\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5097",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Advances in Functionally Graded Materials and Structures",title:"Advances in Functionally Graded Materials and Structures",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Functionally graded materials (FGMs) were initially designed as thermal barrier materials for aerospace structures and fusion reactors and now they are also considered as potential structural materials for future high-speed spacecraft and recently are being increasingly considered in various applications to maximize strengths and integrities of many engineering structures. This book is a result of contributions of experts from international scientific community working in different aspects of FGMs and structures and reports on the state of the art research and development findings on this topic through original and innovative research studies. Through its six chapters the reader will have access to works related to processing, sintering properties and applications of functionally graded ceramics and new processing routes for FGMs while it introduces some specific applications, such as functionally graded annular fins and the high-performance self-lubricating ceramic composites with laminated graded structure. Besides, it presents an experimental crack propagation analysis of aluminum matrix FGMs and a unified accurate solution for three-dimensional vibration analysis of functionally graded plates and cylindrical shells with general boundary conditions.",isbn:"978-953-51-2274-6",printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4204-1",doi:"10.5772/60744",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"advances-in-functionally-graded-materials-and-structures",numberOfPages:130,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"3132c367d705b55e9a912527efef76ab",bookSignature:"Farzad Ebrahimi",publishedDate:"March 31st 2016",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5097.jpg",numberOfDownloads:12957,numberOfWosCitations:27,numberOfCrossrefCitations:14,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:10,numberOfDimensionsCitations:31,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:11,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:72,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 6th 2015",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 27th 2015",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 31st 2015",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 29th 2015",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 2nd 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"20062",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzad",middleName:null,surname:"Ebrahimi",slug:"farzad-ebrahimi",fullName:"Farzad Ebrahimi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/20062/images/system/20062.jpg",biography:"Dr. Farzad Ebrahimi is an Associte Professor since 2010 in Mechanical Engineering at Imam Khomeini International University, Qazvin, Iran. He has several years of teaching and industrial experience. Since 2002, he has been working at the \\\\\\Smart Materials and Structures Lab\\\\\\ Research Center of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Tehran, where he is a researcher of smart functionally graded materials and structures. He is involved in several international journals as editor and reviewer. He serves on the editorial board for \\\\\\Advances in mechanical engineering\\\\\\. He is the author of the books “Smart functionally graded plates” and “Progress in analysis of functionally graded structures”, Nova Science Publishers, NY. He has authored several referred international journals and conferences. His research interests focus on areas of smart materials and structures, Mechanics of Nanostructures; functionally graded materials and structures, finite element analysis; Mechanics of composite materials and structures and modeling and mechanical analysis of smart and multifunctional nanostructures and he has published several researches in these fields. His research in these areas has been presented at international conferences and has appeared in academic journals such as Composite structures; Applied physics A; Journal of Intelligent materials and Structures; Smart Materials and Structures; European Journal of Mechanics; Archive of Applied Mechanics and journal of vibration and control.",institutionString:"Imam Khomeini International University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"7",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"932",title:"Nanotechnology",slug:"materials-science-composite-materials-nanotechnology"}],chapters:[{id:"50055",title:"Advances in Functionally Graded Ceramics – Processing, Sintering Properties and Applications",doi:"10.5772/62612",slug:"advances-in-functionally-graded-ceramics-processing-sintering-properties-and-applications",totalDownloads:3e3,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:17,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In multilayered structures, sharp interface is formed between the layers of dissimilar materials. At this interface, the large difference in thermal expansion coefficients of the two dissimilar materials generates residual thermal stresses during subsequent cooling. These stresses lead to cracking at the interface, and these cracks lead to the deterioration of mechanical properties, and finally crack propagation leads to the delamination of the multilayered structure. Scientific progress in the field of material technology, and the continuing developments of modern industries have given rise to the continual demand for ever more advanced materials with the necessary properties and qualities. The need for advanced materials with specific properties has brought about the gradual transformation of materials from their basic states (monolithic) to composites. Recent advances in engineering and the processing of materials have led to a new class of graded multilayered materials called Functionally Graded Materials (FGMs). These materials represent a second generation of composites and have been designed to achieve superior levels of performance. This chapter looks at the best processing technologies and the uses and applications of the advanced, high quality products generated, and also presents an extensive review of the recent novel advances in Functionally Graded Ceramics (FGCs), their processing, properties and applications. The manufacturing techniques involved in this work have involved many concepts from the gradation, consolidation and different sintering processes. Each technique, however, has its own characteristics and disadvantages. In addition, the FGC concept can be applied to almost all material fields. This chapter covers all the existing and potential application fields of FGCs, such as engineering applications in cutting tools, machine parts, and engine components, and discusses properties of FGCs such as heat, wear, and corrosion resistance plus toughness, and their machinability into aerospace and energy applications.",signatures:"Dina H.A. Besisa and Emad M.M. Ewais",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50055",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50055",authors:[{id:"176807",title:"Prof.",name:"Emad",surname:"Ewais",slug:"emad-ewais",fullName:"Emad Ewais"},{id:"177837",title:"Dr.",name:"Dina",surname:"Besisa",slug:"dina-besisa",fullName:"Dina Besisa"}],corrections:null},{id:"50078",title:"New Processing Routes for Functionally Graded Materials and Structures through Combinations of Powder Metallurgy and Casting",doi:"10.5772/62393",slug:"new-processing-routes-for-functionally-graded-materials-and-structures-through-combinations-of-powde",totalDownloads:2235,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"New processing routes for metal-matrix functionally graded materials (FGMs) and structures through combinations of powder metallurgy and casting are described in this chapter. Centrifugal mixed-powder method is introduced as a processing method for metal-matrix FGMs at first. The centrifugal mixed-powder method is a developed technique of centrifugal casting by setting predesigned mixed powder in a spinning mold in advance. As an example of processed FGMs by this method in our previous studies, Cu-based FGMs with dispersed diamond particles are shown. Graded structures in the Cu-based FGMs are investigated through scanning electron microscope (SEM) observations of microstructures. As the latest processing method for metal-matrix FGMs developed by our research group, centrifugal sintered-casting method is shown. The centrifugal sintered-casting method is a modified processing technique of the centrifugal mixed-powder method. In the centrifugal sintered-casting method, FGMs are processed by the combination of centrifugal sintering and centrifugal casting. Al–Si alloy and Cu-based FGMs with dispersed diamond particles are introduced as examples. Applications of metal-matrix FGMs processed by the centrifugal sintered-casting method are also described. Fabricated metal-matrix FGMs can be used as grinding wheel and applied to carbon fiber-reinforced plastic (CFRP) machining.",signatures:"Takahiro Kunimine, Hisashi Sato, Eri Miura-Fujiwara and Yoshimi\nWatanabe",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50078",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50078",authors:[{id:"41301",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoshimi",surname:"Watanabe",slug:"yoshimi-watanabe",fullName:"Yoshimi Watanabe"},{id:"88513",title:"Prof.",name:"Hisashi",surname:"Sato",slug:"hisashi-sato",fullName:"Hisashi Sato"},{id:"176971",title:"Dr.",name:"Takahiro",surname:"Kunimine",slug:"takahiro-kunimine",fullName:"Takahiro Kunimine"},{id:"178446",title:"Prof.",name:"Eri",surname:"Miura-Fujiwara",slug:"eri-miura-fujiwara",fullName:"Eri Miura-Fujiwara"}],corrections:null},{id:"50187",title:"Performance of Functionally Graded Exponential Annular Fins of Constant Weight",doi:"10.5772/63100",slug:"performance-of-functionally-graded-exponential-annular-fins-of-constant-weight",totalDownloads:2068,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The present work aims at investigating the performance of exponential annular fins of constant weight made of functionally graded materials (FGM). The work involves computation of efficiency and effectiveness of such fins and compares the fin performances for different exponential profiles and grading parameters, keeping the weight of the fin constant. The functional grading of thermal conductivity is assumed to be a power function of radial co-ordinate which consists of parameters, namely grading parameters, varying which different grading combinations can be investigated. Fin material density is assumed to be constant and temperature gradient exists only along the radial direction. The convective coefficient between the fin surface and the environment is also assumed to be constant. A general second-order governing differential equation has been derived for all the profiles and material grading. The efficiency and effectiveness of the annular fin of different geometry and grading combinations have been calculated and plotted and the results reveal the dependence of thermal behavior on geometry and grading parameter. The effect of variation of grading parameters on fin efficiency and effectiveness is reported. The results are provided in the form of 2-D graphs, which can be used as design monograms for further use.",signatures:"Vivek Kumar Gaba, Anil Kumar Tiwari and Shubhankar Bhowmick",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50187",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50187",authors:[{id:"176810",title:"Dr.",name:"Shubhankar",surname:"Bhowmick",slug:"shubhankar-bhowmick",fullName:"Shubhankar Bhowmick"},{id:"177019",title:"Mr.",name:"Vivek",surname:"Gaba",slug:"vivek-gaba",fullName:"Vivek Gaba"},{id:"177020",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil Kumar",surname:"Tiwari",slug:"anil-kumar-tiwari",fullName:"Anil Kumar Tiwari"}],corrections:null},{id:"49949",title:"High-performance Self-lubricating Ceramic Composites with Laminated-graded Structure",doi:"10.5772/62538",slug:"high-performance-self-lubricating-ceramic-composites-with-laminated-graded-structure",totalDownloads:1885,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"High-performance ceramic composites are potential candidates for the application of wear-resistance components because of their excellent properties. Nevertheless, many problems, such as high friction coefficient of ceramic material and poor mechanical properties of ceramic-matrix self-lubricating composites, limit a wider range of applications of these composites in tribological areas. Therefore, improving high-toughness ceramic-matrix self-lubricating materials for practical applications is significant. This study proposes a new design for ceramic self-lubricating composites to overcome the conflict between their mechanical and tribological properties. Complying with the design principle of bionic and graded composites, two kinds of self-lubricating ceramic composites with laminated-graded structure were prepared, and their mechanical and tribological properties were studied. The results show that this newly developed ceramic composite has achieved satisfactory strength and tribological properties compared with the traditional ceramic self-lubricating composites. The bending strength reached the same level as the properties of general monolithic ceramics. In the temperature range of 25-800 °C, the friction coefficient of composites was less than 0.55, which was about half of that of monolithic ceramics.",signatures:"Yongsheng Zhang, Yunfeng Su, Yuan Fang, Yae Qi and Litian Hu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49949",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49949",authors:[{id:"176965",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongsheng",surname:"Zhang",slug:"yongsheng-zhang",fullName:"Yongsheng Zhang"}],corrections:null},{id:"49989",title:"An Experimental Crack Propagation Analysis of Aluminum Matrix Functionally Graded Material",doi:"10.5772/62428",slug:"an-experimental-crack-propagation-analysis-of-aluminum-matrix-functionally-graded-material",totalDownloads:2081,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this study, a functionally graded cylindrical specimen was obtained via centrifugal casting and its fatigue crack behavior was investigated. Aluminum 2014 alloy and SiC were used as matrix material and ceramic particle, respectively. The distribution of SiC and the mechanical properties of material through cylinder wall thickness were varied because of the centrifugal force during centrifugal casting. Variations in microstructure and hardness were examined. A cylindrical specimen was cut through its thickness in four sections through vertical slicing. Tensile strength was tested on each section to determine the mechanical properties that can be varied such as Young’s modulus, tensile strength, and yielding stress. To investigate the effect of variation in the mechanical properties and distribution of SiC particles on fatigue crack behavior, fatigue crack growth tests were applied under tensile cyclic load with stress ratio R = 0.1. The samples were prepared in three separate groups: central notched, single-edge notched on SiC-rich side, and single-edge notched on aluminum-rich side. It was found that SiC distribution affected fatigue crack initiation and propagation. The fatigue life increased up to 350% because of increasing SiC ratio for central notched specimens. Cracks were started out later on the single-edge notched SiC-rich side compared to aluminum-rich side whose fatigue life increased up to 500%. In addition, it was found that unreinforced aluminum material’s fatigue life was lower than that of reinforced material.",signatures:"Arzum Ulukoy, Muzaffer Topcu and Suleyman Tasgetiren",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49989",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49989",authors:[{id:"152402",title:"Dr.",name:"Muzaffer",surname:"Topcu",slug:"muzaffer-topcu",fullName:"Muzaffer Topcu"},{id:"176689",title:"Dr.",name:"Arzum",surname:"Uluköy",slug:"arzum-ulukoy",fullName:"Arzum Uluköy"},{id:"177004",title:"Prof.",name:"Suleyman",surname:"Tasgetiren",slug:"suleyman-tasgetiren",fullName:"Suleyman Tasgetiren"}],corrections:null},{id:"49925",title:"A Unified Accurate Solution for Three-dimensional Vibration Analysis of Functionally Graded Plates and Cylindrical Shells with General Boundary Conditions",doi:"10.5772/62335",slug:"a-unified-accurate-solution-for-three-dimensional-vibration-analysis-of-functionally-graded-plates-a",totalDownloads:1689,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Three-dimensional (3-D) vibration analysis of thick functionally graded plates and cylindrical shells with arbitrary boundary conditions is presented in this chapter. The effective material properties of functionally graded structures vary continuously in the thickness direction according to the simple power-law distributions in terms of volume fraction of constituents and are estimated by Voigt’s rule of mixture. By using the artificial spring boundary technique, the general boundary conditions can be obtained by setting proper spring stiffness. All displacements of the functionally graded plates and shells are expanded in the form of the linear superposition of standard 3-D cosine series and several supplementary functions, which are introduced to remove potential discontinuity problems with the original displacements along the edge. The Rayleigh-Ritz procedure is used to yield the accurate solutions. The convergence, accuracy and reliability of the current formulation are verified by numerical examples and by comparing the current results with those in published literature. Furthermore, the influence of the geometrical parameters and elastic foundation on the frequencies of rectangular plates and cylindrical shells is investigated.",signatures:"Guoyong Jin, Zhu Su and Tiangui Ye",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49925",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49925",authors:[{id:"176368",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhu",surname:"Su",slug:"zhu-su",fullName:"Zhu Su"},{id:"176369",title:"Dr.",name:"Tiangui",surname:"Ye",slug:"tiangui-ye",fullName:"Tiangui Ye"},{id:"177018",title:"Prof.",name:"Guoyong",surname:"Jin",slug:"guoyong-jin",fullName:"Guoyong Jin"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"111",title:"Advances in Vibration Analysis Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"37f0b30e647599448abb4a02ca595dde",slug:"advances-in-vibration-analysis-research",bookSignature:"Farzad Ebrahimi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/111.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"20062",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzad",surname:"Ebrahimi",slug:"farzad-ebrahimi",fullName:"Farzad Ebrahimi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6244",title:"Surface Waves",subtitle:"New Trends and Developments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"48a2c4d0d993b62e4fe46a77a7a6cc4c",slug:"surface-waves-new-trends-and-developments",bookSignature:"Farzad Ebrahimi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6244.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"20062",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzad",surname:"Ebrahimi",slug:"farzad-ebrahimi",fullName:"Farzad Ebrahimi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4753",title:"Graphene",subtitle:"New Trends and 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Alginic acid (Alg) is a polysaccharide derived from algae. Sodium alginate (Na-Alg) is commonly used in foodstuffs as a thickening agent and stabilizer, and is also used as a health food to suppress weight gain and lower blood cholesterol (Cho) [1, 2, 3, 4]. In addition, Na-Alg has a protective action on the gastric mucosa [5, 6]. Moreover, when Na-Alg is ingested prior to exposure to strontium (Sr), Sr accumulation in the human body is decreased [7]. However, the sodium salt of Alg can potentially cause hypertension, a major risk factor for dyslipidemia and arteriosclerosis [8]. Therefore, if the calcium salt (Ca-Alg) is as effective as, or superior to, Na-Alg, it might prove to be of greater benefit.
In this chapter, focusing on our own work on Ca-Alg, we will firstly describe how Alg enhances excretion and reduces absorption of Sr and cesium (Cs) in rats. Secondly, we discuss the relationship between the physical parameters of various metal ions and their binding affinity to Alg. Thirdly, we describe the Cho-lowering effect of Ca-Alg, as well as the reducing effect of Ca-Alg on blood triglyceride (TG) levels, which leads to reduced accumulation of fat in the liver and whole body in rats. Finally, we describe how Ca-Alg in food (noodles) moderates the postprandial blood glucose level in rats and humans and we discuss the mechanism of this effect.
Although several years have passed since the nuclear power plant accident following a severe earthquake in Japan in March 2011, public unease over the possible presence of radioactive materials in foods remains. As we anticipated that foods or medicines containing Alg would help to reduce potential harmful effects, we investigated the effect of Alg on the absorption and excretion of Sr and Cs, whose radioactive isotopes have long half-lives (90Sr 28.8 years, 137Cs 30.17 years). Specifically, we examined and compared the effects of Na-Alg and Ca-Alg on the absorption and excretion of Sr and Cs in rats, as well as investigating their safety [9].
Initially, we examined the adsorption of Sr and Cs by water-soluble Na-Alg. We found that Sr alone was adsorbed by Na-Alg in a concentration-dependent manner, as was Cs alone. On the other hand, when a mixture of Sr and Cs was used, adsorption of Cs by Na-Alg was lower than in the case of Cs alone, whereas adsorption of Sr by Na-Alg was the same as with Sr alone. Thus, both Sr and Cs were concentration-dependently adsorbed by Na-Alg, but adsorption of Cs by Na-Alg was partly blocked in the presence of Sr.
Next, rats were randomized into control (normal diet), Na-Alg, and Ca-Alg groups, and the changes of native Sr and Cs concentrations in plasma were measured after 2 weeks. In the groups fed Na-Alg and Ca-Alg, the Sr concentrations were significantly decreased to 65 and 63% at 1 week, and 77 and 66% at 2 weeks, respectively, compared with the control group. On the other hand, Cs concentration was significantly reduced (to 60% of the control) only at 2 weeks in the Ca-Alg group. Histopathological observation revealed mineral deposition, due to excessive ingestion of sodium, in the pelvic epithelium of the kidney in the Na-Alg group, and epithelial hyperplasia was observed around the deposits. In contrast, no abnormality at all was detected in the Ca-Alg group. These results indicate that Ca-Alg would be safer than Na-Alg if taken daily for protection against radiation damage.
We also randomized rats into control, Na-Alg, and Ca-Alg groups, and administered SrCl2 or CsCl solution. The maximum plasma concentration (Cmax), time to Cmax (Tmax), and area under the concentration curve for 3 hours after administration (AUC0-3 hours) were calculated from the observed data by subtracting the values before administration. When SrCl2 solution was orally administered in the Na-Alg and Ca-Alg groups, absorption of Sr was significantly decreased in comparison with the control group. In the Ca-Alg group, Cmax and AUC0–3 hours were significantly lower than in the control group after oral administration of CsCl solution. No significant difference of Cs plasma concentration profile between the control and Na-Alg groups was observed. Overall, the data suggest that absorption of both Sr and Cs was reduced in the Ca-Alg group, whereas absorption of Cs was not reduced in the Na-Alg group (Figure 1).
Plasma concentration of Sr (a) or Cs (b) after oral administration of SrCl2 to rats [
It should be noted that in these studies we used 10% Na-Alg or Ca-Alg in the diet, whereas 3–4 g/body/day of Alg is typically ingested by humans as a health food [1, 10]. Clinical studies will be required to identify an appropriate level of Ca-Alg for use as a protective agent.
In the case of acute oral exposure to toxic metals, health damage can be reduced by immediate treatments such as induction of vomiting and/or the use of a laxative to promote excretion of the metal. However, in the case of chronic exposure, it is essential to use intrinsically safe absorption inhibitors and/or excretion accelerators that are suitable for long-term administration.
Although the effect of Alg on Sr or Cs absorption and excretion has already been reported, there is little information about its effect on other metals. Therefore, we investigated the relationship between the physical parameters of various metal ions, including toxic metal ions, and the binding affinity of these metal ions for Alg [11]. For this purpose, the binding constants (K, mM−1) and the binding amount with Alg were evaluated for Sr, Pb, Tb, Dy, Ca, Cd, Mg, Fe(II), Fe(III), Co, Al, Ni, Cs, Cu, Ag, Li, and K. Aqueous solutions of each metal salt and an equivalent amount of Na-Alg were mixed, and the amount of unbound metal remaining in the filtrate was determined using an atomic absorption photometer. The amount of bound metal was calculated from the amount of remaining unbound metal ion, and K values and the number of binding sites per 1 mg of Alg (n) were analyzed using double-reciprocal plots. The affinity of each metal ion for Alg was calculated by multiplying the n and
The order of K values was as follows: Sr2+ > Pb2+ > Tb3+ > Dy3+ > Ca2+ > Cd2+ > Mg2+ > Fe2+ > Fe3+ > Co2+ > Al3+ > Ni2+ > Cs+ > Cu2+ > Ag+ > Li+ >K+. Moreover, metal ions with high K values tended to have ionic radii within the range of about 90–120 pm. On the other hand, the order of affinity for Alg was Pb2+ > Dy3+ > Tb3+ > Sr2+ > Ca2+ > Mg2+ > Cd2+ >Fe2+,Fe3+ >Cs+ >Al3+ >Co2+ >Ni2+ >Cu2+ >Ag+ >K+ >Li+.
The
Relationships between
Overall, these results indicate that Alg would be effective as an excretion accelerator and/or absorption inhibitor for various toxic metal ions, especially divalent metals such as Pb and Cd.
It is noteworthy that the affinity between Alg and Cs is relatively small, even though we had previously shown that Ca-Alg is effective in promoting excretion and decreasing absorption of Cs in rats [9]. Therefore, not only the affinity between Alg and metals, but also other factors arising from the specific combination of Alg and metal ion, may influence excretion and/or absorption of individual metal ions in the presence of Alg.
Heart disease and cerebrovascular disease are major causes of death in developed countries, accounting for about a quarter of all deaths in Japan [12]. A major factor in their pathogenesis is believed to be dyslipidemia [13, 14, 15], which is predominantly a modern lifestyle-related disease [16, 17]. Therefore, there is considerable interest in food additives or health foods that can decrease Cho absorption or promote Cho excretion.
Since Na-Alg reduces the Cho concentration in blood [9], we focused on the Cho-lowering effect of Ca-Alg in rats fed a high-Cho diet [18]. We first examined absorption of the Cho precursor taurocholate by various types of Alg in vitro, using Na-Alg instead of Ca-Alg, since Na-Alg is water-soluble. We found that high-molecular-weight, guluronic acid-rich (HMW-G) Na-Alg showed the greatest adsorption of taurocholate, and so we selected Ca-Alg HMW-G for the following in vivo study.
Rats were fed a high-Cho diet with or without 0.5–2% Ca-Alg for 2 weeks. After 14 days, the plasma concentration of Cho, the portal plasma concentration of bile acid, and the bile acid content in feces were measured. Moreover, in order to monitor safety, blood samples withdrawn after 14 days were used for the measurement of biochemical parameters. In the groups fed the high-Cho diet containing 2% Ca-Alg diet, the plasma concentration of Cho at 2 weeks was significantly lower than that of the group fed high-Cho diet alone. This result was similar to that in the group fed colestimide-containing diet as a positive control. Bile acid excretion in feces tended to increase depending on the concentration of Ca-Alg in the diet. In the group fed the 2% Ca-Alg diet, the portal plasma concentration of bile acid was significantly decreased, compared to that in the high-Cho diet group. Furthermore, the portal concentration of bile acid was significantly lowered in the 2% Ca-Alg group. There was no significant difference in weight gain or diet intake among the groups during the 2-week experimental period. Microvesicular steatosis was increased in the high-Cho diet and Ca-Alg groups, but remained within the physiological range. While several changes in biochemical parameters and histopathological findings were observed, all values remained within the physiological range (Figure 3).
Cho concentration in plasma at the end of the 2-week period with normal diet, high-Cho diet, or high-Cho diet containing Ca-Alg or colestimide to rats [
Overall, these results indicate that Ca-Alg is effective for reducing plasma Cho. A possible mechanism would be enhanced fecal excretion of bile acid due to reduced intestinal reabsorption, which might subsequently stimulate bile acid synthesis from Cho in the liver, leading to a decrease of Cho in plasma (Figure 4).
A possible mechanism of Cho-lowering effect of Ca-Alg [
Excess lipid is stored in the form of TG in subcutaneous and internal organs in the body, and is broken down into fatty acids as required [19]. Dyslipidemia, with increased TG and Cho levels in the blood, leads to atherosclerosis, which in turn can lead to cardiovascular disease and stroke. Accumulation of TG can also result in fatty liver disease, leading to decreased hepatic function, liver cirrhosis and potential morbidity, including myocardial infarction, cerebral infarction and angina pectoris, and eventually cancer [20, 21, 22, 23].
Since we previously observed that the TG level in blood was decreased by Ca-Alg in rats [18], we next set out to examine the effect of Ca-Alg on elevated TG levels in the blood, hepatic and total body accumulation of fat, and body weight in rats fed a TG-loaded diet for 5 weeks. We also investigated the mechanism of the TG-reducing effect of Alg in vitro [24].
Rats were randomized into five groups: a high-fat diet group (14% w/w lard, HF); 3 Ca-Alg-containing diet groups (2.5, 5 or 10% w/w Ca-Alg) and a resistant maltodextrin (RMD) diet group as a positive control (with 5% w/w RMD). The 10% Ca-Alg group showed a significant reduction of body weight increase from the 7th day. The increase of TG in blood was also significantly suppressed, and the amount of TG excreted in feces was increased. Increase of body fat mass was in the order HF > RMD > Ca-Alg 2.5% > Ca-Alg 5% > Ca-Alg 10%, while the total weight of the extracted fat tissues was significantly reduced in the RMD, 5 and 10% Ca-Alg groups. Hepatic pathology showed clear circular vacuoles apparently representing TG accumulation in the HF group, while fewer vacuoles were seen in the Ca-Alg groups.
These results suggest that Ca-Alg lowers blood TG through direct suppression of TG absorption, independently of its effect on Cho. As regards the mechanism of Ca-Alg action, hepatic pathology showed that clear circular fatty droplets presumed to represent TG accumulation were present in the HF group, but were reduced in the 10% Ca-Alg group. Interestingly, the concentrations of uric acid, allantoin and BUN in plasma were also decreased in all the Ca-Alg groups, though the mechanism involved is unclear (Figure 5).
Area under the blood concentration-time curve of TG in rats after the 5-week feeding period with high-fat diet or high-fat diet containing Ca-Alg or high-fat diet containing RMD [
We then investigated whether Alg affects lipase activity. Na-Alg was suspended in water, and diluted as required. When this solution was added to an emulsion composed of bile acid and lecithin in the presence of lipase, no decrease of lipase activity was observed, ruling out a direct effect on lipase. On the other hand, when Na-Alg was added to an emulsion composed of TG, bile acid and lecithin, the emulsion was well maintained, and a creaming phenomenon was confirmed after 5 days. When water was added to the emulsion, it disintegrated, precipitating lecithin and releasing TG on the liquid surface. These results suggest that Alg stabilizes bile acid micelles containing TG, possibly by absorbing them and forming large micelles that cannot be absorbed, or that are less vulnerable to lipases [24].
These results suggest that Ca-Alg suppresses absorption of TG, leading to reduced blood TG levels, and decreases hepatic and total body accumulation of TG, in addition to promoting excretion. These findings should help to provide a rational basis for designing future clinical trials (Figure 6).
A possible mechanism of TG-lowering effect of Ca-Alg [
Diabetics may develop serious complications such as retinopathy, nephropathy and neuropathy, in addition to myocardial infarction, cerebral infarction and so on [27, 30], even though the initial subjective symptoms may be minor. Ca-Alg is known to suppress the postprandial increase of blood glucose, and therefore may be helpful in preventing lifestyle-related diseases such as diabetes. Starch is initially decomposed to maltose in the gastrointestinal tract, mainly by α-amylase, before decomposition by α-glucosidase (maltase) to glucose. Transporters located on the cell membrane surface absorb glucose. Ca-Alg should inhibit at least one of these processes to suppress blood glucose levels since it is not absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract. We therefore chose to investigate which of these processes is inhibited by Ca-Alg, and the optimal amount and particle size of Ca-Alg in the diet required to suppress the postprandial increase of blood glucose in rats [25].
We first examined the effect of Ca-Alg concentration on α-glucosidase activity, and observed no significant change compared to the control. On the other hand, the amount of glucose adsorbed on Ca-Alg increased with increasing initial glucose concentration until it reached saturation. The direct binding affinity of glucose for Ca-Alg was low, and the values of the permeation coefficient of glucose showed no significant change. Moreover, it has been reported that the addition of Alg (polysaccharides) increases the viscosity of starch suspension, and there is a positive correlation between apparent viscosity and the decrease of starch digestion [26]. We speculate that Ca-Alg interferes physically with contact between α-glucosidase and maltose by increasing the viscosity of the intestinal contents. It was our assumption that blood glucose suppression by Ca-Alg is the result of decreased efficiency in starch digestion due to the inhibition of α-glucosidase. This may be as a result of increased viscosity of the gastrointestinal contents. We next aimed to define the optimum amount and particle size of Ca-Alg in the diet for the suppression of postprandial blood glucose levels in rats [25]. A diet containing starch together with varying amounts and particle sizes of Ca-Alg was orally administered to rats randomized into five groups: starch with no Ca-Alg (control), or with Ca-Alg (3%; 270 mesh pass, 5%; 270 mesh pass, 5%; 150 mesh pass, or 5%; 80 mesh pass) (
Effect of starch diets containing Ca-Alg on blood glucose level in rats [
The in vivo study determined 5% of 270-mesh-pass Ca-Alg to be the most efficient combination of amount and particle size in the suppression of postprandial increases in blood glucose. Compared with 0% Ca-Alg, significant decreases were observed in both ΔCmax and ΔAUC, confirming a decrease in both postprandial peak glucose level and the full amount of glucose absorbed within 2 hours of ingestion. It seems likely that the magnitude of action would depend on the surface area of Alg.
Our results support the idea that Ca-Alg increases the viscosity of the gastrointestinal contents, depending upon the surface area of the administered gel. The gel is expected to interfere with the interaction between α-glucosidase and maltose, thereby suppressing the production of glucose, and preventing a sharp rise in blood glucose level. Various products have been reported to moderate glucose absorption; for example, indigestible dextrin has been confirmed to suppress the postprandial increase in blood glucose level by inhibiting α-glucosidase activity [28]. It seems reasonable to consider that Ca-Alg works similarly. Moreover, it was found that 5% of 270-mesh-pass Ca-Alg was the most effective combination of amount and particle size to suppress the postprandial increase of blood glucose (Figure 8).
A possible mechanism of blood glucose level-lowering effect of Ca-Alg [
To analyze the effect of Ca-Alg on the postprandial increase of blood glucose, a prospective, randomized, double-blind, 3-group, 3-phase crossover study was undertaken among healthy Japanese adult subjects [29]. Traditional Japanese udon noodles were selected, and blood glucose levels were measured after ingestion of Ca-Alg-free udon, and noodles containing 5 or 8% Ca-Alg. We also examined the effect of Ca-Alg on other chemical parameters in plasma or serum. Healthy male and female volunteers of 20 years of age or older were divided into three groups so that the average BMI values in the groups were similar. Each group ingested one of the three types of noodles containing 0 (control), 5 or 8% Ca-Alg (weight % to flour and modified starch). Blood was collected by fingertip puncture for blood glucose measurement prior to feeding and after ingestion. The blood glucose level was measured twice at each point using a simple blood glucose meter, and the average value was calculated. After eating the noodles, subjects were given a tasting questionnaire to evaluate “chewiness”, “thickness” and “favorability” of the noodles in a 5-point grading system (Figure 9).
Changes in blood glucose level (ΔC) after eating test noodles to volunteers [
Noodles containing 5 or 8% Ca-Alg caused a significant decrease in ΔCmax compared to control noodles. Moreover, ΔAUC also showed a significant decrease in both groups. No significant difference in the time of maximum blood glucose level (Tmax) was observed among the three groups. This is consistent with previous findings [31] and is similar to findings with α-glucosidase inhibitors, [32, 33] except miglitol [34]. These results indicate that Ca-Alg suppresses the postprandial increase in blood glucose and reduces the total absorption amount of glucose, but without delaying the absorption. Thus, our previous finding that 5% Ca-Alg had a blood glucose-suppressing effect in rats [25] was reproduced in humans.
As for blood biochemical parameters, no significant difference in the amount of Ca change at 30 min after noodle feeding (ΔCa30min) was found between the 5 and 8% Ca-Alg groups compared to the control, but ΔCa at 120 min (ΔCa120 min) showed a significant increase in both groups. In addition, ΔT-Cho30 min showed a slight tendency to decrease in both groups, and ΔT-Cho120 min was slightly decreased in the 8% Ca-Alg group. There was no significant change in other blood test values. We found that the blood Ca concentration at 120 min after eating 5 or 8% Ca-Alg-containing noodles remained within the normal range, 8.5–10.4 mg/dL, [35] but was significantly increased compared with the value in the control noodle group, suggesting that Ca derived from Ca-Alg was absorbed into the body.
The recommended amount of Ca intake in adults to help prevent diseases such as osteoporosis is 600–900 mg/day.[35] Since the amounts of Ca in noodles containing 8% Ca-Alg and 5% Ca-Alg would be 500 and 320 mg, respectively, about half of the recommended daily intake might be provided by these noodles. The upper limit of tolerable daily Ca intake for Japanese adults is 2500 mg, [35] so even if these noodles were eaten three times a day, the upper limit would not be reached. Thus, the likelihood of excessive Ca intake appears to be low.
Many substances are known to suppress glucose absorption; for example, indigestible dextrin has been shown to inhibit α-glucosidase. Our work showed that Ca-Alg also inhibits α-glucosidase activity [25], and its effect on blood glucose level was similar to or more potent than that of indigestible dextrin [36]. On the other hand, α-glucosidase inhibitors have side effects such as abdominal distention and flatus. Ingestion of noodles containing 8% Ca-Alg was expected to show an α-glucosidase-inhibitory effect equal to about 1/40th that of a single dose of acarbose [21]. Therefore, it is considered that the likelihood of side effects arising from α-glucosidase inhibition due to ingestion of noodles containing Ca-Alg is extremely low.
Our results raise the interesting possibility that the introduction of food ingredients containing Ca-Alg into the regular diet may be helpful in preventing lifestyle-related diseases, particularly diabetes and osteoporosis, without adversely affecting individual eating habits.
Alg, especially Ca-Alg, has a number of beneficial physiological effects. For example, we have shown that Ca-Alg increases excretion and reduces the absorption of toxic heavy metals such as Sr. and Cs in rats. Moreover, Ca-Alg decreases the blood Cho and TG levels, as well as reducing plasma levels of uric acid, allantoin and BUN levels in rats. Further, Ca-Alg moderated the postprandial increase of blood glucose level in rats and humans. Ca-Alg has been confirmed as safe for use as a food additive, and is superior to Na-Alg, because there is no risk of hypertension due to increased sodium intake. In addition, Ca-Alg may also have a preventive effect on osteoporosis. Ca-Alg is convenient to take, because it is effective in solid form, and it appears to be suitable for long-term use as an additive or functional food (Figure 10).
Revealed functions and future development of Ca-Alg.
Lifestyle-related diseases associated with high calorie intake and insufficient exercise have become a significant social problem [37, 38], and may lead to the development of cancer, heart disease and cerebrovascular disease, which are major causes of death [13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 23, 39, 40]. It will be interesting to examine further whether Ca-Alg may also offer potential benefits in relation to lifestyle-related diseases [36].
This work was supported by JSPS Grant-in-Aid for Challenging Exploratory Research (KAKENHI) Grant Number 25560062.
Fumiyoshi Kasahara is an employee of Kimica Corporation. The other authors have no potential conflicts of interest.
The Internet has irrevocably changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing. Consequently, we find it necessary to indicate, unambiguously, our definition of what we consider to be a published scientific work.
",metaTitle:"Prior Publication Policy",metaDescription:"Prior Publication Policy",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/prior-publication-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar work in progress are openly shared online between members of the scientific community. It has become common to announce one’s own research on a personal website or a blog to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are, indeed, published in the sense that they are made publicly available. However, this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\\n\\nThe significance of Peer Review cannot be overstated when it comes to defining, in our terms, what constitutes a published scientific work. Peer Review is widely considered to be the cornerstone of modern publishing processes and the key value-adding contribution to a scholarly manuscript that a publisher can make.
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\\n\\nIn order to facilitate the tracking of a manuscript’s publishing history and its development from its earliest draft to the manuscript submitted, we encourage Authors to disclose any instances of a manuscript’s prior publication, whether it be through a conference presentation, a newspaper article, a working paper publicly available in a repository or a blog post.
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\\n\\nSome basic information about the editorial treatment of different varieties of prior publication is laid out below:
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\\n\\nGiven that conference papers and presentations generally pass through some sort of peer or editorial review, we consider them to be published in the accepted scholarly sense, particularly if they are published as a part of conference proceedings.
\\n\\nAll submitted manuscripts originating from a previously published conference paper must contain at least 50% of new original content to be accepted for review and considered for publication.
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\\n\\nSubmitted manuscripts stemming from a previous newspaper or magazine article will be accepted for review and considered for publication. However, Authors are strongly advised to report any such publication in an accompanying note to the External Editor.
\\n\\nAs with the conference papers and presentations, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the newspaper or magazine that published the work, and indicate that they have done so in a note to the External Editor.
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\\n\\nAlthough such papers are regularly made publicly available via personal websites and institutional repositories, their general purpose is to gather comments and feedback from Authors’ colleagues in order to further improve a manuscript intended for future publication.
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\\n\\n4. SOCIAL MEDIA, BLOG & MESSAGE BOARD POSTINGS
\\n\\nWe feel that social media, blogs and message boards are generally used with the same intention as grey literature, to formulate ideas for a manuscript and gather early feedback from like-minded researchers in order to improve a particular piece of work before submitting it for publication. Therefore, we do not consider such internet postings to be publication in the scholarly sense.
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar work in progress are openly shared online between members of the scientific community. It has become common to announce one’s own research on a personal website or a blog to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are, indeed, published in the sense that they are made publicly available. However, this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\n\nThe significance of Peer Review cannot be overstated when it comes to defining, in our terms, what constitutes a published scientific work. Peer Review is widely considered to be the cornerstone of modern publishing processes and the key value-adding contribution to a scholarly manuscript that a publisher can make.
\n\nOther than the issue of originality, research misconduct is another major issue that all publishers have to address. IntechOpen’s Retraction & Correction Policy and various publication ethics guidelines identify both redundant publication and (self)plagiarism to fall within the definition of research misconduct, thus constituting grounds for rejection or the issue of a Retraction if the work has already been published.
\n\nIn order to facilitate the tracking of a manuscript’s publishing history and its development from its earliest draft to the manuscript submitted, we encourage Authors to disclose any instances of a manuscript’s prior publication, whether it be through a conference presentation, a newspaper article, a working paper publicly available in a repository or a blog post.
\n\nA note to the Academic Editor containing detailed information about a submitted manuscript’s previous public availability is the preferred means of reporting prior publication. This helps us determine if there are any earlier versions of a manuscript that should be disclosed to our readers or if any of those earlier versions should be cited and listed in a manuscript’s references.
\n\nSome basic information about the editorial treatment of different varieties of prior publication is laid out below:
\n\n1. CONFERENCE PAPERS & PRESENTATIONS
\n\nGiven that conference papers and presentations generally pass through some sort of peer or editorial review, we consider them to be published in the accepted scholarly sense, particularly if they are published as a part of conference proceedings.
\n\nAll submitted manuscripts originating from a previously published conference paper must contain at least 50% of new original content to be accepted for review and considered for publication.
\n\nAuthors are required to report any links their manuscript might have with their earlier conference papers and presentations in a note to the Academic Editor, as well as in the manuscript itself. Additionally, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the publisher of their conference paper if copyright transfer occurred during the publishing process. Failure to do so may prevent Us from publishing an otherwise worthy work.
\n\n2. NEWSPAPER & MAGAZINE ARTICLES
\n\nNewspaper and magazine articles usually do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense. Articles appearing in newspapers and magazines rarely possess the depth and structure characteristic of scholarly articles.
\n\nSubmitted manuscripts stemming from a previous newspaper or magazine article will be accepted for review and considered for publication. However, Authors are strongly advised to report any such publication in an accompanying note to the External Editor.
\n\nAs with the conference papers and presentations, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the newspaper or magazine that published the work, and indicate that they have done so in a note to the External Editor.
\n\n3. GREY LITERATURE
\n\nWhite papers, working papers, technical reports and all other forms of papers which fall within the scope of the ‘Luxembourg definition’ of grey literature do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense.
\n\nAlthough such papers are regularly made publicly available via personal websites and institutional repositories, their general purpose is to gather comments and feedback from Authors’ colleagues in order to further improve a manuscript intended for future publication.
\n\nWhen submitting their work, Authors are required to disclose the existence of any publicly available earlier drafts in a note to the Academic Editor. In cases where earlier drafts of the submitted version of the manuscript are publicly available, any overlap between the versions will generally not be considered an instance of self-plagiarism.
\n\n4. SOCIAL MEDIA, BLOG & MESSAGE BOARD POSTINGS
\n\nWe feel that social media, blogs and message boards are generally used with the same intention as grey literature, to formulate ideas for a manuscript and gather early feedback from like-minded researchers in order to improve a particular piece of work before submitting it for publication. Therefore, we do not consider such internet postings to be publication in the scholarly sense.
\n\nNevertheless, Authors are encouraged to disclose the existence of any internet postings in which they outline and describe their research or posted passages of their manuscripts in a note to the Academic Editor. Please note that we will not strictly enforce this request in the same way that we would instructions we consider to be part of our conditions of acceptance for publication. We understand that it may be difficult to keep track of all one’s internet postings in which the researcher´s current work might be mentioned.
\n\nIn cases where there is any overlap between the Author´s submitted manuscript and related internet postings, we will generally not consider it to be an instance of self-plagiarism. This also holds true for any co-Author as well.
\n\nFor more information on this policy please contact permissions@intechopen.com.
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Sarrico and Alberto Amaral",authors:[{id:"97785",title:"Prof.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Amaral",slug:"alberto-amaral",fullName:"Alberto Amaral"}]},{id:"33278",doi:"10.5772/33487",title:"Improving Quality Assurance in Automation Systems Development Projects",slug:"improving-quality-assurance-in-automation-systems-development-projects",totalDownloads:3254,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:null,book:{id:"1803",slug:"quality-assurance-and-management",title:"Quality Assurance and Management",fullTitle:"Quality Assurance and Management"},signatures:"Dietmar Winkler and Stefan Biffl",authors:[{id:"95798",title:"Dr.",name:"Dietmar",middleName:null,surname:"Winkler",slug:"dietmar-winkler",fullName:"Dietmar Winkler"},{id:"135962",title:"Prof.",name:"Stefan",middleName:null,surname:"Biffl",slug:"stefan-biffl",fullName:"Stefan Biffl"}]},{id:"37729",doi:"10.5772/51109",title:"QA: Fraud Control for Foods and Other Biomaterials by Product Fingerprinting",slug:"qa-fraud-control-for-foods-and-other-biomaterials-by-product-fingerprinting",totalDownloads:2738,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:null,book:{id:"3276",slug:"latest-research-into-quality-control",title:"Latest Research into Quality Control",fullTitle:"Latest Research into Quality Control"},signatures:"Edoardo Capuano and Saskia M. van Ruth",authors:[{id:"153179",title:"Dr.",name:"Saskia",middleName:null,surname:"Van Ruth",slug:"saskia-van-ruth",fullName:"Saskia Van Ruth"},{id:"153628",title:"Dr.",name:"Edoardo",middleName:null,surname:"Capuano",slug:"edoardo-capuano",fullName:"Edoardo Capuano"}]},{id:"38088",doi:"10.5772/46106",title:"Some Applicable Methods to Analyze and Optimize System Processes in Quality Management",slug:"some-applicable-methods-to-analyze-and-optimize-system-processes-in-quality-management",totalDownloads:3107,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:null,book:{id:"2164",slug:"total-quality-management-and-six-sigma",title:"Total Quality Management and Six Sigma",fullTitle:"Total Quality Management and Six Sigma"},signatures:"Andrey Kostogryzov, George Nistratov and Andrey Nistratov",authors:[{id:"148322",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrey",middleName:null,surname:"Kostogryzov",slug:"andrey-kostogryzov",fullName:"Andrey Kostogryzov"},{id:"156748",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrey",middleName:null,surname:"Nistratov",slug:"andrey-nistratov",fullName:"Andrey Nistratov"},{id:"156749",title:"Dr.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Nistratov",slug:"george-nistratov",fullName:"George Nistratov"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"37593",title:"Standard Operating Procedures (What Are They Good For ?)",slug:"standard-operating-procedures-what-are-they-good-for-",totalDownloads:26413,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:null,book:{id:"3276",slug:"latest-research-into-quality-control",title:"Latest Research into Quality Control",fullTitle:"Latest Research into Quality Control"},signatures:"Isin Akyar",authors:[{id:"36323",title:"Dr.",name:"Isin",middleName:null,surname:"Akyar",slug:"isin-akyar",fullName:"Isin Akyar"}]},{id:"65419",title:"Determination of Impurities in Pharmaceuticals: Why and How?",slug:"determination-of-impurities-in-pharmaceuticals-why-and-how-",totalDownloads:4279,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"The presence of impurities, particularly the API-related impurities, i.e., degradation-related impurities (DRIs) and interaction-related impurities (IRIs), may affect the quality, safety, and efficacy of drug products. Since the regulatory requirements and management strategies are required to be established and complied, sources of impurities shall be carefully classified prior to take subsequent steps such as development of analytical methods and acceptance criteria. Current international regulatory requirements for the management of impurities in pharmaceuticals were reviewed. Procedures for the identification of DPIs in pharmaceuticals, i.e., ethyl cysteinate dimer, (R)-N-methyl-3-(2-bromophenoxy)-3-phenylpropanamine, sestamibi, etc., using high-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) were studied. Scheme for the establishment of analytical methods and acceptance criteria of process-related impurities (PRIs) and DRIs in accordance with the requirements of International Council for Harmonization (ICH) and algorithm to perform the identification of DPIs by using LC-MS/MS has been proposed. Practice of kinetic study to distinguish PRIs and DRIs, determination of the potential core fragments coupled with a predicted list of relevant transformations for conducting MS/MS scans, applications of stable isotope distribution patterns or natural abundances, practice of mass balance, etc., have been well demonstrated to justify the reliabilities of identification results.",book:{id:"7710",slug:"quality-management-and-quality-control-new-trends-and-developments",title:"Quality Management and Quality Control",fullTitle:"Quality Management and Quality Control - New Trends and Developments"},signatures:"Kung-Tien Liu and Chien-Hsin Chen",authors:[{id:"36122",title:"PhD.",name:"Kung-Tien",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",slug:"kung-tien-liu",fullName:"Kung-Tien Liu"},{id:"153497",title:"Dr.",name:"Chien-Hsin",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"chien-hsin-chen",fullName:"Chien-Hsin Chen"}]},{id:"58966",title:"Quality Management Systems for Laboratories and External Quality Assurance Programs",slug:"quality-management-systems-for-laboratories-and-external-quality-assurance-programs",totalDownloads:4564,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"A quality management system (QMS) plans, controls, and improves the elements that impact on the achievement of the desired results by the laboratory and on the satisfaction of the users. There are different standards that establish requirements for the implementation of a quality management system for laboratories, and a cross comparison between them is shown. Additionally, external quality assurance or assessment (EQA) programs offer multiple benefits to laboratories: method validation, comparing of results with other laboratories, testing problem identification, accreditation requirement compliance, and credibility. In order to control the quality of the procedures, these programs are a tool to keep the laboratory procedures and every variable involved in (staff, equipment, and method) well controlled. In the frame of a quality management system, benefits from external quality assurance programs are discussed, and different available designs are reviewed. On the other hand, previous benefits will be real only if reported results for each program are analyzed in detail. Because additional advantages are achieved when the EQA results are integrated in the quality management system of the laboratory, a procedure is proposed. In addition, results from external quality assurance programs corroborate the usefulness of internal controls implemented by the laboratory as part of its quality management system.",book:{id:"6325",slug:"quality-control-in-laboratory",title:"Quality Control in Laboratory",fullTitle:"Quality Control in Laboratory"},signatures:"Verónica Valdivieso-Gómez and Rocío Aguilar-Quesada",authors:[{id:"217457",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Rocio",middleName:null,surname:"Aguilar-Quesada",slug:"rocio-aguilar-quesada",fullName:"Rocio Aguilar-Quesada"},{id:"217467",title:"Ms.",name:"Veronica",middleName:null,surname:"Valdivieso-Gomez",slug:"veronica-valdivieso-gomez",fullName:"Veronica Valdivieso-Gomez"}]},{id:"41063",title:"Cosmetics’ Quality Control",slug:"cosmetics-quality-control",totalDownloads:12615,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:null,book:{id:"3276",slug:"latest-research-into-quality-control",title:"Latest Research into Quality Control",fullTitle:"Latest Research into Quality Control"},signatures:"Bruna Galdorfini Chiari, Maria Gabriela José de Almeida, Marcos Antonio Corrêa and Vera Lucia Borges Isaac",authors:[{id:"35801",title:"Dr.",name:"Vera",middleName:null,surname:"Isaac",slug:"vera-isaac",fullName:"Vera Isaac"},{id:"56070",title:"MSc.",name:"Bruna",middleName:null,surname:"Chiari",slug:"bruna-chiari",fullName:"Bruna Chiari"},{id:"56072",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcos Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Corręa",slug:"marcos-antonio-correa",fullName:"Marcos Antonio Corręa"},{id:"154324",title:"BSc.",name:"Maria Gabriela José De",middleName:null,surname:"Almeida",slug:"maria-gabriela-jose-de-almeida",fullName:"Maria Gabriela José De Almeida"}]},{id:"58071",title:"Systematic Error Detection in Laboratory Medicine",slug:"systematic-error-detection-in-laboratory-medicine",totalDownloads:1723,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Measurements in laboratory medicine have a degree of uncertainty; this uncertainty is often called “error” and refers to imprecisions and inaccuracies in measurement. This measurement error refers to the difference between the true value of the measured sample and the measured value. One of the types of error is systematic error, also called bias, because these errors errors are reproducible and skew the results consistently in the same direction. A common approach to identify systematic error is to use control samples with a method comparison approach. An alternative is use of statistical methods that analyze actual patient values either as an “Average of Normals” or a “Moving Patient Averages.” Fundamental questions should be decided before a quality control method is used: how are weights assigned to the results? Is preference given to more recent samples or to the older samples? How sensitive should the model be? In this chapter, we will expand the fundamental notion of systematic error and explain why it is difficult to identify and measure and current statistical methods that are used to detect systematic error or bias.",book:{id:"6325",slug:"quality-control-in-laboratory",title:"Quality Control in Laboratory",fullTitle:"Quality Control in Laboratory"},signatures:"Amir Momeni-Boroujeni and Matthew R. 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At the Ministry of Justice of Slovenia, she is a member of examination boards for court expert candidates and judicial appraisers in the following areas: economy/finance, valuation of companies, banking, and forensic investigation of economic operations/accounting. 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