1. Introduction
It has been almost half a century since Leo Kanner first described the clinical phenotype associated with Autism In this chapter the term Autism refers to the autism spectrum disorders which include Autism disorder, Asperger syndrome and Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified
1.1. The role of genetics in autism
Over the last two decades many studies aimed at identifying the genetic causes of Autism have shown that genetic factors play a predominant role in the genesis of this disorder. Twin studies predict that the heritability (i.e. the degree to which a given trait is controlled by inheritance) of Autism is between 70-90% (Bailey et al., 1995; Marco & Skuse, 2006; Lichtenstein et al., 2010). The relatively low concordance rate in dizygotic twins, the sharp decrease in recurrence risk of Autism in second- and third-degree relatives of autistic subjects (0.18% and 0.12% respectively) as well as a low risk in first-degree relatives of autistic subjects (3-7%) (Chakrabarti & Fombonne, 2001; Muhle et al., 2004) predicts two different genetic scenarios: 1) Autism could be explained by the co-inheritance in one individual of multiple disease-predisposing alleles, each with a small but additive effect, resulting in disease, or 2) by
Dozens of genome-wide genetic linkage studies have been conducted in Autism kindred, identifying genetic signals of various significance levels on almost every arm of every human chromosome. There are few instances of consistent replication of linkage to any one site. Fine-mapping of these loci has been difficult, mainly because of genetic heterogeneity, so researchers have frequently opted to look at candidate genes directly based on the linkage results and/or on relevant gene functions. Association studies have also been used to search for genes in Autism. Although, in general, most studies have not been replicated, a few have been yielding a crop of possible susceptibility genes. Although the few replicated positive association studies are promising, it is surprising that no causative mutations or sequence variants have been identified in any of the loci associated with the disorder. In the absence of such mutations, the role of these genes in Autism remains unproven.
A number of genes have been strongly associated with Autism. For example, the X-linked neuroligin genes,
2. The concept of “de novo ” mutations
Recent studies on the direct measurement of human mutation rate have revealed that in any single conceptus there is approximately 1.1 x 10-8 (0.76 x 10-8 to 2.2 x 10-8) mutation per base per generation (Awadalla et al., 2010; Lynch, 2010; Roach et al., 2010). A newborn is thought to have acquired about sixty new mutations in his/her genome. Among these, approximately 0.86 new deleterious mutation will lead to an altered amino acid, which corresponds to an average of about 1 new coding mutation per conceptus (Eyre-Walker & Keightley, 1999; Giannelli et al., 1999; Crow, 2000).
2.1. Common disease and common variants
Classical linkage and association studies, as mentioned earlier, have largely failed to identify predisposing genes for Autism as well as a number of other psychiatric disorders. The main reason for this lack of success is likely to be allelic and non-allelic genetic heterogeneity, with dozens to perhaps hundreds of genes predisposing to Autism, with each gene having many allelic variants. Such heterogeneity would require an enormous sample size to detect predisposing genes using population genetic approaches. It is likely that this heterogeneity results mostly from our limited ability to sub-phenotype brain disorders, particularly behavioural disabilities. The diagnosis of most psychiatric disorders remains largely based on clinical criteria, which define broad categories of dysfunction that may or may not be biologically linked. To date, there is no consistent, biologically validated method for defining these sub-phenotypes. Simply stated, Autism, as currently defined, probably result from so many different genes and alleles that classical genetic methods will prove inefficient in the identification of susceptibility genes for this disorder.
The hypothesis that a common disease may be caused by common variants was the favoured model for the genetic architecture of Autism until recently. Indeed, the constellation of published association studies reflects the widespread belief of the involvement of common variants in Autism. This hypothesis was appealing to many investigators since the common variants should be identifiable using methods such as linkage disequilibrium (Reich & Lander, 2001). Unfortunately, there are very few examples to support this hypothesis, particularly for brain disorders. Clinicians argue that Autism is a highly heterogeneous group of disorders, and none of them can be explained by single or even a few common variants. If this were the case, the plethora of genetic studies performed over the years should already have identified some of these variants. The widely distributed linkage and association positive signals scattered all over the genome rejects the existence of one or a few major predisposing common variants in this disorder. Furthermore, the few genes that have been found to definitely predispose to Autism explain only a small fraction of cases. This is not to say that some common variants will not be found for some predisposing genes, but this mechanism is unlikely to explain all the genetics of this condition.
It has recently been recognized that many complex disorders may result from a mix of common and rare variants. Let us consider breast cancer as an example (Nathanson et al., 2001):
As a final point on the common disease common variant hypothesis, most studies looking at disease-causative mutations for Autism report mutations that are not recurrent, i.e. not observed more than once and specific to one individual. Again this suggests that mutations at many different loci may contribute to Autism, a result consistent with the failure to find common heritable variants with a major effect on disease risk. Lack of recurrence of mutations may in fact reflect the possibility that autistic traits can result from many different genetic defects.
2.2. Rare variants and new mutations
While not all amino acid substitutions will be deleterious, a significant fraction will be and may lead to disease. Therefore, for a disorder that may result from dysfunction in any one of hundreds of different genes, new mutations may be responsible for a significant fraction of cases. For example, should dysfunction in any of 100 different genes potentially lead to Autism, and assuming amino acid changes lead to gene dysfunction in one fifth of instances, new mutations could cause Autism in one case out of 1,000 births, which would correspond to over 10% of cases based on the overall population incidence.
Looking at simple Mendelian traits, we can see that new mutations are common. For example, 1 in 6,000 live births harbour a novel mutation causing neurofibromatosis type 1 (Stephens et al., 1992; Grimm et al., 1994; Hudson et al., 1997). The frequency of new point mutations in Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy is similar, 1 in 10,500 live births (Grimm et al., 1994). One can argue that these are large genes, allowing for high mutation rate. Nonetheless, these are surprisingly high numbers of novel deleterious mutations. Let us consider Rett syndrome, which is closely related to Autism, and results from mutations in the relatively small
3. The role of de novo mutation in autism
Though we predict that
3.1. Monozygotic and dizygotic concordance
3.2. Reduced reproductive fitness
In the general population, the mutational load can be thought of as a balance between selection against a deleterious gene and its acquisition of new mutations. Lower rates of reproduction constitute a negative selection factor that should reduce the number of mutant alleles in the population, ultimately leading to decreased disease prevalence. These selective pressures tend to be of different intensity in different environments. In the case of Autism, only rarely do individuals with Autism have children, particularly the more severely affected individuals (Nicolson & Szatmari, 2003). Thus, Autism has a lower reproductive fitness (which is the ability to pass on genes by having offspring) due to an early age of onset and severely impaired cognitive and social functions. This observation should influence the disorders incidence and prevalence; but this is not what we observe. Autism incidence and prevalence seems to be relatively constant worldwide..
Studies of monogenic diseases Disorders caused by the inheritance of a single defective gene
3.3. Effects of paternal age
The male-to-female ratio of
3.4. Worldwide incidence
Data from a worldwide amalgam of studies show that the incidence of Autism has been maintained at a constant, relatively high prevalence in the worldwide population across a wide range of cultures and countries (McDonald & Paul, 2010). This occurs despite a strong negative selection against this condition. Indeed and with the exception of variants which date back to speciation, one would expect that common variants would result in a detectable uneven disease incidence across different populations due to migration, different population growth and isolation. This is not the case for Autism. In addition, this is not what one would predict in diseases with reduced reproductive fitness like Autism, unless there was a high new mutation rate. These observations emphasize the importance of
Taken together, the high prevalence, the high monozygotic twin concordance, the predicted high level of allelic and non-allelic genetic heterogeneity, the uniform worldwide high incidence despite significantly reduced reproductive fitness, constitute evidences that Autism may result at least in part, from
4. De novo mutations in genes associated with autism
The fact that a growing number of studies, several from our group, report the association of rare genetic variants with Autism constitutes strong evidence for the
In our recent study on the direct measurement of the A trio constitutes an affected individual and both his/her biological parents
5. Altered synaptic connectivity in autism
The synapse is the locus of neural communication which is critical for human brain function. Defects in synaptic transmission are thought to underlie many common developmental brain disorders that are characterized by grossly normal brain structure (Zoghbi, 2003; Levitt et al., 2004). At a cellular level, there are presynaptic nerve endings specialized for the activity-dependent release of transmitter into the synaptic cleft, which is encapsulated by glial cells and contains adhesive molecules that keep presynaptic endings in register with postsynaptic specializations (“densities”) on neural cell bodies and branches. In the mature nervous system these structures signal by chemical transmission and thus integrate and propagate the electrical signals that communicate through the brain. Synapses are thought to form in the embryo largely by genetically pre-programmed, activity-independent and evolutionarily conserved mechanisms (Goodman & Shatz, 1993). During post-natal development, which is the period during which many developmental brain diseases start to manifest themselves, synaptic activity is required to select, refine and stabilize mature connectivity patterns (Katz & Shatz, 1996). Thus cells that fire together wire together.
Multiple indirect lines of evidence support the hypothesis of altered synaptic connectivity in Autism. These come in part from brain-imaging and neuropathological studies showing numerous alterations to both gross and microscopic structures of the brain of autistic individuals. For instance, an increased brain volume (Piven et al., 1996), increased brain weight (Bailey et al., 1998), abnormal neuronal morphology, with decreased complexity of dendritic branching and underdeveloped neuronal arbors (Bauman & Kemper, 1985; Raymond et al., 1996) have all been observed in autistic individuals. An abnormal neuronal density in the cerebellar hemispheres has also been observed (Bauman & Kemper, 1985). Notably, several components of the limbic system, including the amygdala (Lotspeich & Ciaranello, 1993) and the hippocampus (Raymond et al., 1996), have been found to be abnormal at the microscopic level. Cytoarchitectural features that are frequently abnormal include reduced numbers of Purkinje neurons in the cerebellum and vermis and small tightly packed neurons in regions of the limbic system, especially in the entorhinal cortex and in the medially placed nuclei of the amygdala. The reduced neuronal size and shortened dendritic pattern found in post-mortem studies are consistent with synaptic alterations. This synaptic deficiency hypothesis has been also proposed for schizophrenia, a neurodevelopmental disorder that is also characterized by marked disruptions of information processing and cognition (Glantz & Lewis, 2000). More recently, in an effort to directly determine if spine densities, or the synaptic connectivity, are altered in autistic subjects, Hussler and Zhang examined the structural microcircuitry within the cerebral cortex i.e. dendritic spine densities on cortical pyramidal cells from autistic subjects and age-matched control cases, on neurons located within both the superficial and deep cortical layers of frontal (BA 9), temporal (BA 21), and parietal lobe (BA 7). They observed several alterations in spine density in autistic subjects; for example the average spine densities in Autism were higher than those found in control cases, supporting altered synaptic connectivity and plasticity in the brains of individuals affected with Autism (Hutsler & Zhang, 2009).
Other evidence suggesting impaired synaptic function in autistic individuals includes the discovery of mutations in different synaptic genes, such as the neuroligins, the neurexins and
5.1. Synaptic genes as candidates for autism
At a molecular level, synapses are organized as macromolecular “machines” (Grant, 2003). These synaptic machines consist of a presynaptic release apparatus and a signalling device at the postsynaptic density held together in quasi-crystalline registry at the adhesive cleft. Many of the proteins constituting these various components have been identified by decades of synaptic biochemistry and physiological genetics, and their macromolecular assemblies have been characterized by proteomic analysis. The presynaptic release apparatus consists of proteins that include those for the structural cytoskeleton, vesicular membrane and trafficking components, vesicle fusion grid and nerve terminal membrane (Phillips et al., 2001; Blondeau et al., 2004). The postsynaptic density consists of structural proteins as well as signalling components such as tyrosine kinases and phosphatases, while both pre- and post-synaptic membranes contain fast voltage-gated channels and neurotransmitter-gated receptors, channels, transporters and G-protein coupled receptors mediating neuromodulation (Walikonis et al., 2000; Satoh et al., 2002) Rapid and selective communication across the synapse is ensured by the firm adhesion of each compartment at the cleft by cell surface as well as secreted extracellular matrix components (Huber et al., 2003). It is therefore not surprising that synaptic genes constitute the largest class of genes associated to developmental brain disorders – with many more to be discovered. Likewise, since many of these proteins are exposed at the extracellular surface, they could provide excellent “druggable” targets.
The discovery of genes clinically relevant to Autism is accelerating, with many involved in the synapse including several neuroligands, as well as genes involved in the glutamatergic pathway (Betancur et al., 2009). Of particular interest is the example of the synaptic cell adhesions and associated molecules including the neuroligins-neurexins-
6. Similar genetic architecture in other neurodevelopmental disorders
Autism, schizophrenia, and intellectual disability are all severe neurodevelopmental disorders that have childhood or early adulthood onset with a lifetime disability. Clinical manifestations of these disorders are diverse and complex, and include abnormalities in neuronal excitability, processing of complex information, as well as behaviors such as anxiety and impaired social interactions. Pathological studies, neuroimaging and other clinical observations predict that these disorders result from disrupted neurodevelopment caused by genetic and environmental factors (Lewis & Levitt, 2002). There is a significant overlap in clinical manifestations in these mental disorders, such as episodic psychosis and/or seizures, impaired cognitive functions, and language problems. Fifteen to thirty percent of Autism patients present with seizures and 20% of psychotic patients were diagnosed as having pervasive developmental disorders (Matese et al., 1994). Also, there is no clear clinical or neurobiological distinction between childhood schizophrenia, pervasive developmental disorder and autism (Mouridsen et al., 2000). Furthermore, these neurodevelopmental disorders can be included within the allelic spectrum of the same candidate gene. These observations strongly suggest that Autism, schizophrenia and intellectual disability may share similar pathogenic pathways and, thus, potential candidate genes. In addition, Autism, schizophrenia and intellectual disability have also a high prevalence, a high monozygotic twin concordance, a predicted high level of allelic and non-allelic genetic heterogeneity and a uniform worldwide high incidence despite significantly reduced reproductive fitness. All of these observations support the notion that the
6.1. One gene, three phenotypic conditions
We believe that Autism, schizophrenia and intellectual disability, all severe neurodevelopmental disorders, can be studied in a similar manner, which focuses on the synaptic gene
Altogether, these findings suggest that the neuroanatomical and physiological disturbances resulting from dysfunction of mutant genes may be influenced by the effect of genetic modifiers, the nature of the gene’s role in the human brain and the effect of environmental experiences of the affected individuals, leading to different clinical outcomes in different patients. Differences in the mutation types (for example, point mutation vs. large gene disruptions) must certainly also contribute to the phenotypic variability. Although this observation is intriguing, multiple phenotypic manifestations from mutations of the same single gene have been described for many other diseases. Finally, the observation that one gene can lead to many phenotypes raised the question of whether Autism, schizophrenia and intellectual disability are different entities or part of a same phenotypic continuum.
7. Gene hunting approaches and the impact of the development of new technologies
In the last few years, a new generation of technologies, referred to as the next-generation DNA sequencing technologies have been developed which allow screening of the entire genome (i.e. > 20,000 genes) of single individuals within a matter of days. This new technology has revolutionized genetic research and has allowed new approaches in the search for diseases-causative genes. Before the advent of the next-generation DNA sequencing technologies, gene screening for the identification of disease-causative mutation was done one gene at a time. Next-generation DNA sequencing enable the parallel sequencing of all the 20,000 genes, leading to faster identification of mutations. These technologies therefore constitute the ideal method of screening for rare causative variants in all genes simultaneously. In the context of Autism and of the above mentioned
Sequencing of entire genomes is still rather expensive, so many groups now focus on the sequencing of the entire “exome” (i.e., the various coding regions of the genome) of an individual. Focusing on the exome is a reasonable approach as the vast majority of disease-causing mutations identified to date disrupt the protein-coding regions of genes. Such mutations include nonsense, small insertion/deletions, frameshifts, splicing and missense mutations, whose consequences can be predicted
7.1. Challenges for the next-generation approaches
As next-generation DNA sequencing technologies improve, and as it becomes possible to rapidly produce detailed lists of variants per individual genome, the challenge will be to discriminate the pathogenic variants from the benign ones and establish the link to the disorder. Three major challenges can be identified. The first and most technical one is the ability to handle very large datasets in the order of tens or hundreds of terabytes in size, and access to powerful computing platforms that can process these datasets, and adequate resources for storage, retrieval and archiving. The second is the capacity to develop robust yet comprehensive methods to identify variants from next-generation DNA sequencing datasets. Choosing the correct sequence coverage and quality filters will ensure a maximum of true variants to be identified, with as few false positives or false negatives as possible. Several programs are available that can align short sequence reads to a reference genomic sequence and call potential homozygous or heterozygous variants. However, the total number of variants identified, even using different parameters within the same program, can vary largely. Intuitive paradigms and empirically determined cut off points need to be implemented. Furthermore, the accurate annotation of genomic variants is critical to classifying different variants for their potential impact on transcription, splicing or translation. This step must be comprehensive so that potential protein-truncating variants are not missed given that alternate splicing can lead to different transcripts with different open reading frames within a single gene. Finally, developing an experimental design based on the known or anticipated genetic mechanisms underlying the disease or condition, and on high quality diagnostic procedures, requires that affected and unaffected individuals be carefully selected from family groups to help prioritize variants for further analysis, and to maximize the chances of finding causative genes. In our case, identifying
7.2. Copy number variations and autism
The use of microarray approaches for the detection of copy number variations, which its continuously improving resolution, provides additional evidence for the occurrence of
Other similar examples include the study from Marshall et al. (Marshall et al., 2008), Christian et al. (Christian et al., 2008) and Szatmari et al. (Szatmari et al., 2007) and more recently the report of Bremer et al. (Bremer et al.), which are all consistent with the hypothesis that
8. Conclusion and directions for future studies
As outlined throughout this chapter, several lines of evidence support the role of
The accessibility of next-generation DNA sequencing methodologies have enabled researchers to analyse a large amount of DNA and has had an important impact on gene hunting strategies, which have shifted from a tendency to look at single genes, one at the time, to multiple genes simultaneously. One interesting consequence of next-generation DNA sequencing is that it recently permitted to directly estimate the rate of
In the last few years, researchers have identified several genes contributing to Autism, and most encode for proteins that are part of the synaptic machinery. An important concern for future research, where there will be rapid identification of many potential Autism gene mutations, will be to determine if they have a functional relevance to the disorder. Indeed, this question needs to be judiciously examined for most of the variants discovered. This will require to study model organism systems as proposed in our current Synapse to disease project (S2D; http://www.synapse2disease.ca), a large-scale medical research project launched in 2006 aiming to identify genes involved in several neurological and psychiatric diseases caused by defects in the development and functioning of the brain and nervous system. This project’s philosophy is that once the base changes are discovered and considered likely to be “pathogenic mutations”, biological validation must be conducted
Another challenge for future research in the field is the issue of whether genomic variants beyond the coding regions of a gene contribute to the etiology of the disorder. As mentioned earlier, the majority of mutations identified in Autism are located within coding regions but it should not be forgotten that variants in the non-coding regions, particularly the regulatory gene region, can also lead to disease.
Finally, the accessibility of the next-generation DNA sequencing technologies is facilitating the gene hunting process for researchers, whereas its application for clinical diagnostic testing seems to be inevitable, particularly as the cost per base continues to decrease. Although, the clinical tests based on these technologies represent particular challenges and will need careful validation, the connection between research findings in the genetics of Autism or any other neurodevelopmental disorders and clinical applications is closer than ever. All these research and technological advancements are for the greatest benefit of families.
Acknowledgments
We wish to thank Anna Bonnel and Fadi F. Hamdan for their critical reading of this manuscript.
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Notes
- In this chapter the term Autism refers to the autism spectrum disorders which include Autism disorder, Asperger syndrome and Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified
- Disorders caused by the inheritance of a single defective gene
- A trio constitutes an affected individual and both his/her biological parents