\r\n\tHydrogen gas is the key energy source for hydrogen-based society. Ozone dissolved water is expected as the sterilization and cleaning agent that can comply with the new law enacted by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The law “FDA Food Safety Modernization Act” requires sterilization and washing of foods to prevent food poisoning and has a strict provision that vegetables, meat, and fish must be washed with non-chlorine cleaning agents to make E. coli adhering to food down to “zero”. If ozone dissolved water could be successively applied in this field, electrochemistry would make a significant contribution to society.
\r\n
\r\n\t \r\n\tOxygen-enriched water is said to promote the growth of farmed fish. Hydrogen dissolved water is said to be able to efficiently remove minute dust on the silicon wafer when used in combination with ultrasonic irradiation. \r\n\tAt present researches on direct water electrolysis have shown significant progress. For example, boron-doped diamonds and complex metal oxides are widely used as an electrode, and the interposing polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) between electrodes has become one of the major processes of water electrolysis.
\r\n
\r\n\t \r\n\tThe purpose of this book is to show the latest water electrolysis technology and the future of society applying it.
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1. Introduction
Polyethylene (PE) is a synthetic resin made from the polymerization of ethylene [1]. It is an ethylene polymer with the structural formula of (-CH2-CH2-)n. This is generated at high pressures and temperatures in the presence of a catalyst, based on the desired characteristics and properties for the final product. It is manufactured as branched low-density polyethylene (LDPE), linear high-density polyethylene (HDPE), and many other variants. This olefin plastic can be combined with other elements, compounds, and monomers to form other polyethylene brands and co-polymers. The primary production processes employed are the Ziegler-Natta, metallocene, and chromium/silica catalysts in their manufacture, and this production pathway affects the final products’ mechanical and end-use properties. Water, acids, alkalis, most solvents, and chemicals do not affect polyethylene. Polyethylene offers superior low-temperature resistance, excellent chemical resistance, excellent power insulation, intense pressure, and high radiation resistance. Polyethylene is highly susceptible to environmental stress (both chemical and mechanical) and has low heat-aging resistance. Polyethylene characteristics and properties vary based on the molecular structure and density of the polymer [2]. PE is used in various items and packaging, including milk jugs, drinking straws, bottle caps, detergent bottles, cream tubs, waste bins, water pipes, children’s toys, and films, as well as plastic bags. Most unwanted items are disposed of in landfills, burned, and recycled, while some are inappropriately disposed of and strewn on streets and highways, wreaking havoc on our environment and marine life. Improperly disposed polyethylene waste poses many public health concerns and harms flora and fauna and the environment, mainly when it is not collected and disposed of properly [3]. Efforts are made to convert or reuse polyethylene products through recycling. Polyethylene waste disposal, reduction, and recycling generate many benefits if handled well [4]. This chapter will discuss polyethylene production and processing, properties, application and usage, disposal systems, and recycling.
2. Production and processing
Polyethylene is composed of carbon (C) and hydrogen (H), and these elements can be combined in several ways to make different types of polymer [5]. It is produced by modifying natural gas (methane, ethane, and propane blend), fermentation, ethanol dehydration via acetaldehyde hydrogenation, pyrolysis, and catalytic cracking of crude petroleum product or its distillation into gasoline. Branched low-density polyethylene (LDPE) was discovered first through free radical polymerization under high pressure and temperature by ICI Laboratories UK in 1933 [6]. Linear High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE) is manufactured at low pressures using Ziegler-Natta catalysts in slurry or gas-phase processes. Metallocene linear low-density polyethylene (mLLDPE) is also produced using low-pressure polymerization technology, which copolymerizes ethylene with another monomer, such as butene-1 or hexene-1, with the help of metallocene catalyst. The metallocene catalyst leads in resins with very consistent and specific properties, such as superior toughness and stiffness balance. Low-pressure polymerization technology employs transition-metal catalysts to produce Medium Density Polyethylene (MDPE) and linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) products. However, comonomers are introduced into the reaction to form small short-chain branches on the linear molecule, causing the density of the polymer to decrease [7]. The production process of PE involves the polymerization of ethylene into polyethylene. This process takes five routes from ethylene to the preparation and production of polyethylene, namely high pressure, metallocene, Ziegler-Natta, Standard Oil, and the Phillips processes [8].
High-Pressure polymerization is usually done at high pressures (0.1–0.3KN/mm2) and temperatures from 80 to 300°C, using free-radical initiators like azo-diisobutyronitrile. This is accomplished by reducing the exotherm using flowing or running water through a jacketed reactor by utilizing a high cooling surface volume ratio in the right portion of the continuous reactor. In this process, 10–30% of the monomer is converted to polymer, which is then extruded as granules [8, 9, 10].
PEs with short-chain branching are produced through metallocene manufacturing routes using metallocene catalysts. Metallocene catalysts are made by infusing zirconium or titanium, or other transition compounds into a cyclopentadiene-based structure. In this technique, a monomer in gaseous form and a metallocene catalyst are loaded into a fluidized bed reactor at pressures less than 24 MPa and temperatures just under 100°C. The process is very adaptable, and different kinds of PE can be produced by modifying the reaction conditions using the catalysts. Short branches of PE are formed by adding small amounts of propene, butene, hexene, or octene into the monomer feed. They are designed using existing polymerization processes, giving way for metallocene-PEs having different properties and grades [8].
Ziegler Processes are the result of Ziegler’s, Natta’s, and co-workers’ efforts. This polymerization allows the generation of a coordination complex due to the reaction between the initiator and the catalysts. This complex controls how the monomer approaches the growing chain. In this process, ethylene is supplied under low pressure into a reactor containing a liquid hydrocarbon that serves as a diluent and the catalyst. The catalyst is composed of titanium tetrachloride and aluminum triethyl. The catalyst complex can be produced ahead of time and then fed into the vessel, or it can be prepared in situ by feeding the components directly into the main reactor. In the absence of oxygen and water, the reaction can reach temperatures of up to 70°C. The polymer precipitates from the solution, forming a slurry, and the reactants are emptied into a catalyst decomposition tank [9].
The Standard Oil Company Process utilizes a transition metal oxide in combination with a promoter. Temperatures and pressures in the reactant vary from 230 to 270°C and 4 MPa–8 MPa, respectively. As a catalyst, molybdenum oxide is utilized to fast track the reaction, while sodium or calcium as metals or hydrides are used as promoters. The reaction occurs within a reactor in a hydrocarbon solvents [8, 10].
The Phillips Process includes dissolving ethylene in a liquid hydrocarbon solvent and then polymerizing it at 130-160°C and 1.4–3.5 MPa pressure with a supported 5 percent chromium oxide catalyst on a finely split silica-alumina catalyst. The major role of the solvent is to dissolve the polymer as it develops while simultaneously serving as a heat transfer medium. The recommended catalyst is a finely split silica-alumina catalyst that has been activated by heating to about 250°C and includes 5% chromium oxides, principally CrO3. The combination is then transported through a gas–liquid separator, where the ethylene is flashed off, the catalyst is removed from the separator’s liquid product, and the polymer is removed from the solvent [11].
These processes of polymerization reaction involve three stages: pre-treatment stage, reaction stage, and separation stage, and the process is sensitive to a catalyst that initiates the reaction to produce free radicals. The production process takes place in a continuous operation that requires a source of pure ethylene, suitable compression equipment at high pressure, and a high-pressure reactor to perform quick and high exothermic polymerization control. In the pre-treatment stage, the ethylene stream is pressurized into a compressor and heat exchangers, and this is maintained at 2000 bar and 150°C with the initiator before entering the reaction zone. The reaction zone is modeled in high-pressure tubular reactors with a water vapor stream to ensure steady temperature conditions in the reactor. At this stage, the initiators generate free radicals that link up with different ethylene chains to form a vinyl polymer. Then, other radical and monomer transfers occur at propagation to increase the number of chains formed gradually. Finally, the polymerization process is completed at termination by temperature conditions that disrupt the chemical bond formed, producing low-density polyethylene. The final stage involves the removal of the polymer and its separation. Also, Flash equipment is used to evaporate ethylene that does not react and then reused. LDPE is polymerized, forming large chains and generating enough entropy in the order of their bonds between monomers, causing a reduction of their density.
Three processes are used in the manufacture of high-density polyethylene. The first is the solution process, where the catalyst, initiator, and monomer are dissolved in a solvent in a continuously stirred tank reactor [12]. The solvent is removed when the polymerization is completed while isolating the polymer. The second is the slurry process, where the catalyst and polymer are suspended in a liquid medium in a continuously stirred tank reactor or tubular reactor where polymerization takes place. The catalyst and polymer are not dissolved in the medium and are separated after polymerization. The final and third process is the gas phase process, where no solvent is involved. The monomer and the catalyst are blown into the fluidized bed reactor for polymerization to take place. The processes of PE production are cataloged in Table 1.
PE type
Year
Company
Process
Catalyst
LDPE
1933
ICI Laboratory, UK
High-pressure free-radical polymerization 2000–3000 bar, 80-300°C
Low quantity of oxygen
LDPE
1943
Union Carbide & Du Pont
Film extrusion and injection molding
Free radical catalysts using initiators (peroxides)
HDPE
1953
Philips Petroleum, Ziegler
Gas-phase processes in solution or slurry
Ziegler-Natta organo-metallic catalysts
HDPE
1955
Hoechst A G in Germany
Low-pressure polymerization
Organo-metallic catalysts
MDPE
Low-pressure polymerization
Transition-metal catalysts
LLDPE
1950s
Du-Pont
Low-pressure solution process
Transition-metal catalysts
HDPE
1973
Union Carbide
Their fluidized bed gas-phase process
Ziegler-Natta
LLDPE
1977
Union Carbide
Low-pressure gas-phase process
Free radical catalysts using initiators (peroxides)
LLDPE VLPE
1980s
Dow Chemicals
Solution process
Ziegler/Natta, Cr/Mo oxide
mLLPE
1990
EXXOM MOBIL
Gas-phase PE Process
Metallocene catalysts
Table 1.
Manufacturing & processing development of polyethylene.
PE can also be produced from other routes rather than from high and low-pressure processes. Linear polyethylene with the repeat unit of ᷈↭(CH2)n↭ by condensation polymerization of an ethereal solution of diazomethane [13]. Also, Linear PE with a molar mass of up to 1.3 kg/mol is produced by the reaction of decamethylene dibromide with sodium in the Wutz reaction. Other processes include reducing carbon monoxide by modified Fischer Tropsch process, reducing polyvinyl chloride (PVC) with lithium aluminum hydride, and hydrogenation of polybutadiene [8].
3. Properties
Polyethylene as a polymeric material possesses excellent properties, which makes it useful as an engineering material. These properties depend on the density, molecular weight, molecular weight distribution, degree of long-chain branching, and short branching. It possesses low water absorption, moderate to low gas permeability, good toughness, flexibility at low temperatures, relatively low heat resistance, and many chemicals. The use of PE as an engineering material is due to these excellent properties greatly affected by density, molecular weight, and molecular weight distribution, as enumerated in Table 2 [15].
Property
Increase in density
Increase in molecular weight
Increase in molecular weight distribution
Tensile strength
Increases
Increases
—
Impact strength
Decreases
Increases
Decreases
Stiffness
Increases
Increases
Decreases
Stress crack resistance
Decreases
Increases
Increases
Abrasion resistance
Increases
Increases
—
Chemical resistance
Increases
Increases
—
Melt strength
—
Increases
Increases
Softening point
Increases
—
Increases
Low-temperature brittleness
Increases
Decreases
Decreases
Table 2.
Effects of density, molecular weight and molecular weight distribution on some properties of polyethylene [14].
Polyethylene type
Mol. weight (g/mol)
Density (g/cm3)
Degree of crystallinity (%)
Melting temp (°C)
Enthalpy of melting (j/g)
Yield strength (MPa)
Melt index rate (g/10 min)
HDPE
>250,000
0.940–0.970
70–90
120–130
203
20–40
0.1–150
LDPE
10,000–50,000
0.915–0.940
45–55
105–115
103
4–16
0.1–150
LLDPE
50,000–200,000
0.915–0.926
35–45
112–124
160
8–45
0.1–150
MDPE
100,000–200,000
0.930–0.940
30–60
115–130
141.9
15–40
0.1–150
Table 3.
Important PE grades and properties.
Polyethylene has the following engineering properties in near-absolute terms. The crystallinity of LDPE is between 40 and 60%, depending on the degree of branching and thermal history, while that of HDPE is between 60 and 90%, depending on the cooling rate and thermal history. It melts in the absence of air at 300°C to form transparent liquid except for its cross-linked polymer, which does not melt. Its specific heat at 20°C is 1330–2400 JKg−1 K−1 for HDPE, and 1900–2300 JKg−1 K−1 for LDPE, coefficient of linear expansion is 0.00017–0.00022 K−1 for LDPE and 0.00013–0.00020 K−1 for HDPE, Thermal conductivity at 23°C is 0.33Wm−1 K−1, melting point (MP) 109–125°C for low-density polyethylene and 130–135°C for high-density polyethylene. The specific gravity of LDPE is between 0.915–0.94, while that of HDPE is 0.94–0.97. PE has a refractive index of 1.51–1.52. PE also has excellent electrical properties. Its electrical resistivity is 1017–1019 ohm-m, dielectric strength 20 kV–160 kV/mm, and dielectric constant of 2.28. Polyethylenes, when exposed to moisture for 1 year, increase their weight by 0.2%. This shows excellent water resistance. PE’s average elastic modulus is between 0.565–1.500GPa for HDPE and 0.190–0.520GPa for LDPE, flexural modulus is between 0.28–1.86GPa for HDPE and 0.152–2.200GPa for LDPE. It also has Flexural yield strength of 13.8–75.8 MPa, compressive yield strength of 4 MPa-23 MPa for HDPE, and Tensile strength (TS) at yield is 7 MPa-16 MPa and that at the break at 23°C is 32 MPa-60 MPa for LDPE. LDPE has a hardness of 50–60 while its HDPE counterpart is 65–70 with an impact of 0.92 for LDPE and 0.96 for HDPE [16].
3.1 Mechanical properties
Some of the significant mechanical properties include Tensile strength, compressive strength, flexural strength, impact strength, Viscoelasticity, and abrasion resistance.
3.1.1 Tensile strength
Tensile strength is the ability of a material to resist a force that tends to pull it apart. It is a basic provision for classifying the properties of given polymer materials at a specified loading rate and temperature. The ultimate tensile strength of PE at 0-70°C is 11 MPa–25 MPa, while its yield strength at the same temperature range is 6 MPa-30 MPa. This polymer property depends on percentage crystallinity, the thermodynamic stability of the primary PE chain, chain orientation, and packing density of the crystalline chain [17]. Polyethylene’s strength, rigidity, friction, and hardness are low but have high impact strength and ductility. Three main tensile strengths are essential in the study of the properties of a polymer. The yield strength is the stress the PE can withstand without permanent deformation. The ultimate tensile strength is the maximum stress the PE can withstand, while the breaking strength is the stress coordinate on the strain–stress curve at the point of rupture.
Polyethylene shows excellent creep under an applied force. Elastic strain is the strain in the region of stress/strain curve of material under deformation, which recovers its shape on the release of applied stress. Elastic strain is reversible. Young’s modulus is the slope of the graph ab covering from a being the origin of the stress–strain graph to point b, representing the reversible region of the stress–strain in Figure 1. After point b, strain is no longer proportional to stress, and the slope of the stress–strain graph changes at an increasing rate, and the strain is irreversible. The materials continue to deform after point c until it breaks at point d [18]. The percentage elongation we get during a tensile experiment is significant because it provides information on the ductility of the polyethylene under investigation. Materials with a high degree of elongation will exhibit high ductility. This is because the force necessary to sustain sample elongation and finally break the specimen changes very little at the yield point, and this makes the value of the yield strength and the breaking strength quite close [14].
Figure 1.
Stress vs. strain curve of a typical PE.
3.1.2 Compressive strength
Compressive strength is the ability of a polymer material to resist the direct pressure of applied compressive force [19]. It is the ability of the polyethylene material under test to resist loads applied, thereby shortening the length of the material under compression. Its force acts in the opposite direction to the tensile force applied to the load. Compression is a force that pushes the particles of material closer together, thereby reducing the size of the materials. The compressive modulus is equal to the elastic modulus at minor strains and gives a reliable compressive stress and strain ratio. When a compressive force is applied to a PE material, it yields slowly and hardly fails.
3.1.3 Flexural strength
Flexural strength is defined as a material’s resistance to distortion on the application of load, while flexural modulus measures the capacity of the test sample to bend. Flexural strength represents the amount of force necessary to break a test sample with a specific diameter.
3.1.4 Impact strength
Impact strength can be defined as the capacity of a test polymer sample to withstand fracture when a sudden force is applied to it. It is the energy absorbed by this sample without breaking. The most frequent tests for plastic materials are the drop-weight test, the Izod Impact Test, and the Charpy Impact Test. Both approaches assess a PE test sample’s capacity to absorb energy upon failure. PE’s Izod impact resistance values range from 0.534 to 0641kj/m at ordinary room temperature. It determines how brittle or rigid material will be when subjected to a suddenly applied load. It is affected by the volume of the specimen, the presence of a notch, cold working, and water absorption in a polymer [20].
3.1.5 Viscoelasticity
PE is a viscoelastic material. It exhibits elastic and viscous behavior when stress is applied. The application of this force results in an instantaneous elastic strain followed by a viscous, time-dependent strain [21]. This makes the material display and behave partly as a crystalline metal and partly a very high viscosity fluid. This viscoelastic behavior of polyethylene polymer makes the curve of the stress–strain of any test sample of polyethylene be divided into three essential segments.
The viscoelastic nature of PE provides for creep and stress relaxation, which are two unique engineering characteristics employed in the HDPE design [22]. This property of the polymer materials is fundamental because the functionality and applicability of the plastic can change after a while and may lead to defects and loss of functionality over sometime [23].
3.1.6 Abrasion resistance
The capacity of a polymer to withstand the wear caused by contact with another surface is referred to as abrasion resistance. PE has excellent abrasion resistance in a variety of end-use situations. Furthermore, the abrasion resistance of this material has led to its extensive usage in engineering and technical applications. Generally, the abrasive wear resistance of polymers correlates with the reciprocal product of their ultimate tensile stress and the elongation at break [24]. It increases with increasing molecular weight, the molecular weight distribution, and the degree of crystallinity of polymeric materials [25]. Table 3 shows the common properties of some grades of polyethylene.
3.2 Electrical properties
PE is an excellent electrical insulator with good tracking-resistant properties. It is easily electrostatically charged. Its arc resistance is 200–250 seconds, with surface resistivity greater than 1013ohm. PE has a dielectric strength between 450 and 1000 volts/mil and a dielectric constant of 2.25–2.35 @ 60 Hz. Also, PE’s Volume resistivity is greater than 1016ohm-m with a Dissipation factor greater than 0.0005 @ 60 Hz [26]. These properties make the polymer be used in any engineering application that requires high insulation requirements.
3.3 Optical properties
PE can vary between almost transparent as in LDPE, translucent as in LLDPE, and opaque as in HDPE. The ability of polyethylene films to scatter light is determined by the quenching conditions and sample’s thermal history. Based on recent quantitative studies, the light scattered by a thin polyethylene sample quenched to 0°C from 125°C is much lower than that scattered by a heat-treated sample [27]. Because the refractive index along the tangent to the PE spherulites is lower than that along the radius of the spherulites, extruded polyethylene films have a slight positive birefringence. As a result, the clarity of polyethylene film is determined by the light scattered by it [28].
3.4 Thermal properties
Polyethylene exhibits a low thermal conductivity. It has a thermal expansion coefficient of 0.26 mm/°C and thermal conductivity of 0.4 W/m per °C. The specific heat of PE depends on temperature. Its low-density form has a specific heat capacity of 2.3 J/g at room temperature and 2.9 J/g at 120–140°C. The higher the molar mass and the more the branching, the lower the brittle point. Polyethylene is sensitive to surface imperfections. The standard commercial grade of high-density polyethylene’s melting point is between 120 and 180°C, and LDPE is 105–115°C [29]. The zero-shear rate apparent viscosity of linear PE is related to the weight-average molar mass by Eq. (1) for polymers with a molar mass over 5 kg/mol.
ηa0=KMw3.4E1
Polymers with long branches do not fit in the above equation, and Eq. (2) represents a relationship between polymers of different degrees of long branching. In many cases
logηa0=A+BMn1/2E2
where logηa0 = zero shear rate apparent viscosity, K and A are constants, Mw = weight average molecular weight, and Mn = number average molecular weight [30].
Generally, as the branching and molecular weight distribution increases, the viscosity of the PE increases, and its shear rate decreases. The increase in the molecular weight of the polymer increases its viscosity, decreases its melt flow index, and decreases its critical shear rate. Finally, an increase in the molecular weight distribution decreases the PE flow behavior index [11, 13, 31, 32].
4. Applications and usage
Polyethylene has been used extensively in food and beverage packaging because of its excellent properties and cheapness. It is the most used engineering material finding application in food packaging, construction, industrial and chemical industries, automobiles, and other allied companies. It can be used in the film, container, and tubing forms produced by extrusion, blow molding, injection, thermoforming cast, and other-oriented processes. It can be combined with other polymers to form plastics with improved performance characteristics and properties such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polypropylene (PP), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH), low-density polyethylenes are mainly used for films production. In contrast, high-density polyethylenes are used for containers and pipings [4, 33].
Different production methods and processes are employed in the manufacture of polyethylene products. They include film-making methods, injection molding, blow molding, and extrusion methods to produce various products. HDPE can be used in packaging and film applications, consumer goods, fibers, textiles, pipes, and fittings. Applications of HDPE in packaging include jerry can, domestic and industrial containers, chemical containers, drums, crates, dustbins, detergent containers, garbage containers, housewares, iceboxes, toys, sports nets, ropes, fishing nets, different types of pipes for gas, water, sewage, drainage, sea outfalls, industrial application, cable protection, steel pipe coating, industrial and decorative fabrics, fuel tanks and sheeting for telecommunication and energy cables due to its excellent chemical resistance and good mechanical and physical properties [34].
LDPE’s most popular application is in plastic bags. It is with LDPE that containers, various types of laboratory equipment are formed. Also, it finds application in dispensing bottles, tubings, wash bottles, plastic bags for computer parts and components. LDPE is used for packaging pharmaceutical and squeezes bottles, closures and caps, trash bags, liners, and films for packaging frozen and dry food items and laminations. Other applications include housewares, agricultural bags and films, hoses for water pipes, sub conductor insulators, and cable jackets due to their excellent plasticity, strength, and low water absorption properties. It is used to manufacture milk carton linings, bowls, buckets, squeezable bottles, and cling films [35].
Other applications of polyethylene, including LLPDE, are its application in general purpose films, garment packaging, agricultural films, stretch films, food boxes, and coating cables. It can be used for heat-sealed overwrapping film and container liners for bulk transport, etc.
5. Disposal systems for polyethylene
Polyethylene usage poses a significant threat to public hygiene and the aquatic environment. PE gets accumulated at dumping sites, waterways, gutters, drains, agricultural fields, residences, and roadsides, resulting in a refuse stockpile. The littering of the environment with polyethylene has made the disposal system very difficult. Governments, corporate organizations, and individuals are looking for a cleaner environment by developing different ways of disposing of the waste generated through polyethylene. Some of the proposed disposal systems include (1) recycling, (2) Composting, (3) Landfills, and (5) incineration [36].
5.1 Recycling
Recycling is one of the methods of reducing polyethylene waste littering in our environment. Polyethylene recycling is a process by which polyethylene waste is collected, recovered, and converted into valuable products. These materials can be found in agriculture, packaging, food, pipes, beverage bags, toys, electronics construction, electronic and allied sectors [37, 38]. The most straightforward plastic recycling processes involve collecting, sorting, washing, shredding, melting, and pelletizing. The actual process varies, and this is based on the type of recycled product to be formed. The waste materials collection involves picking all the plastic bags and bottles from dumpsites, waste bins, riversides, homes, businesses, and institutions and gathering them at collection points, recycling facilities for reuse. These collected plastics are sorted into each polyethylene group, separated manually or with machines, and washed to remove impurities. Washing removes the impurities such as adhesives, labels, oil that affect operation. Then they are shredded into fine particles and are fed into various component machines for use. Also, shredded plastic pieces can be used for other applications, such as a binder for paving stones and block making and additive within the asphalt. Recycling involves three processes, namely mechanical, chemical and energy recovery processes [39].
The mechanical recycling process involves using cleaned, sorted, and shredded plastic granules or pellets to form new products like trash cans, toys, bottles, bags, and other reusable products. The primary recycling process involves the conversion of the cleaned shredded plastic waste into similar products using injection molding and extrusion principles. The quality of the manufactured product can be improved by the introduction of virgin raw materials, reinforcers, stabilizers and master batches to the scrap or plastic waste. The difference between the primary recycled product and that gotten from the virgin raw materials is in the quality of the manufactured products. Severino et al. [40] studied the effect of nanofillers and compatibilizers on the mechanical properties of extruded low-density polyethylene waste and the results showed enhanced properties when compared to ordinary LDPE waste. The primary and secondary types of recycling involve the reuse of the products in their original form and structure. Figures 2–5 show the mechanical processing of used polyethylene films taking place at the University of Nigeria Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria. These films are used water sachets were used to make paving stones for the construction industry. Virgin polyethylene granules can be added here to improve the desired mechanical properties. This mechanical processing technique also involves the collection of plastic waste, sorting, cleaning, drying and reusing of plastic waste. The cleaned waste plastic can be cut into size, agglomerated and then extruded into pellets before being used to manufacture the desired products [41]. The pellets or granules can be fed into an injection molding machine, blow molding machine or an extruder to form different products. Also, the melt can be mixed with other materials to form varieties of composites.
Figure 2.
Typical dumpsite where waste collection is being carried.
Figure 3.
Sorting of the polyethylene film waste collected.
Figure 4.
Drying of sorted waste.
Figure 5.
Waste conversion.
It is in the secondary mechanical process that plastic blocks, paving stones and varieties of products are formed for construction and structural purposes. It can be used as partition walls in buildings for non-load bearing applications. Plastic waste has been used as aggregate in asphalt to improve the skid and crack resistance of pavements [42]. Kumi- Larbi and associates studied the effect of particle size of sand on some properties of water sachet/sand composites used as paving stones/bricks and the results showed that the LDPE (water sachet) bonded sand showed an improvement in the durability, compressive strength, specific heat and thermal diffusivity of the bricks and can be used to as a substitute for cement in some building applications [43].
The third method or tertiary recycling of polyethylene products involves a chemical recycling process in which polymers are chemically converted to monomers or depolymerized to monomers and oligomers through a chemical reaction. The chemical inertness of the polymer and its variable structural nature has limited most studies on polyethylene to pyrolysis. The chemical recycling process is a process that reduces a polymer to its original monomeric form. The technology uses chemical reactions, heat or both to break down used plastics into raw materials for other chemicals, fuel or new plastics. PE can be processed through thermal or catalytic pyrolysis to produce monomers and small organic molecules. Thermal pyrolysis uses heat under high pressure to break down the PE to different smaller monomeric molecules while catalytic pyrolysis uses a catalyst to reduce both the reaction time and temperature required to break down the PE into its component monomers [44]. Major research is being carried out on the chemical recycling of the world’s biggest plastic waste from PE and the results have been impressive and when concluded will help to reduce the menace associated with PE disposal. Ha’jekova and his colleagues investigated the recycling of LDPE using co-pyrolysis with naphtha at the temperature range of 740°C -820°C and found a high yield of alkenes as its primary products and coke [45].
The energy recovery process is the fourth method of polyethylene recycling, also known as quaternary recycling. This is the recovery of the plastic’s energy content on the application of external heat. Incineration is an energy recovery method that reduces a large volume of organic materials in an enclosed system. This method generates a high amount of energy from the polyethylene fed inside the incinerator but poses a higher health risk due to the high production of toxic substances that are carcinogenic to human health.
5.2 Plastic composting
This is the breakdown of waste plastics into small natural substances such as carbon dioxide, water, and methane by microorganisms. Composting can be done through aerobic or anaerobic methods. Aerobic composting is the breakdown of the polyethylene wastes by microorganisms in the presence of oxygen or air, while anaerobic composting is the decomposition or degradation of plastic waste substances by microorganisms in the absence of oxygen. Generally, microorganisms bind themselves to the plastics’ surface, colonize the exposed surface, catalyze enzymatic degradation of the plastic into lower molecular weight monomers, dimers, and oligomers, and finally form carbon dioxide and water as its bye products [46]. Some of the microorganisms that biodegrade polyethylene include, Acinetobacter sp., Ideonella sakaiensis, Bacillus sp., Staphylococcus sp., Streptococcus sp., Diplococcus sp., Micrococcus sp., Pseudomonas sp., and Moraxella sp. ss bacteria and, Aspergillus niger, A. ornatus, A. cremeus, A. flavus, A. candidus, A. ochraceus, A. nidulans, and A. Glaucus as fungi [47].
5.3 Landfills
Plastic waste constitutes a more significant proportion of municipal solid waste. Most of these solid wastes end in landfills. Research has it that it takes more than 300 years for polyethylene to degrade entirely, and this means that plastic waste disposal is a problem that needs to be talked about globally. Landfills remain the safest way of polyethylene disposal, and the waste is subjected characteristically to mechanical stress, decomposition, leachate, and chemical reactions both by aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Landfills have become a breeding ground for dangerous reptiles and insects. It poses environmental pollution, facilitating the release of harmful pollutants in the air when the landfill is set on fire. Carcinogenic and estrogenic compounds are leased, which are dangerous to life. These compounds harm human and aquatic health, causing diseases like breast and ovarian cancer [48]. The policy on solid waste disposal hinges on the reduction, reuse, and recycling of plastic waste to reduce landfill waste [49].
5.4 Incineration
Incineration is a waste treatment process that involves burning waste materials through the application of heat. Incineration is a widely used disposal method because it takes little space but is not generally used because of concerns about producing toxic gases as the plastics are burnt. The process of incineration involves waste collection, sorting, storage, handling, waste combustion, pollution control, to residue collection and handling. The incinerator is designed to capture the component gases for industrial purposes and remove the feedstock produced. The main product of incineration is carbon dioxide, and this is captured through modern technology to avoid associated problems of CO2 like ozone layer depletion, which causes global warming. However, only a tiny fraction of the petroleum supply is used to produce polymers, out of which less than 2% of the used products are incinerated. Carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide emissions from incinerated sources are not significant compared to carbon dioxide production arising from the burning of fossil fuels. Incineration and gasification are some of the technologies which convert waste to wealth. Incineration produces high-temperature heat, while combustible gasses are a product of gasification [50].
5.5 Bio- and photo-degradation
The biodegradation of PE is a process whereby microorganisms are used to modify and consume the polymer as a primary source of energy and, by so doing, change the physical and chemical properties leading to structural deterioration, weight loss, and eventual gas evolution. Polyethylene biodegrades naturally over a long period. It takes polyethylene films up to 300 years to biodegrade and polyethylene terephthalate more than 450 years to do the same too. Biodegradation of this polymer can be enhanced by introducing microbes, sunlight, moisture and increasing the hydrophilic properties through modification during production. The Physico-chemical method of PE degradation includes UV and thermal treatment, oxidation of PE with nitric acid followed by the microbial attack, and catalytic enzyme degradation. All these cause reductions of polymer chain size, modification of the structure of the polymer, and eventual weight loss.
6. Conclusion
Polyethylene achieved its dominant position because it has excellent mechanical and physical properties, the ease with which it can be manufactured and converted into various packaging forms, and its relatively low cost. These excellent characteristic properties have made the polymer the materials of the future. One of the problems associated with polyethylene is that it leaches additives. This leaching is increased by acids, how long the polyethylene stays in contact with food items, and the increase in heat applied during service conditions. However, meeting the challenges posed by plastics is not simple, and there exists a lack of awareness surrounding the plastic waste problem. Also, the world is putting efforts and investing in cheaper and more biodegradable polymers, better ways of disposal, and a cleaner environment. Polyethylene is a commodity plastic. Its widespread usage has made disposal of end-use products a problem. Knowledge of the production and processing pathways and their properties will significantly aid businesses and consumers in the proper application and best disposal systems. This will help get a world that is clean, safe, and habitable.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"disposal, high-density polyethylene, low-density polyethylene, monomer, polymers, recycling, resin",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/80784.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/80784.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80784",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80784",totalDownloads:84,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"September 8th 2021",dateReviewed:"January 24th 2022",datePrePublished:"March 8th 2022",datePublished:"April 20th 2022",dateFinished:"March 8th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Polyethylene (PE) is a synthetic polymer made from the polymerization of ethylene. It is the most widely used plastic in the world. Its production, processing, usage, applications, and disposal system had made the study of this plastic very significant. The role played by this plastic in the world has made the knowledge of its usage, disposal system, processing, recycling, and applications inevitable. The chapter discussed the general overview of this plastic product, the production, properties, and disposal systems. The processing of recycled polyethylene is vital in its end-use through collecting, sorting, cleaning, separation, and compounding, and this was extensively treated. We also discussed the opportunities, applications, and limitations of polyethylene recycling. At the end of this chapter, one will know the production, processing, recycling, and applications of polyethylene plastic and the dangers posed by this plastic if a proper disposal system is not followed.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/80784",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/80784",signatures:"Macdenis Egbuhuzor, Chima Umunankwe and Peter Ogbobe",book:{id:"10855",type:"book",title:"Waste Material Recycling in the Circular Economy",subtitle:"Challenges and Developments",fullTitle:"Waste Material Recycling in the Circular Economy - Challenges and Developments",slug:"waste-material-recycling-in-the-circular-economy-challenges-and-developments",publishedDate:"April 20th 2022",bookSignature:"Dimitris S. Achilias",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10855.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83969-681-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-680-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-682-4",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"95620",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimitris S.",middleName:null,surname:"Achilias",slug:"dimitris-s.-achilias",fullName:"Dimitris S. Achilias"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"354329",title:"Mr.",name:"Macdenis",middleName:"Onyekachi",surname:"Egbuhuzor",fullName:"Macdenis Egbuhuzor",slug:"macdenis-egbuhuzor",email:"onyekachi.egbuhuzor@unn.edu.ng",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354329/images/20040_n.jpg",institution:{name:"University of Nigeria, Nsukka",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"427973",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Ogbobe",fullName:"Peter Ogbobe",slug:"peter-ogbobe",email:"peter.ogbobe@nbti.gov.ng",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"429244",title:"Mr.",name:"Chima",middleName:null,surname:"Umunnakwe",fullName:"Chima Umunnakwe",slug:"chima-umunnakwe",email:"reginald.umunnakwe@unn.edu.ng",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Nigeria, Nsukka",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Nigeria"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Production and processing",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Properties",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Mechanical properties",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"3.1.1 Tensile strength",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"3.1.2 Compressive strength",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"3.1.3 Flexural strength",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"3.1.4 Impact strength",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"3.1.5 Viscoelasticity",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"3.1.6 Abrasion resistance",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.2 Electrical properties",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.3 Optical properties",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"3.4 Thermal properties",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"4. Applications and usage",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"5. Disposal systems for polyethylene",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"5.1 Recycling",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"5.2 Plastic composting",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"5.3 Landfills",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"5.4 Incineration",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"5.5 Bio- and photo-degradation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_25",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Narici L, Casolino M, Fino LD, Larosa M, Picozza P, Rizzo A, et al. Performances of Kevlar and Polyethylene as radiation shielding on-board the International Space Station in high latitude radiation environment/639/166/984/639/766/25/128 article. Scientific Reports. 2017;7(1):1-11. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-01707-2'},{id:"B2",body:'Zhong X, Zhao X, Qian Y, Zou Y. Polyethylene plastic production process. Insight-Material Science. 2018;1(1):1. 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Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2000. pp. 1-334'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Macdenis Egbuhuzor",address:"onyekachi.egbuhuzor@unn.edu.ng",affiliation:'
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Consequently, knowledge of exoplanets is considerably more limited than Solar System planets. This chapter reviews the essential characteristics of Solar System planets and associated data derived from a variety of observational approaches. Exoplanet characteristics and their comparison to Solar System planets are provided as well as general detection methods and planned probes to gather additional data.",book:{id:"10210",slug:"solar-system-planets-and-exoplanets",title:"Solar System Planets and Exoplanets",fullTitle:"Solar System Planets and Exoplanets"},signatures:"Joseph Bevelacqua",authors:[{id:"115462",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",middleName:"John",surname:"Bevelacqua",slug:"joseph-bevelacqua",fullName:"Joseph Bevelacqua"}]},{id:"65725",title:"On the Deviation of the Lunar Center of Mass to the East: Two Possible Mechanisms Based on Evolution of the Orbit and Rounding Off the Shape of the Moon",slug:"on-the-deviation-of-the-lunar-center-of-mass-to-the-east-two-possible-mechanisms-based-on-evolution-",totalDownloads:1029,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"It is known that the Moon’s center of mass (COM) does not coincide with the geometric center of figure (COF) and the line “COF/COM” is not directed to the center of the Earth, but deviates from it to the South-East. Here, we discuss two mechanisms to explain the deviation of the lunar COM to the East from the mean direction to Earth. The first mechanism considers the secular evolution of the Moon’s orbit, using the effect of the preferred orientation of the satellite with synchronous rotation to the second (empty) orbital focus. It is established that only the scenario with an increase in the orbital eccentricity e leads to the required displacement of the lunar COM to the East. It is important that high-precision calculations confirm an increase e in our era. In order to fully explain the shift of the lunar COM to the East, a second mechanism was developed that takes into account the influence of tidal changes in the shape of the Moon at its gradual removal from the Earth. The second mechanism predicts that the elongation of the lunar figure in the early era was significant. As a result, it was found that the Moon could have been formed in the annular zone at a distance of 3–4 radii of the modern Earth.",book:{id:"8444",slug:"lunar-science",title:"Lunar Science",fullTitle:"Lunar Science"},signatures:"Boris P. Kondratyev",authors:[{id:"277909",title:"Prof.",name:"Boris",middleName:"Petrovich",surname:"Kondratyev",slug:"boris-kondratyev",fullName:"Boris Kondratyev"}]},{id:"68357",title:"Solar System Exploration Augmented by In Situ Resource Utilization: System Analyses, Vehicles, and Moon Bases for Saturn Exploration",slug:"solar-system-exploration-augmented-by-in-situ-resource-utilization-system-analyses-vehicles-and-moon",totalDownloads:859,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Human and robotic missions to Saturn are presented and analyzed with a range of propulsion options. Historical studies of space exploration, planetary spacecraft and astronomy, in situ resource utilization (ISRU), and industrialization all point to the vastness of natural resources in the solar system. Advanced propulsion is benefitted from these resources in many ways. While advanced propulsion systems were proposed in these historical studies, further investigation of nuclear options using high-power nuclear electric and nuclear pulse propulsion as well as advanced chemical propulsion can significantly enhance these scenarios. Updated analyses based on these historical visions are presented. At Saturn, nuclear pulse propulsion with alternate propellant feed systems and Saturn moon exploration with chemical propulsion and nuclear electric propulsion options are discussed. Issues with using in situ resource utilization on Saturn’s moons are discussed. At Saturn, the best locations for exploration and the use of the moons as central locations for Saturn moon exploration are assessed. Environmental issues on Titan’s surface may present extreme challenges for some ISRU processes. In-space bases for moon-orbiting propellant processing and ground-based processing will be assessed.",book:{id:"7338",slug:"planetology-future-explorations",title:"Planetology",fullTitle:"Planetology - Future Explorations"},signatures:"Bryan Palaszewski",authors:[{id:"279275",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Bryan",middleName:null,surname:"Palaszewski",slug:"bryan-palaszewski",fullName:"Bryan Palaszewski"}]},{id:"65534",title:"Solar System Exploration Augmented by In Situ Resource Utilization: Lunar Base Issues",slug:"solar-system-exploration-augmented-by-in-situ-resource-utilization-lunar-base-issues",totalDownloads:1134,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Creating a presence and an industrial capability on the Moon is essential for the development of humankind. There are many historical study results that have identified and quantified the lunar resources and analyzed the methods of obtaining and employing those resources. The idea of finding, obtaining, and using these materials is called in situ resource utilization (ISRU). The ISRU research and development efforts have led to new ideas in rocket propulsion. Applications in chemical propulsion, nuclear electric propulsion, and many other propulsion systems will be critical in making the initial lunar base and future lunar industries more sustainable and will lead to brilliant futures for humanity.",book:{id:"8444",slug:"lunar-science",title:"Lunar Science",fullTitle:"Lunar Science"},signatures:"Bryan Palaszewski",authors:[{id:"279275",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Bryan",middleName:null,surname:"Palaszewski",slug:"bryan-palaszewski",fullName:"Bryan Palaszewski"}]},{id:"32533",title:"Measuring the Isotopic Composition of Solar Wind Noble Gases",slug:"measuring-the-isotopic-composition-of-solar-wind-noble-gases",totalDownloads:2789,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"1617",slug:"exploring-the-solar-wind",title:"Exploring the Solar Wind",fullTitle:"Exploring the Solar Wind"},signatures:"Alex Meshik, Charles Hohenberg, Olga Pravdivtseva and Donald Burnett",authors:[{id:"114740",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Meshik",slug:"alexander-meshik",fullName:"Alexander Meshik"},{id:"115300",title:"Prof.",name:"Donald",middleName:null,surname:"Burnett",slug:"donald-burnett",fullName:"Donald Burnett"},{id:"115301",title:"Prof.",name:"Charles",middleName:null,surname:"Hohenberg",slug:"charles-hohenberg",fullName:"Charles Hohenberg"},{id:"115302",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Pravdivtseva",slug:"olga-pravdivtseva",fullName:"Olga Pravdivtseva"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"98",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82332",title:"Access to Space, Access to the Moon – Two Sides of the Same Coin?",slug:"access-to-space-access-to-the-moon-two-sides-of-the-same-coin-",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105175",abstract:"The dynamics of human expansion towards space are going through Earth external layers, orbital space and the Moon. With its low gravity, slingshot effect relative to Earth, on-site resources and relative proximity to Earth in the solar system, the renewed space race is effectively returning first to the Moon. A psychological bridge to enlarge our civilization with a permanent bridge to our natural satellite. The development of this Earth-Moon system, requires enormous amount of finances, energy, science, technology, but over all, opportunities. This chapter deals with the efforts and the mental changes that may eventually result from all of these changes.",book:{id:"10955",title:"Lunar Science - Habitat and Humans",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10955.jpg"},signatures:"Yann-Henri Chemin"},{id:"81141",title:"Modeling Radiation Damage in Materials Relevant for Exploration and Settlement on the Moon",slug:"modeling-radiation-damage-in-materials-relevant-for-exploration-and-settlement-on-the-moon",totalDownloads:32,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102808",abstract:"Understanding the effect of radiation on materials is fundamental for space exploration. Energetic charged particles impacting materials create electronic excitations, atomic displacements, and nuclear fragmentation. Monte Carlo particle transport simulations are the most common approach for modeling radiation damage in materials. However, radiation damage is a multiscale problem, both in time and in length, an aspect treated by the Monte Carlo simulations only to a limited extent. In this chapter, after introducing the Monte Carlo particle transport method, we present a multiscale approach to study different stages of radiation damage which allows for the synergy between the electronic and nuclear effects induced in materials. We focus on cumulative displacement effects induced by radiation below the regime of hadronic interactions. We then discuss selected studies of radiation damage in materials of importance and potential use for the exploration and settlement on the Moon, ranging from semiconductors to alloys and from polymers to the natural regolith. Additionally, we overview some of the novel materials with outstanding properties, such as low weight, increased radiation resistance, and self-healing capabilities with a potential to reduce mission costs and improve prospects for extended human exploration of extraterrestrial bodies.",book:{id:"10955",title:"Lunar Science - Habitat and Humans",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10955.jpg"},signatures:"Natalia E. Koval, Bin Gu, Daniel Muñoz-Santiburcio and Fabiana Da Pieve"},{id:"80241",title:"The Evolution of the Moon’s Orbit Over 100 Million Years and Prospects for the Research in the Moon",slug:"the-evolution-of-the-moon-s-orbit-over-100-million-years-and-prospects-for-the-research-in-the-moon",totalDownloads:65,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102392",abstract:"As a result of solving the problem of interaction of Solar-system bodies, data on the evolution of the Moon’s orbit were obtained. These data were used as the basis for the development of a mathematical model for the Moon representing its motion over an interval of 100 million years. A program of exploration of the Moon with the aim of creating a permanent base on it is outlined. Such a base is intended for exploring the Earth, the Sun, and outer space.",book:{id:"10955",title:"Lunar Science - Habitat and Humans",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10955.jpg"},signatures:"Joseph J. Smulsky"},{id:"80217",title:"Educational and Scientific Analog Space Missions",slug:"educational-and-scientific-analog-space-missions",totalDownloads:88,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101392",abstract:"Analog space missions in Poland include international scientific, technological, and business projects designed and realized by a private research company Analog Astronaut Training Center Ltd. (AATC) devoted to the future Moon and Mars exploration. Growing experience in educational aspect of the training as well as continuous development of the habitat and its professional space science laboratory equipment correspond to increased interest of educational organizations, universities, and individual students. We serve unique practical platform for space engineering, space master, and even space doctoral theses. In addition to a wide range of training courses offered for future astronauts, for example, diving, skydiving, rocket workshops, and stratospheric missions, AATC provides a private laboratory to simulate the space environment. It carries out scientific experiments focused on biology and space medicine, as well as addressing several multidisciplinary issues related to the Moon and Mars exploration, including space mining. The main goal of each our analog simulation is to get publishable results, what means that our analog astronauts obtain not only certification of completion of the training but also ability to continue studies and to perform it individually. This chapter summarizes methodology used by us, didactic tools, and obtained results for both educational and scientific analog simulations.",book:{id:"10955",title:"Lunar Science - Habitat and Humans",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10955.jpg"},signatures:"Agata Maria Kołodziejczyk and M. Harasymczuk"},{id:"79544",title:"Regolith and Radiation: The Cosmic Battle",slug:"regolith-and-radiation-the-cosmic-battle",totalDownloads:127,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101437",abstract:"This chapter discusses regolith utilization in habitat construction mainly from the point of view of radiation protection of humans on missions of long duration. It also considers other key properties such as structural robustness, thermal insulation, and micrometeoroid protection that all have to be considered in parallel when proposing regolith-based solutions. The biological hazards of radiation exposure on the Moon are presented and put in the context of lunar exploration-type missions and current astronaut career dose limits. These factors guide the research in radiation protection done with lunar regolith simulants, which are used in research and development activities on Earth due to the reduced accessibility of returned lunar samples. The ways in which regolith can be used in construction influence its protective properties. Areal density, which plays a key role in the radiation shielding capacity of a given material, can be optimized through different regolith processing techniques. At the same time, density will also affect other important properties of the construction, e.g. thermal insulation. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:"2753-6580",scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
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\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. 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Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. 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He has 19 publications in indexed international journals (ISIS), as well as over 60 publications and oral presentations in both Portuguese and international journals and congresses.",institutionString:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Valencia Catholic University Saint Vincent Martyr",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. The major goal of her research is the genetics of litter size through novel methods such as selection by the environmental sensibility of litter size, with forays into the field of animal welfare by analysing the impact on the susceptibility to diseases and stress of the does. Details of her publications can be found at https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-8290.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"350704",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Camila",middleName:"Silva Costa",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"camila-ferreira",fullName:"Camila Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/350704/images/17280_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Veterinary Medicine at the Fluminense Federal University, specialist in Equine Reproduction at the Brazilian Veterinary Institute (IBVET) and Master in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction at the Fluminense Federal University. She has experience in analyzing zootechnical indices in dairy cattle and organizing events related to Veterinary Medicine through extension grants. I have experience in the field of diagnostic imaging and animal reproduction in veterinary medicine through monitoring and scientific initiation scholarships. I worked at the Equus Central Reproduction Equine located in Santo Antônio de Jesus – BA in the 2016/2017 breeding season. I am currently a doctoral student with a scholarship from CAPES of the Postgraduate Program in Veterinary Medicine (Pathology and Clinical Sciences) at the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ) with a research project with an emphasis on equine endometritis.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"41319",title:"Prof.",name:"Lung-Kwang",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"lung-kwang-pan",fullName:"Lung-Kwang Pan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41319/images/84_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain.Dr. Satué is accredited as a Private University Doctor Professor, Doctor Assistant, and Contracted Doctor by AVAP (Agència Valenciana d'Avaluació i Prospectiva) and currently, as a full professor by ANECA (since January 2022). To date, Katy has taught 22 years in the Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery at the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in undergraduate courses in Veterinary Medicine (General Pathology, integrated into the Applied Basis of Veterinary Medicine module of the 2nd year, Clinical Equine I of 3rd year, and Equine Clinic II of 4th year). Dr. Satué research activity is in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry, and Immunology in the Spanish Purebred mare. She has directed 5 Doctoral Theses and 5 Diplomas of Advanced Studies, and participated in 11 research projects as a collaborating researcher. She has written 2 books and 14 book chapters in international publishers related to the area, and 68 scientific publications in international journals. Dr. Satué has attended 63 congresses, participating with 132 communications in international congresses and 19 in national congresses related to the area. Dr. Satué is a scientific reviewer for various prestigious international journals such as Animals, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology, among others. Since 2014 she has been responsible for the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University Veterinary Clinical Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201721",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Funiciello",slug:"beatrice-funiciello",fullName:"Beatrice Funiciello",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201721/images/11089_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated from the University of Milan in 2011, my post-graduate education included CertAVP modules mainly on equines (dermatology and internal medicine) and a few on small animal (dermatology and anaesthesia) at the University of Liverpool. After a general CertAVP (2015) I gained the designated Certificate in Veterinary Dermatology (2017) after taking the synoptic examination and then applied for the RCVS ADvanced Practitioner status. After that, I completed the Postgraduate Diploma in Veterinary Professional Studies at the University of Liverpool (2018). My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". PhD\\\'s degree in Science (Cell and Tissue Biology Area) \n at University of Sao Paulo with scholarship granted by FAPESP; Project \\"Development of morphofunctional changes in ovary of Astyanax altiparanae Garutti & Britski, 2000 (Teleostei, Characidae)\\". She has experience in Reproduction of vertebrates and Morphology, with emphasis in Cellular Biology and Histology. She is currently a teacher in the medium / technical level courses at IFMT-Alta Floresta, as well as in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Animal Science and in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Business.',institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442807",title:"Dr.",name:"Busani",middleName:null,surname:"Moyo",slug:"busani-moyo",fullName:"Busani Moyo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gwanda State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"439435",title:"Dr.",name:"Feda S.",middleName:null,surname:"Aljaser",slug:"feda-s.-aljaser",fullName:"Feda S. Aljaser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"423023",title:"Dr.",name:"Yosra",middleName:null,surname:"Soltan",slug:"yosra-soltan",fullName:"Yosra Soltan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"349788",title:"Dr.",name:"Florencia Nery",middleName:null,surname:"Sompie",slug:"florencia-nery-sompie",fullName:"Florencia Nery Sompie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sam Ratulangi University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"428600",title:"MSc.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"García-Alarcón",slug:"adriana-garcia-alarcon",fullName:"Adriana García-Alarcón",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428599",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabino",middleName:null,surname:"De La Rosa-Cruz",slug:"gabino-de-la-rosa-cruz",fullName:"Gabino De La Rosa-Cruz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428601",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Campuzano-Caballero",slug:"juan-carlos-campuzano-caballero",fullName:"Juan Carlos Campuzano-Caballero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"10",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Physiology",keywords:"Physiology, Comparative, Evolution, Biomolecules, Organ, Homeostasis, Anatomy, Pathology, Medical, Cell Division, Cell Signaling, Cell Growth, Cell Metabolism, Endocrine, Neuroscience, Cardiovascular, Development, Aging, Development",scope:"Physiology, the scientific study of functions and mechanisms of living systems, is an essential area of research in its own right, but also in relation to medicine and health sciences. The scope of this topic will range from molecular, biochemical, cellular, and physiological processes in all animal species. Work pertaining to the whole organism, organ systems, individual organs and tissues, cells, and biomolecules will be included. Medical, animal, cell, and comparative physiology and allied fields such as anatomy, histology, and pathology with physiology links will be covered in this topic. Physiology research may be linked to development, aging, environment, regular and pathological processes, adaptation and evolution, exercise, or several other factors affecting, or involved with, animal physiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/10.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11406,editor:{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. 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Poggi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Valencia Catholic University Saint Vincent Martyr",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria 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