Transgenic properties introduced by molecular breeding in major legumes.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8264",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"New Frontiers on Life Cycle Assessment - Theory and Application",title:"New Frontiers on Life Cycle Assessment",subtitle:"Theory and Application",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The purpose of this book is to collect a high-quality selection of contemporary research articles on life cycle perspectives when we want to assess and predict the sustainability of solutions that lie in front of us.The book focuses on methodologies and tools used for life cycle sustainability management covering environmental, social, and economic aspects in business practices, including modeling and simulation-based approaches. In particular, the book aims to collect research, applications, and case studies in the field of environmental analysis and industrial ecology, with a focus on how to assess contributions to increase resource efficiency and reduce environmental impact on production and service systems in a life cycle perspective (raw material extraction, production, use, and end-of-life management).This book is intended to be a useful resource for anyone who deals with this issue.",isbn:"978-1-83880-694-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-693-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-695-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78248",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"new-frontiers-on-life-cycle-assessment-theory-and-application",numberOfPages:104,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"59f13958eb30b72de4f8d1bc63f6dd2d",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo and Fabio De Felice",publishedDate:"June 5th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8264.jpg",numberOfDownloads:7038,numberOfWosCitations:8,numberOfCrossrefCitations:9,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:21,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:38,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 4th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 6th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 5th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 24th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 25th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo is a Professor at the Department of Engineering of the University of Naples “Parthenope”, Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino. Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plant, logistics, manufacturing and safety. She serves as an Associate Editor for the International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process. She is a member of AHP Academy and a member of several editorial boards. She has over 160 Scientific Publications in International Journals and Conferences and she is the author of 5 books on Innovation and Decision Making in Industrial Applications and Engineering.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"Parthenope University of Naples",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"161682",title:"Prof.",name:"Fabio",middleName:null,surname:"De Felice",slug:"fabio-de-felice",fullName:"Fabio De Felice",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/161682/images/system/161682.png",biography:"Fabio De Felice, Ph.D., is a professor in the Department of Engineering, University of Naples “Parthenope,” Italy. He received his Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, Italy. His current research focuses on multi-criteria decision-making analysis (with emphasis on AHP and ANP) and industrial, project, and supply chain management. Currently, he serves as a member of the Scientific Advisory Committee of the International Symposium on the Analytic Hierarchy Process (ISAHP). He is the founder of AHP Academy, which promotes the diffusion of the culture and methodologies of decision making, with reference to those based on the analytic hierarchy process. He is a member of the editorial boards of several international organizations and journals and has authored/co-authored numerous articles in the areas of decision science and business management.",institutionString:"Parthenope University of Naples",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Cassino and Southern Lazio",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"136",title:"Environmental Sustainability",slug:"environmental-sciences-environmental-sustainability"}],chapters:[{id:"64370",title:"Design of a Sustainable Electric Pedal-Assisted Bike: A Life Cycle Assessment Application in Italy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81737",slug:"design-of-a-sustainable-electric-pedal-assisted-bike-a-life-cycle-assessment-application-in-italy",totalDownloads:1450,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Transport is one of the economic sectors within the European Union with the most detrimental effects on climate change. In this context, electric bicycles (e-bikes) are considered as a potentially effective technological innovation to reduce carbon impacts. The present research aims to propose a life cycle assessment study to quantify which components of a bicycle have the highest environmental impact. The use in Italy of two different bicycles, an electric pedal-assisted bike and a hydrogen-fuel cell-operated one, is analyzed. The final aim of the study is to quantify and to evaluate the bike’s energetic and environmental performances, focusing the analysis on the vehicle production and use phases. To achieve the abovementioned purpose, two approaches, the “from cradle to grave” approach and “well to wheel” approach, are considered.",signatures:"Antonella Petrillo, Salvatore Mellino, Fabio De Felice and Iolanda Scudo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64370",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64370",authors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"},{id:"161682",title:"Prof.",name:"Fabio",surname:"De Felice",slug:"fabio-de-felice",fullName:"Fabio De Felice"},{id:"272391",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",surname:"Mellino",slug:"salvatore-mellino",fullName:"Salvatore Mellino"},{id:"272392",title:"Dr.",name:"Iolanda",surname:"Scudo",slug:"iolanda-scudo",fullName:"Iolanda Scudo"}],corrections:null},{id:"64678",title:"Biogas Power Energy Production from a Life Cycle Thinking",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82250",slug:"biogas-power-energy-production-from-a-life-cycle-thinking",totalDownloads:1511,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The purpose of this chapter is to present a generalized model for the construction of inventories for the production of electricity through biogas. This general framework can be adjusted to any power plant that uses biogas, since it complies with the main material and energy balances. This chapter describes the main technologies used in biogas power energy production, separating them into five main subsystems that integrate the general life cycle inventory, as well as the inputs and outputs considered in the development of the inventories. The life cycle assessment (LCA) of two types of plants is presented as study cases: (i) the biogas power energy generation with organic waste in landfills as substrate and (ii) the biogas power energy generation using dairy cattle manure as substrate. Both systems, in addition to using different types of substrate, present differences in their substages. It is concluded that the generation of studies of life cycle analysis of technologies facilitates decision makers, producers, and government agencies to develop and identify areas of opportunity from life cycle thinking.",signatures:"Enrique Alberto Huerta-Reynoso, Hector Alfredo López-Aguilar, Jorge Alberto Gómez, María Guadalupe Gómez-Méndez and Antonino Pérez-Hernández",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64678",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64678",authors:[{id:"264812",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Enrique Alberto",surname:"Huerta-Reynoso",slug:"enrique-alberto-huerta-reynoso",fullName:"Enrique Alberto Huerta-Reynoso"},{id:"265566",title:"Dr.",name:"Hector Alfredo",surname:"López-Aguilar",slug:"hector-alfredo-lopez-aguilar",fullName:"Hector Alfredo López-Aguilar"},{id:"265567",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge Alberto",surname:"Gómez",slug:"jorge-alberto-gomez",fullName:"Jorge Alberto Gómez"},{id:"265569",title:"Dr.",name:"María Guadalupe",surname:"Gómez-Méndez",slug:"maria-guadalupe-gomez-mendez",fullName:"María Guadalupe Gómez-Méndez"},{id:"265571",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonino",surname:"Pérez-Hernández",slug:"antonino-perez-hernandez",fullName:"Antonino Pérez-Hernández"}],corrections:null},{id:"64522",title:"The Industrial Symbiosis of Wineries: An Analisys of the Wine Production Chain According to the Preliminary LCA Model",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82212",slug:"the-industrial-symbiosis-of-wineries-an-analisys-of-the-wine-production-chain-according-to-the-preli",totalDownloads:906,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The circular economy refers to a term that defines an economy designed to be able to regenerate itself. Agri-food is one of the areas where the tools and strategies of the circular economy are implemented. The wine sector involving numerous stages of production and processing causes many impacts on the environment. Starting from the transport, to the distribution of wine products, there are several impacting processes on the environment. For the assessment of negative results although not of every product production process, the circular economy provides a more than suitable tool: the LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) has been implemented on the whole production chain of the product “Lenza di Munti”, a bottle of wine by “Nicosia S.p.A.”. The grapes used in the production of red wine are Nerello Mascalese and Nerello Cappuccio; instead of Carricante and Catarratto grapes used for white wine. This chapter provides a complete picture of the interactions between the product and the environment, to understand the environmental consequences and to provide the necessary information to define the best solutions.",signatures:"Agata Matarazzo, Fabio Copani, Matteo Leanza, Aldo Carpitano, Alessandro Lo Genco and Graziano Nicosia",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64522",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64522",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"65302",title:"End-of-Life Tire Destination from a Life Cycle Assessment Perspective",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82702",slug:"end-of-life-tire-destination-from-a-life-cycle-assessment-perspective",totalDownloads:1152,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Tires are complex materials manufactured from vulcanized rubber and various other reinforcing materials. One billion end-of-life tires (ELTs) are discarded annually, drawing attention from society. Options for their disposal include reuse, retreading, regeneration, co-processing, pyrolysis, and recycling; however, the ideal alternative has yet to be established. Life cycle assessment (LCA) has been used to quantify their impact and support the decision-making process, in order to determine the most beneficial alternative from an environmental standpoint. Scientific studies on LCA have been carried out on different continents, mainly Europe, Asia, and America. The aim of this chapter was to review studies on the life cycle assessment of end-of-life tire disposal. The main treatment and final destination options were reviewed as well as the most important limitations and aspects of the technologies studied. The most common form of disposal is recycling, with mechanical recycling for use in synthetic grass exhibiting the best environmental performance according to scientific research. Energy recovery also shows good performance, largely due to the emissions prevented through energy conversion. Co-processed and retreaded tires are regularly used for comparison but typically display poor environmental performance in relation to the first two alternatives.",signatures:"Thiago Santiago Gomes, Genecy Rezende Neto, Ana Claudia Nioac de Salles, Leila Lea Yuan Visconte and Elen Beatriz Acordi Vasques Pacheco",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65302",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65302",authors:[{id:"253368",title:"D.Sc.",name:"Elen",surname:"Pacheco",slug:"elen-pacheco",fullName:"Elen Pacheco"},{id:"271698",title:"MSc.",name:"Thiago",surname:"Santiago Gomes",slug:"thiago-santiago-gomes",fullName:"Thiago Santiago Gomes"},{id:"271699",title:"MSc.",name:"Genecy",surname:"Rezende Neto",slug:"genecy-rezende-neto",fullName:"Genecy Rezende Neto"},{id:"271700",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",surname:"C. N. Salles",slug:"ana-c.-n.-salles",fullName:"Ana C. N. Salles"},{id:"271701",title:"Prof.",name:"Leila",surname:"L. Y. Visconte",slug:"leila-l.-y.-visconte",fullName:"Leila L. Y. Visconte"}],corrections:null},{id:"65441",title:"Perspectives on Subnational Carbon and Climate Footprints: A Case Study of Southampton, UK",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82794",slug:"perspectives-on-subnational-carbon-and-climate-footprints-a-case-study-of-southampton-uk",totalDownloads:823,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Sub-national governments are increasingly interested in local-level climate change management. Carbon- (CO2 and CH4) and climate-footprints—(Kyoto Basket GHGs) (effectively single impact category LCA metrics, for global warming potential) provide an opportunity to develop models to facilitate effective mitigation. Three approaches are available for the footprinting of sub-national communities. Territorial-based approaches, which focus on production emissions within the geo-political boundaries, are useful for highlighting local emission sources but do not reflect the transboundary nature of sub-national community infrastructures. Transboundary approaches, which extend territorial footprints through the inclusion of key cross boundary flows of materials and energy, are more representative of community structures and processes but there are concerns regarding comparability between studies. The third option, consumption-based, considers global GHG emissions that result from final consumption (households, governments, and investment). Using a case study of Southampton, UK, this chapter develops the data and methods required for a sub-national territorial, transboundary, and consumption-based carbon and climate footprints. The results and implication of each footprinting perspective are discussed in the context of emerging international standards. The study clearly shows that the carbon footprint (CO2 and CH4 only) offers a low-cost, low-data, universal metric of anthropogenic GHG emission and subsequent management.",signatures:"Laurence A. Wright, Ian D. Williams, Simon Kemp and Patrick E. Osborne",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65441",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65441",authors:[{id:"39268",title:"Dr.",name:"Ian D.",surname:"Williams",slug:"ian-d.-williams",fullName:"Ian D. Williams"},{id:"285939",title:"Prof.",name:"Simon",surname:"Kemp",slug:"simon-kemp",fullName:"Simon Kemp"},{id:"285941",title:"Dr.",name:"Laurie",surname:"Wright",slug:"laurie-wright",fullName:"Laurie Wright"},{id:"285942",title:"Dr.",name:"Patrick",surname:"Osborne",slug:"patrick-osborne",fullName:"Patrick Osborne"}],corrections:null},{id:"65112",title:"Suggestion of Life Cycle Impact Assessment Methodology: Selection Criteria for Environmental Impact Categories",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83454",slug:"suggestion-of-life-cycle-impact-assessment-methodology-selection-criteria-for-environmental-impact-c",totalDownloads:1196,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In life cycle assessment (LCA), environmental impacts are classified according to the methodology used. Several life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) methods are currently used, and the method selected and the particulars thereof may influence the results obtained. This study characterized the main LCIA methods used and the most relevant categories of environmental impact. In total, 87 articles were initially retrieved using relevant keywords. After screening, 11 articles were shown to address the topic of study and were reviewed. The results showed that CML is the most widely used method. The main environmental impact category was global warming potential followed by acidification. 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Amongst plant groups that have been extensively employed for this purpose is the family
Amongst the vast array of legume species identified thus far, there are several which are classified as important crops because of the role they play in subsistence farming and agroeconomic commercialisation. They include chickpea (
Amongst them, there are legume species that have been employed as model systems, i.e., barrel medic (
The continued studies on globally cultivated legumes are mainly driven by their imperative benefits to the environment, human and animal health as well as in the economic growth of the countries that produce them commercially [3]. This is largely attributed to the myriad nutritional components which make up the different legume species. They are rich in proteins, dietary fibre, carbohydrates, essential mineral nutrients, phytochemicals, and vegetable oil (in oilseed legumes) and consist of a relatively low lipid content [11, 12, 13]. Furthermore, legumes consist of high concentrations of antioxidants, isoflavones and are widely renowned for their low glycaemic index (GI). As a result, they provide various health benefits to both humans and animals through the prevention, reduction, or alleviation of various diseases [3].
Amongst other legume crops, cowpea, soybean, and faba bean have been used domestically over a number of years as staple foods, vegetables, and major constituents of plant-based diets, thus providing an affordable protein source [5, 7, 14, 15]. They have also been utilised indigenously to make legume flour, which is used to make many traditional dishes in various rural communities. These nutritious pulses and oilseeds form part of myriad healthy eating plans including ‘…the Mediterranean style of eating, the DASH eating plan, vegetarian and vegan diets and lower-glycaemic-index (GI) diets...’, as mentioned in Polak et al. [16]. The flexibility of these crops to blend in a range of eating plans is a result of the essential minerals found in them, necessary for the metabolic pathways taking place within the human body.
Other legumes, such as alfalfa (
As a result of the high protein content of legumes, they are potentially able to eradicate malnutrition and decrease the rising rate of poverty in developing countries [1, 4, 5]. They offer an affordable yet nutritional source of protein to rural communities, which are said to be the hardest hit by protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) [13]. Legumes also consist of biologically active molecules that scavenge unstable oxygen radicals (ROS), antioxidants, which are suggested to greatly contribute to the prevention of various types of cancers, heart-related and other neurodegenerative diseases [11].
Additionally, legumes have a hypoglycaemic effect which reduces blood glucose levels. Consequently, this decreases the levels of insulin in the blood, making legumes suitable for daily dietary intake in diabetics [3, 16]. Foyer et al. [11] further mention that the inclusion of legumes in daily diet has been proven to significantly reduce mortality, therefore emphasising the benefits provided by these crops to the human body. The anticarcinogenic properties of legumes are attributed to isoflavones, which are phytonutrients that mimic oestrogen properties and are said to hold great potential for the production of plant antibodies (plantibodies) and vaccines, that protect against microbial infection [17, 18].
Lastly, legumes are rich in micronutrients, such as calcium, chromium, copper, iron, selenium, and zinc. These mineral nutrients are important components of enzymes and antioxidants, macro- and micro-nutrient metabolism, synthesis processes as well as plasma membrane stabilisation [3, 4]. These nutrients therefore make legumes unique in the important role they play, not only in human and animal nutrition, but in the environment as well.
One of the major benefits of leguminous plants is their ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen into bioavailable forms through their symbiosis with nitrogen-fixing microorganisms called diazotrophs [5, 7, 12]. This occurs in nodules formed on legume roots. The unique legume-diazotroph relationship enables the conversion of free nitrogen gas (N2) from the air into ammonia (NH3), which can either be incorporated into the plant’s protein synthesis pathway or be used by nitrogen-deficient plants as an alternative source. Because this process avails biologically active nitrogen (N) to the ecosystem, it acts as an alternative source of nitrogen to plants grown in areas of limited soil nitrogen [3].
Tran and Nguyen [3] highlighted that this symbiosis has a dual effect, where it reduces the cost of nitrogen fertiliser and confers an effective, biological mechanism of environmental nitrogen control, thus reducing air pollution. For this reason, legume crops are considered to offer both sustainability in farming systems and efficient scavenging of atmospheric nitrogen. In this way, it benefits both the economy, through reduction of fertiliser costs and the environment, by recycling N, which would otherwise contribute to climate change if not effectively managed [19].
Pulse legumes are suggested to be important components in cropping systems, such as intercropping, crop rotation, and agroforestry systems, because of their ability to increase biological diversity [5, 12, 20]. Such multiple cropping methods are said to enable minimal resource utilisation, multiply yield and reduce the possibility of crop failure. Furthermore, deep-rooted grain legumes such as pigeon pea and Bambara bean tend to provide more benefits to their companion crops, which directly impacts crop success in the field and ultimately contributes to food security [5].
Legumes are not only used for pharmaceutical and domestic purposes but they, along with their derivatives, have tremendous importance in the production of commercial and industrial products. MaClean et al. [12] mention that cowpea has potential uses in the textile and cosmetic industry because of its richness in B-vitamins, various mineral elements, and lysine. Furthermore, legumes, such as lentils, soybean, and peas (
As mentioned above, legumes constitute some of the highly domesticated species, produced for various purposes. With the continuously increasing human population, there is an associated increased demand in the production of food crops to counteract food insecurity [22]. Unfortunately, the problems facing legume agriculture are becoming exacerbated, not only by the consequences of climate change but also through various anthropological activities that continue to rise as a result of population expansion and industrial revolution [23].
Rainfall has become unpredictable in terms of both intensity and seasonality, temperatures have drastically increased, and pest outbreaks are becoming more and more severe [14]. On the other hand, land degradation, industrialisation, deforestation, and the use of agrochemicals become perpetuated to accommodate human populations that have settled into the natural environment [23]. Consequently, there is a decline in soil fertility, water, and nutrient availability, which ends up severely affecting legume production and yield [24]. The resultant reduction in biomass and crop losses tend to result in the production of low-quality plants which are either diseased or are unable to survive long periods of storage [24, 25, 26].
On its own, climate change continues to threaten the metabolic productivity of legumes and other equally important crops. Problems, such as biological invasion at planting fields, have become exacerbated, leading to the infection of legume plants by bacterial, viral, fungal, and insect pathogens [27, 28, 29]. These pathogens cause diseases, such as wilt and blight, which have a negative impact on the production of quality crops. Mangena [14] mentions that because of the sessile nature of plants, they are unable to evade the environmental fluctuations in their ecosystems, such as temperature extremes, harmful ultraviolet radiation, soil salinity, prolonged drought periods, and pest outbreaks. As a result, they have evolved innate survival mechanisms, such as physical (e.g., spines and thorns on branches) and chemical defences (e.g., production of protease inhibitors and lectins), which protect the plants’ biosynthetic machinery from damage [27, 29]. Although these defence mechanisms protect the crops throughout their life cycles, the severity of environmental conditions renders them ineffective to a certain extent.
A vast array of traditional methods has been explored to optimise the performance of legumes under environmental fluctuations in their planting fields. Inoculation of the soil with arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi, growth-promoting microbes as well as rhizobial communities have been utilised to improve micronutrient availability, growth, and development of the crops, to enhance nodulation and subsequently, nitrogen fixation [30, 31]. Other traditional methods, some of which are still being applied to date, including the optimisation of cropping systems, have also been proven to play an imperative role in the propagation of stress-tolerant crops [18].
The complexity of some legume genomes has led to the development of many high-throughput conventional systems of propagation, which have also shown great importance. Amongst others, the methods employed include traditional backcrossing, mutation breeding, pedigree breeding, single pod and single seed descent (SPD and SSD), bulk-population method, hybridisation, and polyploidisation breeding [32, 33, 34, 35]. One of the widely explored conventional improvement techniques is biofortification. As described by World Health Organisation [36], biofortification is a method of crop improvement that focuses on enhancing the nutritional content of crops using either traditional breeding, agronomic or classical breeding approaches. It differs from conventional fortification in that the methods are used to target the gene level for enhancement so the plant may express desired genes during growth and development [36].
However, due to the limiting properties of the crops, such as self-pollination, recalcitrance, and narrow gene pool, the success of conventional improvement programmes has been limited [1]. This results in sexual incompatibility between most potential hybridisations, which ends up restricting traditional breeding methods from expanding the gene pool of wild relatives, from which new cultivars can be developed [37]. Another limiting factor of traditional approaches pointed out by Jha and Warkentin [38] and Hefferon [39] is environmental harm as a result of regular applications of fertilisers. This can have a direct negative effect on the availability of other nutrients in the soil, ultimately leading to deficiencies. Other problems include the sensitivity exhibited by some crops to certain minerals, difficulty in targeting and mobilising some minerals to certain edible plant organs as well as the inability to cater for
To overcome the constraints faced by conventional methods of legume improvement, biotechnologists have over the years devised ways to improve the qualities of these crops using molecular breeding approaches [8, 25, 40, 41]. The various methods employed in recombinant DNA technology for the enhancement of legume qualities are summarised inTable 1. These methods have enabled biotechnologists to overexpress, downregulate, or suppress the expression of target genes in the genomes of various legume species.
Legume | Explant tissues | Transgenes | Technique of transformation | Transformation response | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Callus tissue from cotyledonary nodes | Stable integration of the gene was confirmed by Southern hybridisation, indicating a 92% higher survival rate in transgenic plantlets when exposed to the pest | Qin et al. [42] | |||
Half-seed explants | Transformation efficiency was 3.8% and the transgene was confirmed in the T1 progeny using phenotypic analysis and Southern blotting | Paz et al. [43] | |||
Protoplasts isolated from juvenile leaf tissue | E1-GFP-encoding gene (p2GWF7-E1 gene construct) | Protoplast-mediated gene transfer | Relatively high transformation efficacy | Wu and Hanzawa [44] | |
Cotyledonary node tissue | GsWRKY20 gene from | Glufosinate selection and RT-qPCR were used to confirm positive gene integration. When the transformants were exposed to drought conditions in the field they exhibited enhanced drought tolerance | Ning et al. [45] | ||
Leaf primordia | Particle bombardment | Putative transformants were confirmed using PCR and Northern hybridisation. Transformation efficiency was variable for each cultivar but highest on day 15 after the bombardment at >80% | Kwapata et al. [46] | ||
Leaf tissue | Genes encoding green fluorescent protein (GFP) and necrosis- and ethylene-inducing peptide (Nep1)-like protein (NLP) | Transient expression of GFP was confirmed using confocal microscopy and found to be high. | Debler et al. [47] | ||
Embryo tissue explants | Transformation efficiency was 3.9% but no reports on the transfer of the transgene to the progeny | Citadin et al. [48] | |||
Cotyledonary node segment | α-amylase inhibitor-1 gene | Transgene transmitted to progeny with 1.67% transformation efficiency | Citadin et al. [48] | ||
Root tissue | Genome editing using | Hairy root induction was induced at approximately 67% efficiency and the transformants were confirmed using fluorescence under a light microscope and PCR quantification | Ji et al. [49] | ||
Shoot apical meristems | Biolistics method (Gene gun) | 0.9% transformation with confirmed transgenic progeny | Citadin et al. [48] | ||
Cotyledon with embryo axis | Putatively transformed shoots confirmed by | Tavallaie et al. [50] | |||
Leaf tissue | Genes encoding green fluorescent protein (GFP) and necrosis- and ethylene-inducing peptide (Nep1)-like protein (NLP) | Transient expression of GFP was confirmed using confocal microscopy at high efficiency. The irregularly shaped epidermal cells were shown to be more amenable to transformation | Debler et al. [47] | ||
Single cotyledonary node explants | PCR screening confirmed putative transformants, with the transformation and regeneration efficiencies being highest when the explants are subjected to micro-injury and grown under LED light | Bhowmick et al. [51] | |||
De-embryonated cotyledon (half-seed explant) | 85% transformation efficiency with vigorous regeneration in putatively transformed plantlets. Confirmation of putative transformants was done using PCR, RT-PCR, Southern hybridisation and GUS histochemical analysis | Tiwari et al. [52] | |||
Cotyledon protoplasts | Electroporation-mediated gene transfer | Transformation efficiency was higher when a higher electric charge was applied on the protoplast explants. For the reporter gene, stronger electric pulses induced membrane damage while less intense charge could not enhance reporter gene expression | Quecini et al. [53] | ||
Root protoplasts | 35S::SYMRK-GFP and 35S::ERN1-GFP gene constructs | Protoplast-mediated gene transfer | Protoplast viability was relatively high, and the transformation efficiency was 62.4% on average. | Jia et al. [54] | |
Root protoplasts | 35S::SYMRK-GFP and 35S::ERN1-GFP gene constructs | Protoplast-mediated gene transfer | Localised GFP expression was confirmed in the cytoplasm and the nucleus of the root protoplasts. Also, the SYMRK and ERN1 genes were detected in the plasma membrane and nuclei of root protoplasts, respectively. Transformation efficiency was 63.3% on average | Jia et al. [54] | |
Somatic embryogenic callus | TDZ-induced somatic embryos reported as highly regenerable and through a repetition of somatic embryogenesis transformation cycles, the production of chimeras was reduced | Barbulova et al. [55] | |||
Callus tissue from root and shoot segments | Carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase 7 (LjCCD7) silencing gene | RNA interference (RNAi) | RT-qPCR was used for protein quantification and confirmed decreased expression of the gene construct following transformation. The transformants further showed varied phenotypic responses as compared to non-transformed hosts, i.e. height reduction, increased biomass, elongated primary roots and increased branching | Liu et al. [56] |
Transgenic properties introduced by molecular breeding in major legumes.
RNA interference (RNAi) is described as a mechanism of gene silencing that employs the incorporation of sense or antisense RNA into a host plant’s genome to silence the expression of a gene or a family of genes and down-regulate antinutrients, allergens, and toxins [3, 39]. This method employs a mechanism of RNA degradation by the host plants’ biosynthetic machinery, i.e., micro-RNA (miRNA), small interfering RNA (siRNA), and endoribonucleases called Dicer [58]. Cleavage of double-stranded RNA and subsequent degradation occurs through a multiprotein complex called the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC). This complex is formed by a ribonucleoprotein and a single strand of siRNA or miRNA that acts as a template of the mRNA complement [58, 59]. In plants, this naturally occurs to regulate gene expression as well as to defend the plant against viral pathogens, transposons, and foreign genetic material [58].
According to Nahid et al. [58], RNAi is now widely explored to confer resistance in legumes against viral pathogens, although in some families of viruses, i.e.,
Mutation breeding is defined as an induced change in the nucleotide sequence of plants for genetic improvement purposes, especially in self-pollinating plants [62]. It can be induced through the use of chemical, physical or biological mutagens to confer disease resistance as well as to improve yield and morphophysiological properties in agronomically important legumes [63]. Ionising radiations, such as gamma and X-rays, are the most preferred physical mutagenic agents as they yield reproducible, easily applicable, and high mutation properties, although ultraviolet (UV) radiation has previously been used as well [63, 64]. The most commonly used chemical mutagens include base analogues, antibiotics, alkylating agents, hydroxylamine, and nitrous acids, for example, ethyl methane sulphonate (EMS), diethyl sulphate (DES), and methyl nitrosourea (MNU), amongst others [62, 64, 65].
Although it is an inexpensive procedure that has high efficacy and yield, acquiring the desired mutation from a mutagenesis event can be difficult to achieve sometimes [62]. This is potentially attributed to the use of physical and chemical mutagens, which as explained by Wang et al. [57], typically results in ‘…genome-wide random DNA alterations’. However, it has been widely used to develop important cultivars and varieties of legumes mainly in Asia which accounts for 60% of the total legume mutant production, Europe (30%), and North America (6%) [63]. Progress in legume mutation breeding is discussed in detail by Suresh and Kumar [63] and Kumar et al. [65] for induced mutagenesis in chickpea.
Another way in which mutations can be induced in legumes is through transposon-based mutagenesis [57]. This is achieved by incorporating a transposable sequence into a binary vector, which is then introduced into the genome of a legume host using
Genome editing is a technique of molecular breeding that involves targeting and using exogenously applied restriction enzymes, known as endonucleases, to alter specific genetic sequences of the plant genome [66]. The technique involves three widely applied nucleases, i.e., zinc finger nuclease (ZFN), transcription activator-like effector nuclease (TALEN), and clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat CRISPR-associated protein 9 nuclease (CRISPR/Cas9). The latter two are mostly used and regarded as the most versatile during application. The endonucleases recognise specific domains in the genome sequence and use that as the cleavage site [49].
The model legumes, soybean, and vetch (
Amongst the methods which are used to transfer transgenes between organisms is particle bombardment which was initially used to develop the first transgenic soybean. It is also referred to as biolistics (short for biological ballistics) and involves the direct transfer of DNA-coated particles into semi-permeabilised host cells using high-speed propulsion [68]. It was used over 2 decades ago to develop the first transgenic crop called Roundup Ready and has continuously been used to transform various other plants [69]. Unlike
Gene transfer using protoplasts has also been explored to source explant tissues competent for DNA transfer [68]. This method employs the transfer of naked DNA treated using either polyethylene glycol (PEG) or electric current as the fusogenic agent. The use of electrofusion-mediated gene transfer remains preferred over polyethylene glycol treatment of protoplasts because of the higher success rates obtained in the former [70]. Although several chemical agents have been utilised during the procedure, the combination of PEG and divalent cations at alkaline pH has been extensively employed. This enables plasma membrane destabilisation and subsequently, DNA uptake which will further be incorporated into the host legume genome.
One of the major determinants of a successful gene transfer procedure is the availability of an efficient selection system [71]. Therefore, to select and identify transgenic hybrid cell lines generated from protoplast transformation, several methods have been employed. Selectable markers, such as antibiotic and herbicide resistance marker genes, growth morphology, vital staining using fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) and rhodamine isothiocyanate (RITC) as well as the molecular marker-based selection, are amongst the known selection systems used when working with somatic hybridisation of protoplasts [70].
However, there are several disadvantages associated with the protoplast method. Protoplasts are difficult to handle, the recovery of viable plantlets is poor in certain species of plants, the success of DNA integration is limited by rearrangement, and requires careful optimisation of culture media and culture conditions [68, 70]. Also, the rate of somaclonal variations generated from protoplast-mediated genetic transformation is highly increased.
Another miscellaneous method used in the direct transfer of DNA to plants is electroporation-mediated genetic transformation, which employs the uptake of DNA through a semi-permeable plasma membrane by plant cells and protoplasts using an electric pulse [70]. Another method, silicon carbide fibres also known as whiskers, involves the treatment of explant material in a buffer solution that consists of DNA and silicon carbide fibres [68, 69]. Although it requires no complex or expensive equipment, the use of this method carries a danger posed by the fibres on human health, and thus requires careful handling by experienced personnel [69]. These approaches have provided some insights for modern biotechnology, i.e., elucidating gene function, gene over-expression and silencing, transposon-based mutagenesis, and other molecular-based studies [3].
The global use of the
Gene transfer mediated by
While some methods are very effective and promising, there are shortcomings associated with each of the techniques. Direct gene transfer methods face a risk of transgene silencing as a result of spontaneous rearrangement that occurs during transfer. Moreover, the increased number of transgene copies in the host, which may be recognised as foreign genes by the plant may lead to transgene instability which results in low rates of transformation [68, 74]. Furthermore, Kohli et al. [75] and Tiwari et al. [52] highlight that the vector backbone may be incorporated into the host cells’ genome along with the T-DNA, referred to as ‘co-transfer of vector backbone sequences’, which was previously only observed in microprojectile bombardment. This occurs as a result of ineffective backbone cleavage and may be encountered at very high rates [75]. In some instances, histochemical assays only confirm a low efficiency of transgene integration within the host plant, which ultimately limits the success of the method.
Molecular breeding employs various technological tools, some of which may be costly, time-consuming, and require complex equipment [5]. Because the techniques used are artificially induced, the plants being transformed may exhibit unpredictable responses, such as the occurrence of somaclonal variations [76]. Such variations may be of physiological, genetic, or biochemical nature and although some may become interesting to a plant breeder, their occurrence is mostly unwanted and is therefore considered problematic.
The efficacy of
Perhaps the most significant of these problems is the concern expressed by the general public regarding the safety of genetically modified (GM) crops, which not only negatively influences crop acceptance but eventually affects rapport between the co-farmers who produce them as well [5, 40]. The consumers are both concerned about the safety of consuming GM crops on their health and the environment. As a result, the use of crops with genetic modifications, especially through genetic transformation, continues to be challenged.
In light of the problems facing genetic transformation procedures, it became imperative for plant biotechnologists to devise strategies of gradually improving the techniques, from which consistent, reproducible, and efficient protocols can be developed. This is continuously being explored through optimising the factors that affect each method of transformation, such as culture media supplements,
Atif et al. [77] and Christou [1] have reported that optimising conditions affecting the growth and development of soybean during
Supplements included in culture media, for example, phytohormones, antioxidants, and antibiotics, play a vital role in the success of
Co-cultivation is amongst the factors that have been emphasised to play a key role in genetic transformation experiments of various crops. Several studies have reported improved transformation efficiencies when co-cultivation was optimised. These include studies by Liu et al. [78], Paz et al. [43] and Tiwari et al. [52] which optimised the concentrations of antioxidants, thiol compounds, and antibiotics included in co-cultivation culture medium. However, further optimisations conducted in other studies suggested that some constituents of the co-cultivation medium may play an inhibitory role on
The regenerability of explant tissues used for gene transfer greatly depends on the type of explant used and the physiological conditioning of the explant in time of culture, which subsequently influences the organogenic capability of the explants. In a review by Mariashibu et al. [37], different types of explant tissues utilised in the genetic transformation of soybean are discussed. This study elicits advances in the methods of regeneration that have been utilised since the production of the first transgenic soybean whose protocols primarily involve either shoot organogenesis or somatic embryogenesis. Although there are certain limitations, there has been a considerable improvement regarding the innovation of culture systems used in transformation studies.
Immature embryos, epicotyls, hypocotyls, primary leaf, stem-node, and cotyledonary node segments have all been used as explants of enhanced regenerability due to their totipotent nature [37]. Amongst them, cotyledonary nodes were found to be more efficient, in terms of the duration of growth, organogenesis, and response to the exogenous application of phytohormones [8, 43]. However, this regeneration system still requires the optimization of several growth parameters which influence the regeneration process so that the low frequencies may be overcome.
Zia et al. [80] investigated the use of half-seed explants while optimising the duration of co-cultivation and washing of infected explants. Additionally, the study explored various cultivars and the response of each to
The bacterial infection inoculum is another important factor when optimising genetic transformation. Newell-McGloughlin [61] suggested that
As Somers et al. [71] describe, an efficient selection system is necessary when conducting transformation because it enables a precise and reliable prediction of putatively transformed plantlets. In this way, the erroneous selection of escapes and chimeric plants can be avoided so that the transformation and regeneration efficiencies are predicted with accuracy. Newell-McGloughlin [61] also emphasise this fact and mention that this optimisation led to the increased number of transgenic plants and reduced the time in culture. Selectable marker genes encoding selective agents, such as hygromycin and glufosinate, are the most commonly used to enhance the recovery of transformants. The correlation between the efficiency of selection systems and transformation rates strongly suggests that there is an interaction between the system of selecting putative transformants, the type of culture, and the genotype of the plant in question [42].
Legumes form part of a large number of globally cultivated plants that have been used for several years as staple foods in underdeveloped countries. From their use as food crops to being employed as sources of various legume derivatives in the industrial sector, leguminous plants are rich sources of proteins, oil, essential amino acids, micronutrients, and phytoestrogens. All these nutraceutical compounds play essential roles in human and animal health, by preventing, reducing, or completely alleviating certain diseases. Additionally, they play an imperative role in the environment and the agronomic sector, providing additional nitrogen by fixing atmospheric nitrogen into usable forms, increasing the balance of micronutrients in the soil through various cropping systems, and acting as the sink for phytoremediation. These properties and benefits conferred by legumes have invaluable potential in eradicating food insecurity, and thus make it possible to believe in a future where malnutrition, undernourishment, and poverty are greatly minimised.
However, it is still important to understand that legume propagation is not without challenges. In fact, there is an increase in the problems faced by both conventional and biotechnological improvement of these crops, with the increasing demand. Climate change, anthropological effects, and biological infestations are the major hurdles that lead to crop losses and decreased productivity in crop breeding. Additionally, the recombinant techniques, which are continuously gaining popularity in crop production, also face challenges, albeit with significant improvements achieved thus far. There are various ongoing optimisation investigations, whose goal is to ultimately counteract any of these challenges faced either during genetic transformation or regeneration, especially under tissue culture conditions. All of these studies target different areas of transformation that have significant effects on the processes involved during gene transfer and plantlet development to provide optimum conditions required by the explants for successful improvement.
There are promising target areas that may either provide insight or lead to breakthroughs in the ongoing optimisations. The duration of co-cultivation and its supplements can be further investigated since various studies have reported different findings in this regard. Although antibiotics play a pivotal role in controlling contamination in culture, it is necessary to investigate whether or not excluding them from culture media is an amenable option. Explant types and their physiological conditioning have been reported to improve explant survival rates during regeneration, which makes it a potential target area to be optimised, especially for legume plants that are reluctant to grow
The author declares no conflict of interest for this manuscript.
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The parameters employed in the comparison are bandwidth, output impedance, time response, power density, and dynamic range. 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This compliance is generated with an articular muscle emulator system, which is designed using two neural networks (NNs). One NN models a muscle and a second learns to tune the proportional integral derivative (PID) of the articulation DC motor, allowing it to behave analogously to the muscle model. Muscle emulators are implemented in the knees of a three‐dimensional (3D) simulated biped robot. The simulation results show that the muscle emulator creates compliance in articulations and that the dynamic walk, even in walk‐halt‐stop transitions, improves. If an external thrust unbalances the biped during the walk, the muscle emulator improves the control and prevents the robot from falling. The total power consumption is significantly reduced, and the articular trajectories approach human trajectories.",book:{id:"5245",slug:"recent-advances-in-robotic-systems",title:"Recent Advances in Robotic Systems",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Robotic Systems"},signatures:"Hayssan Serhan and Patrick Henaff",authors:[{id:"184415",title:"Dr.",name:"Patrick",middleName:null,surname:"Henaff",slug:"patrick-henaff",fullName:"Patrick Henaff"},{id:"185026",title:"Dr.",name:"Hayssam",middleName:null,surname:"Serhan",slug:"hayssam-serhan",fullName:"Hayssam Serhan"}]},{id:"51618",doi:"10.5772/63575",title:"Validation and Experimental Testing of Observers for Robust GNSS-Aided Inertial Navigation",slug:"validation-and-experimental-testing-of-observers-for-robust-gnss-aided-inertial-navigation",totalDownloads:1687,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"This chapter is the study of state estimators for robust navigation. Navigation of vehicles is a vast field with multiple decades of research. The main aim is to estimate position, linear velocity, and attitude (PVA) under all dynamics, motions, and conditions via data fusion. The state estimation problem will be considered from two different perspectives using the same kinematic model. First, the extended Kalman filter (EKF) will be reviewed, as an example of a stochastic approach; second, a recent nonlinear observer will be considered as a deterministic case. A comparative study of strapdown inertial navigation methods for estimating PVA of aerial vehicles fusing inertial sensors with global navigation satellite system (GNSS)-based positioning will be presented. The focus will be on the loosely coupled integration methods and performance analysis to compare these methods in terms of their stability, robustness to vibrations, and disturbances in measurements.",book:{id:"5245",slug:"recent-advances-in-robotic-systems",title:"Recent Advances in Robotic Systems",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Robotic Systems"},signatures:"Jakob M. Hansen, Jan Roháč, Martin Šipoš, Tor A. Johansen and\nThor I. Fossen",authors:[{id:"132264",title:"Prof.",name:"Tor Arne",middleName:null,surname:"Johansen",slug:"tor-arne-johansen",fullName:"Tor Arne Johansen"},{id:"179630",title:"Prof.",name:"Thor",middleName:"I",surname:"Fossen",slug:"thor-fossen",fullName:"Thor Fossen"},{id:"179647",title:"Dr.",name:"Martin",middleName:null,surname:"Šipoš",slug:"martin-sipos",fullName:"Martin Šipoš"},{id:"179649",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jan",middleName:null,surname:"Rohac",slug:"jan-rohac",fullName:"Jan Rohac"},{id:"181258",title:"Mr.",name:"Jakob Mahler",middleName:null,surname:"Hansen",slug:"jakob-mahler-hansen",fullName:"Jakob Mahler Hansen"}]},{id:"51486",doi:"10.5772/64305",title:"Design, Implementation and Modeling of Flooding Disaster-Oriented USV",slug:"design-implementation-and-modeling-of-flooding-disaster-oriented-usv",totalDownloads:1899,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Although there exist some unmanned surface platforms, and parts of them have been applied in flooding disaster relief, the autonomy of these platforms is still so weak that most of them can only work under the control of operators. The primary reason is the difficulty of obtaining a dynamical model that is sufficient rich for model-based control and sufficient simple for model parameters identification. This makes them difficult to be used to achieve some high-performance autonomous control, such as robust control with respect to disturbances and unknown dynamics and trajectory tracking control in complicated and dynamical surroundings. In this chapter, a flooding disaster-oriented unmanned surface vehicle (USV) designed and implemented by Shenyang Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences (SIA, CAS) is introduced first, including the hardware and software structures. Then, we propose a quasi-linear parameter varying (qLPV) model to approach the dynamics of the USV system. We first apply this to solve a structured modeling problem and then introduce model error to solve an unstructured modeling problem. Subsequently, the qLPV model identification results are analyzed and the superiority compared to two linear models is demonstrated. At last, extensive application experiments, including rescuing rope throwing using an automatic pneumatic and water sampling in a 2.5 m radius circle, are described in detail to show the performance of course keeping control and GPS point tracking control based on the proposed model.",book:{id:"5245",slug:"recent-advances-in-robotic-systems",title:"Recent Advances in Robotic Systems",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Robotic Systems"},signatures:"Junfeng Xiong, Feng Gu, Decai Li, Yuqing He and Jianda Han",authors:[{id:"9884",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuqing",middleName:null,surname:"He",slug:"yuqing-he",fullName:"Yuqing He"},{id:"9921",title:"Prof.",name:"Jianda",middleName:null,surname:"Han",slug:"jianda-han",fullName:"Jianda Han"},{id:"185358",title:"Dr.",name:"Junfeng",middleName:null,surname:"Xiong",slug:"junfeng-xiong",fullName:"Junfeng Xiong"},{id:"185359",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Gu",slug:"feng-gu",fullName:"Feng Gu"},{id:"185360",title:"Dr.",name:"Decai",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"decai-li",fullName:"Decai Li"}]},{id:"50812",doi:"10.5772/63506",title:"Fish-Like Robot Encapsulated by a Plastic Film",slug:"fish-like-robot-encapsulated-by-a-plastic-film",totalDownloads:1579,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Underwater robots are currently utilized to evaluate water quality and the undersea landscape. Small-sized underwater robots are especially useful in improving the spatial resolution of the measurements, yielding high-quality data. This chapter describes a small-sized fish-like robot, with its surface composed of a flexible thin plastic film. Its internal components, including an actuator, could be encapsulated in the plastic film using a vacuum packaging machine. To simplify the waterproofing and pressure resistance properties of the fish-like robot, its internal components can be filled with insulating fluid. The plastic film on the surface has electromagnetic-wave-transmitting properties, allowing sensors to be arranged within the device, enabling assessment of its autonomous locomotion using infrared sensors. Robot attitude can be altered, based on geography of its internal components, floating blocks, and insulating fluid. This attitude could be especially determined by the differences in densities between the floating block and insulating fluid. Evaluation of attitude control showed that an insulating fluid heavier than water allows a large variation.",book:{id:"5245",slug:"recent-advances-in-robotic-systems",title:"Recent Advances in Robotic Systems",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Robotic Systems"},signatures:"Mizuho Shibata",authors:[{id:"180106",title:"Dr.",name:"Mizuho",middleName:null,surname:"Shibata",slug:"mizuho-shibata",fullName:"Mizuho Shibata"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"51224",title:"Series Elastic Actuator: Design, Analysis and Comparison",slug:"series-elastic-actuator-design-analysis-and-comparison",totalDownloads:3447,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"In general, actuators are built to be as stiff as possible to increase the bandwidth. When a robot works in a structured environment, its automation is easier than in a non-structured environment in which case its modeling is quite difficult and presents a high computational effort. To overcome this difficulty, series elastic actuator (SEA) has been applied in compliant robotic grasping. Unlike rigid actuators, a SEA contains an elastic element in series with the mechanical energy source. Such an elastic element gives SEAs tolerance to impact loads, low mechanical output impedance, passive mechanical energy storage, and increased peak power output. The spring has to be able to support the loads, but it cannot be too stiff; otherwise, system impedance will be high. This chapter describes a comparison between two types of SEA, an electric series elastic actuator (ESEA) and a hydraulic series elastic actuator (HSEA), for four-legged dynamic robot application. The parameters employed in the comparison are bandwidth, output impedance, time response, power density, and dynamic range. The results indicate that HSEA is a better actuator than ESEA for a weight carrying four-legged dynamic robot because of its higher power density and dynamic ratio with desirable output impedance, time response, and bandwidth.",book:{id:"5245",slug:"recent-advances-in-robotic-systems",title:"Recent Advances in Robotic Systems",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Robotic Systems"},signatures:"Arnaldo Gomes Leal Junior, Rafhael Milanezi de Andrade and\nAntônio Bento Filho",authors:[{id:"182082",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafhael",middleName:"Milanezi De",surname:"Andrade",slug:"rafhael-andrade",fullName:"Rafhael Andrade"},{id:"185372",title:"Dr.",name:"Antônio",middleName:null,surname:"Bento Filho",slug:"antonio-bento-filho",fullName:"Antônio Bento Filho"},{id:"185373",title:"MSc.",name:"Arnaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Gomes Leal Junior",slug:"arnaldo-gomes-leal-junior",fullName:"Arnaldo Gomes Leal Junior"}]},{id:"50884",title:"Autonomous Quadrocopter for Search, Count and Localization of Objects",slug:"autonomous-quadrocopter-for-search-count-and-localization-of-objects",totalDownloads:1727,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"This chapter describes and evaluates the design and implementation of a new fully autonomous quadrocopter, which is capable of self‐reliant search, count and localization of a predefined object on the ground inside a room.",book:{id:"5245",slug:"recent-advances-in-robotic-systems",title:"Recent Advances in Robotic Systems",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Robotic Systems"},signatures:"Nils Gageik, Christian Reul and Sergio Montenegro",authors:[{id:"168230",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Nils",middleName:null,surname:"Gageik",slug:"nils-gageik",fullName:"Nils Gageik"},{id:"168231",title:"Prof.",name:"Sergio",middleName:null,surname:"Montenegro",slug:"sergio-montenegro",fullName:"Sergio Montenegro"},{id:"181110",title:"MSc.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Reul",slug:"christian-reul",fullName:"Christian Reul"}]},{id:"51432",title:"CODA Algorithm: An Immune Algorithm for Reinforcement Learning Tasks",slug:"coda-algorithm-an-immune-algorithm-for-reinforcement-learning-tasks",totalDownloads:1546,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This document presents the design of an algorithm that takes on its basis: reinforcement learning, learning from demonstration and most importantly Artificial Immune Systems. The main advantage of this algorithm named CODA (Cognition from Data). Is; it can learn from limited data samples- that is given a single example and the algorithm will create its own knowledge. The algorithm imitates from the Natural Immune System the clonal procedure for obtaining a repertoire of antibodies from a single antigen. It also uses the self-organised memory in order to reduce searching time in the whole action-state space by searching in specific clusters. CODA algorithm is presented and explained in detail in order to understand how these three principles are used. The algorithm is explained with pseudocode, flowcharts and block diagrams. The clonal/mutation results are presented with a simple example. It can be seen graphically how new data that has a completely new probability distribution. Finally, the first application where CODA is used, a humanoid hand is presented. In this application the algorithm created affordable grasping postures from limited examples, creates its own knowledge and stores data in memory data in memory in order to recognise whether it has been on a similar situation.",book:{id:"5245",slug:"recent-advances-in-robotic-systems",title:"Recent Advances in Robotic Systems",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Robotic Systems"},signatures:"Daniel R. Ramirez Rebollo, Pedro Ponce Cruz and Arturo Molina",authors:[{id:"181021",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Rodrigo",surname:"Ramirez Rebollo",slug:"daniel-ramirez-rebollo",fullName:"Daniel Ramirez Rebollo"},{id:"181149",title:"Dr.",name:"Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Ponce",slug:"pedro-ponce",fullName:"Pedro Ponce"},{id:"181151",title:"Dr.",name:"Arturo",middleName:null,surname:"Molina",slug:"arturo-molina",fullName:"Arturo Molina"}]},{id:"51357",title:"Muscle‐Like Compliance in Knee Articulations Improves Biped Robot Walkings",slug:"muscle-like-compliance-in-knee-articulations-improves-biped-robot-walkings",totalDownloads:1662,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"This chapter focuses on the compliance effect of dynamic humanoid robot walking. This compliance is generated with an articular muscle emulator system, which is designed using two neural networks (NNs). One NN models a muscle and a second learns to tune the proportional integral derivative (PID) of the articulation DC motor, allowing it to behave analogously to the muscle model. Muscle emulators are implemented in the knees of a three‐dimensional (3D) simulated biped robot. The simulation results show that the muscle emulator creates compliance in articulations and that the dynamic walk, even in walk‐halt‐stop transitions, improves. If an external thrust unbalances the biped during the walk, the muscle emulator improves the control and prevents the robot from falling. The total power consumption is significantly reduced, and the articular trajectories approach human trajectories.",book:{id:"5245",slug:"recent-advances-in-robotic-systems",title:"Recent Advances in Robotic Systems",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Robotic Systems"},signatures:"Hayssan Serhan and Patrick Henaff",authors:[{id:"184415",title:"Dr.",name:"Patrick",middleName:null,surname:"Henaff",slug:"patrick-henaff",fullName:"Patrick Henaff"},{id:"185026",title:"Dr.",name:"Hayssam",middleName:null,surname:"Serhan",slug:"hayssam-serhan",fullName:"Hayssam Serhan"}]},{id:"51053",title:"Recent Developments in Monocular SLAM within the HRI Framework",slug:"recent-developments-in-monocular-slam-within-the-hri-framework",totalDownloads:1880,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This chapter describes an approach to improve the feature initialization process in the delayed inverse-depth feature initialization monocular Simultaneous Localisation and Mapping (SLAM), using data provided by a robot’s camera plus an additional monocular sensor deployed in the headwear of the human component in a human-robot collaborative exploratory team. The robot and the human deploy a set of sensors that once combined provides the data required to localize the secondary camera worn by the human. The approach and its implementation are described along with experimental results demonstrating its performance. A discussion on the usual sensors within the robotics field, especially in SLAM, provides background to the advantages and capabilities of the system implemented in this research.",book:{id:"5245",slug:"recent-advances-in-robotic-systems",title:"Recent Advances in Robotic Systems",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Robotic Systems"},signatures:"Edmundo Guerra, Yolanda Bolea, Rodrigo Munguia and Antoni\nGrau",authors:[{id:"13038",title:"Prof.",name:"Antoni",middleName:null,surname:"Grau",slug:"antoni-grau",fullName:"Antoni Grau"},{id:"18024",title:"Dr.",name:"Yolanda",middleName:null,surname:"Bolea",slug:"yolanda-bolea",fullName:"Yolanda Bolea"},{id:"163432",title:"Dr.",name:"Rodrigo",middleName:null,surname:"Munguia",slug:"rodrigo-munguia",fullName:"Rodrigo Munguia"},{id:"165970",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Edmundo",middleName:null,surname:"Guerra",slug:"edmundo-guerra",fullName:"Edmundo Guerra"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1291",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. 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\r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.
\r\n\tSustainable development focuses on linking economic development with environmental protection and social development to ensure future prosperity for people and the planet. To tackle global challenges of development and environment, the United Nations General Assembly in 2015 adopted the 17 Sustainable Development Goals. SDGs emphasize that environmental sustainability should be strongly linked to socio-economic development, which should be decoupled from escalating resource use and environmental degradation for the purpose of reducing environmental stress, enhancing human welfare, and improving regional equity. Moreover, sustainable development seeks a balance between human development and decrease in ecological/environmental marginal benefits. Under the increasing stress of climate change, many environmental problems have emerged causing severe impacts at both global and local scales, driving ecosystem service reduction and biodiversity loss. Humanity’s relationship with resource exploitation and environment protection is a major global concern, as new threats to human and environmental security emerge in the Anthropocene. Currently, the world is facing significant challenges in environmental sustainability to protect global environments and to restore degraded ecosystems, while maintaining human development with regional equality. Thus, environmental sustainability with healthy natural ecosystems is critical to maintaining human prosperity in our warming planet.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/94.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11978,editor:{id:"61855",title:"Dr.",name:"Yixin",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yixin-zhang",fullName:"Yixin Zhang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYWJgQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-06-09T11:36:35.jpg",biography:"Professor Yixin Zhang is an aquatic ecologist with over 30 years of research and teaching experience in three continents (Asia, Europe, and North America) in Stream Ecology, Riparian Ecology, Urban Ecology, and Ecosystem Restoration and Aquatic Conservation, Human-Nature Interactions and Sustainability, Urbanization Impact on Aquatic Ecosystems. He got his Ph.D. in Animal Ecology at Umeå University in Sweden in 1998. He conducted postdoc research in stream ecology at the University of California at Santa Barbara in the USA. After that, he was a postdoc research fellow at the University of British Columbia in Canada to do research on large-scale stream experimental manipulation and watershed ecological survey in temperate rainforests of BC. He was a faculty member at the University of Hong Kong to run ecological research projects on aquatic insects, fishes, and newts in Tropical Asian streams. He also conducted research in streams, rivers, and caves in Texas, USA, to study the ecology of macroinvertebrates, big-claw river shrimp, fish, turtles, and bats. Current research interests include trophic flows across ecosystems; watershed impacts of land-use change on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning; ecological civilization and water resource management; urban ecology and urban/rural sustainable development.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Soochow University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null},editorialBoard:null},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:12,paginationItems:[{id:"82285",title:"Parvovirus Vectors: The Future of Gene Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105085",signatures:"Megha Gupta",slug:"parvovirus-vectors-the-future-of-gene-therapy",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"81793",title:"Canine parvovirus-2: An Emerging Threat to Young Pets",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104846",signatures:"Mithilesh Singh, Rajendran Manikandan, Ujjwal Kumar De, Vishal Chander, Babul Rudra Paul, Saravanan Ramakrishnan and Darshini Maramreddy",slug:"canine-parvovirus-2-an-emerging-threat-to-young-pets",totalDownloads:15,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"81271",title:"The Diversity of Parvovirus Telomeres",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102684",signatures:"Marianne Laugel, Emilie Lecomte, Eduard Ayuso, Oumeya Adjali, Mathieu Mével and Magalie Penaud-Budloo",slug:"the-diversity-of-parvovirus-telomeres",totalDownloads:38,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"79209",title:"Virtual Physiology: A Tool for the 21st Century",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99671",signatures:"Carmen Nóbrega, Maria Aires Pereira, Catarina Coelho, Isabel Brás, Ana Cristina Mega, Carla Santos, Fernando Esteves, Rita Cruz, Ana I. 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