, or gray). Soft enamel, due to hypo calcification enamel surface are more susceptible to caries, tooth attrition, teeth hypersensitivity, calculus formation, and gingivitis/periodontitis [63].
Type I hypoplastic AI has reduced thickness of enamel and shows pitting and grooves. In radiographs enamel shows normal contrasts from dentine. Type II hypomaturation AI has enamel of normal thickness but appearance is mottled. It is less severe than hypocalcified type. Radiographically it exhibits similar radiodensity as dentine. Type III hypocalcified AI have defect in enamel calcification. The enamel thickness is normal but is weak in structure and appearance is opaque and chalky. In radiographs enamel is less radio-opaque in comparison to dentin. Type IV hypomaturation/hypoplasia/taurodontism AI exhibits mixed hypomaturation and hypoplasia appearance. In taurodontism enlargement of the body and pulp chamber is observed. The pulp chamber floor and furcation moves apically down the root [58].
A proper diagnosis identifying the different phenotypes is essential to determine molecular etiology. The treatment plan aims at early diagnosis, managing the pain and restoring the defects with regular follow ups [58]. Mild variations can be treated adequately with facial veneers, whereas in severe cases full coverage is mandatory. For young patients milled acetal resin overlays can be used until fully erupted [64].
It is discolored white patches in one or more molars, porous dental enamel leads to hypersensitivity and risk of caries. Chalky enamel opacities contained unusually high amounts of protein, including serum albumin and other derivatives of blood and saliva [65]. Moderate and severe cases with opacities having a chalky texture exhibit failure of enamel surface soon after the eruption of tooth, it provides a hygiene-resistant nidus for dental plaque accumulation. The porous chalky enamel is invaded by accelerated decay which arises the need for restoration, extraction, or orthodontic treatment. It is observed that MH affects the 2-year molars or 6-year molars, a better understanding of its etiology is necessary [66]. Earlier systemic disturbance of enamel-forming cells (ameloblasts) during the hardening (maturation) stage of enamel formation was thought to be the cause [67]. A different pathomechanism indicating localized exposure of enamel to serum albumin was recently identified [68]. In a recent study the dose–response relationship between albumin and the enamel chalkiness was established. This supports the new pathomechanism also termed as “mineralization poisoning” [66].
MH is a complex problem requiring combinational treatment modalities. The treatment aim may be preventive or symptom control. Various treatment modalities can be adhesive and sealant restoration, composite restoration, glass ionomer restoration, preformed metal crown, microabrasion, bleach or orthodontic extraction [69].
Dental fluorosis is a very common developmental disturbance that is caused by repeated exposures to high concentrations of fluoride during tooth or enamel formation. This leads to disturbance in enamel formation as the fluoride decreases calcium concentration in the matrix. This interferes with protease activity and delays or inhibit enamel matrix protein degradation. An abnormal apatite crystals growth occurs which leads to physical tooth surface changes [70]. It differs from white striations to stained pitting of the enamel depending on case severity [71]. The use of topical fluoride dentifrices in young children may increase the risk of dental fluorosis. In case of concern for fluorosis, in children under 6 years of age toothpaste with fluoride concentration less than 1000 parts per million should be used [70].
Treatment of the case depends on the severity and the esthetics concerns. Mild cases can be treated by bleaching if the tooth. For moderate cases enamel microabrasion with acids can be done. Composite fillings, veneers and crowns can be used for treating cases with severe forms of the disease [72].
The best solution for this condition is to control the fluoride intake for prevention of dental fluorosis [71].
DI is also an inherited condition also called “dentin dysplasia” with discolored teeth but most often blue-gray or yellow-brown which leads to wear, breakage, and loss of teeth. This damage can include teeth fractures or small holes (pitting) in the enamel. The enamel may have hypoplastic or hypocalcified defect in nearly one-third of patients and has tendency to crack away from defective dentin. It is a localized mesodermal dysplasia which affects both primary and permanent dentition. It is inherited in simple autosomal dominant mode exhibiting high penetrance and low mutation rate [73].
DI has 3 types: Type I: occurs in people who have osteogenesis imperfecta so, it appears to have other health concern (mutation in COL1A1/A2 gene). Type II: the most common type occurs in people without another inherited disorder (mutation in DSPP). Radiographically it shows complete obliteration of the pulp cavity by dentin. Type II and type III, are actually similar conditions but in different forms but DI type III shows enlarged pulp cavities [63].
In histological findings although enamel is normal in structure it tends to crack. Scalloping is absent in dentino-enamel junction. Mostly mantle dentin structure is normal. However dentinal tubules of the circumferential dentin are found to be coarse and branched. The tubules are reduced in quantity. An atubular area is present in the dentin with reduction in mineralization and decreased number of odontoblasts. Another common finding is pulpal inclusions and much interglobular dentin [73].
Treatment differs from case to case depend on its severity and presenting pain, also the patient age. Mostly treatments are targeted at maintaining oral hygiene and esthetics. Early diagnosis and treatment can prevent deterioration of teeth and occlusion. In severe cases two treatment stages for primary teeth under general anesthesia is recommended. At the age of 18-20 months the stage 1 treatment involves composite restorations covering for incisors and preformed crowns for first primary molars. At the age of 28-30 months stage 2 aims at protecting second primary molars and canines. For moderate cases one-stage treatment for primary teeth at 30 months of age is optimal. In severe cases composite restoration may not be helpful. A long term follow-up is necessary to adjust treatment according to change in dentition and occlusion [73].
The enamel and dentin organic content varies in amount and its constituents. The enamel proteins help in imparting the elastic and visco-elastic properties to the enamel. The clinical significance of the non-collagenous proteins may be in relation with dentinal growth factor release by calcium hydroxide or mineral trioxide aggregate. The dentin organic matrix constitutes similarity with that of bone, makes it a desirable bone graft material. Demineralized dentin autogenous bone grafts have already been used for dental implant surgeries and provides an easy to prepare and use bone graft material. Any imbalance in the organic content can manifest as developmental disease of the tooth.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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\n\nIn addition to BKCI, IntechOpen covers a number of important discipline specific databases as well, such as Thomson Reuters’ BIOSIS Previews.
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\n\nThe need for up to date information available at the click of a mouse is one thing that sets IntechOpen apart. By developing our own technologies in order to streamline the publishing process, we are able to minimize the amount of time from initial submission of a manuscript to its final publication date, without compromising the rigor of the editorial and peer review process. This means that the research published stays relevant, and in this fast paced world, this is very important.
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\n\nCan collaboration be inspired by a publishing format? At IntechOpen, the answer is yes. The way the research is published, the way it is accessed, it’s all part of our mission to help academics make a greater impact by giving readers free access to all published work.
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He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"426586",title:"Dr.",name:"Oladunni A.",middleName:null,surname:"Daramola",slug:"oladunni-a.-daramola",fullName:"Oladunni A. Daramola",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Technology",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"357014",title:"Prof.",name:"Leon",middleName:null,surname:"Bobrowski",slug:"leon-bobrowski",fullName:"Leon Bobrowski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bialystok University of Technology",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"354126",title:"Dr.",name:"Setiawan",middleName:null,surname:"Hadi",slug:"setiawan-hadi",fullName:"Setiawan Hadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Padjadjaran University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"332603",title:"Prof.",name:"Kumar S.",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"kumar-s.-ray",fullName:"Kumar S. Ray",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Statistical Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"415409",title:"Prof.",name:"Maghsoud",middleName:null,surname:"Amiri",slug:"maghsoud-amiri",fullName:"Maghsoud Amiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Allameh Tabataba'i University",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"17",type:"subseries",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11413,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). 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