More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
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Our breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
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“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
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Additionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
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We are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
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Simba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
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IntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
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Since the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\n
Our breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n
“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\n
Additionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\n
We are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n
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\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5860",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Current Perspective to Predict Actual Evapotranspiration",title:"Current Perspective to Predict Actual Evapotranspiration",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Evapotranspiration is the largest outgoing water flux from the Earth's surface; its accurate quantification is critical for the crop development in conditions of the climate changes from recent decades, and it can contribute to a greater understanding of a range of agricultural ecosystem processes. To evaluate the hydric requirements of the crops, it was agreed that they should be reported to a maximum global evapotranspiration called potential evapotranspiration. To estimate this variable, a variety of methods were developed, each with its benefits as well as trade-offs. Their use, however, is laborious due to their complexity and of the large number of parameters required. In this book, specialists' concerns worldwide to develop simple but reliable methodologies - with less data requirement - which will give accurate and appropriate results - are presented. In addition, a study of the physics of the moisture evaporation process from porous media to elucidate what are the mechanisms of moisture migration from granular biopesticides is presented in the last chapter.",isbn:"978-953-51-3174-8",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3173-1",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4827-2",doi:"10.5772/65621",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"current-perspective-to-predict-actual-evapotranspiration",numberOfPages:116,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"cfbe21ff67263a8b0346e4e79fef9ebd",bookSignature:"Daniel Bucur",publishedDate:"May 24th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5860.jpg",numberOfDownloads:7103,numberOfWosCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:4,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:10,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 12th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 2nd 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 29th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 29th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 28th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"50794",title:"Prof.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"G",surname:"Bucur",slug:"daniel-bucur",fullName:"Daniel Bucur",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/50794/images/system/50794.jfif",biography:"Daniel Bucur is currently a professor of Land Improvement at the Pedotechnics Department, University of Applied Life Sciences and Environment in Iasi, Romania.\r\nHe completed his doctorate at the Technical University of Iasi in 1998.\r\nHis major research areas include water excess removal, irrigation, soil erosion control, climate changes, and sustainable land management. In recent years, he has been in charge of many national and international research projects, including Soil Erosion and Conservation Measures, Effect of Sewage Sludge Application on Quality Indices of Soil Vulnerable to Degradation, Sustainable Development of Soil Resources from the Areas with Drainage Works, and Impact of the Hydro-climatic and Pedo-geomorphological Risks on the Environment in Small Catchment.\r\nHe has published more than 150 papers in reviewed journals, 5 book chapters, and 9 books apart from more than 30 unreviewed papers and reports.",institutionString:"University of Applied Life Sciences and Environment in Iasi",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"833",title:"Climatology",slug:"earth-science-climatology"}],chapters:[{id:"54992",title:"Comparison of Evapotranspiration Methods Under Limited Data",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68495",slug:"comparison-of-evapotranspiration-methods-under-limited-data",totalDownloads:1797,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A limited number of parameters or a single meteorological parameter was used in this study to estimate evapotranspiration. The main objectives of this study are as follows. (1) The Penman-Monteith method was used to estimate ET. The empirical formula published by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) was applied via substitution to compare situations that were missing certain meteorological parameters. (2) Radiation-based methods and temperature-based methods were compared with the Penman-Monteith method to estimate ET and discuss their applicability in the study area. With Tainan Weather Station of Taiwan as the study area, this study selected the Penman-Monteith method as well as six other radiation-based estimation formulas: Makkink, Turc, Jensen-Haise, Priestley-Taylor, Doorenbos-Pruit, and Abtew methods. The other four temperature-based estimation formulas, namely, Thornthwaite, Blaney-Criddle, Hamon, and Linacre methods, were used to estimate ET and compare the differences and the results were compared with the Penman-Monteith method. The results showed that there was little effect on estimating ET using the Penman-Monteith method when the wind speed data was missing or insufficient. The Turc method was the best among the six radiation-based estimation formulas, while the Linacre method was the best temperature-based estimation formula. Generally speaking, radiation-based estimation formulas were more accurate than temperature-based estimation formulas.",signatures:"Hsin-Fu Yeh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54992",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54992",authors:[{id:"180104",title:"Dr.",name:"Hsin-Fu",surname:"Yeh",slug:"hsin-fu-yeh",fullName:"Hsin-Fu Yeh"}],corrections:null},{id:"55220",title:"Assessment and Prediction of Evapotranspiration Based on Scintillometry and Meteorological Datasets",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68538",slug:"assessment-and-prediction-of-evapotranspiration-based-on-scintillometry-and-meteorological-datasets",totalDownloads:1377,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Two methods are used for estimating the evapotranspiration (ET) rate: scintillometry and meteorological measurements using the FAO-PM56 model with the reference evapotranspiration for the crop (ETO) and the specific coefficient (Kc) for corn at its stage development. Measurements were done on a field with homogeneous corn crop at the stage of 3 months before the final harvest (65 % of maximum plant growth). The two methods are compared with environmental parameters to determine the most influential on the final result of ET.",signatures:"Antonin Poisson, Angel Fernandez, Dario G. Gomez, Régis Barillé\nand Benoit Chorro",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55220",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55220",authors:[{id:"198019",title:"Prof.",name:"Regis",surname:"Barille",slug:"regis-barille",fullName:"Regis Barille"},{id:"199215",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonin",surname:"Poisson",slug:"antonin-poisson",fullName:"Antonin Poisson"},{id:"199216",title:"Dr.",name:"Angel",surname:"Fernandez",slug:"angel-fernandez",fullName:"Angel Fernandez"},{id:"199217",title:"Mr.",name:"Benoit",surname:"Chorro",slug:"benoit-chorro",fullName:"Benoit Chorro"},{id:"205039",title:"Dr.",name:"Dario",surname:"Gomez",slug:"dario-gomez",fullName:"Dario Gomez"}],corrections:null},{id:"54972",title:"Sensitivity of Evapotranspiration Models to Onsite and Offsite Meteorological Data for a Ponderosa Pine Forest",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68435",slug:"sensitivity-of-evapotranspiration-models-to-onsite-and-offsite-meteorological-data-for-a-ponderosa-p",totalDownloads:1076,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Evapotranspiration (ET) is a major component of the water budget in most forests, in many cases exceeding 70% of annual precipitation. Due to limitations in time and resources, input data necessary to model ET are not always available for a study site, but offsite data from meteorological networks may be a suitable substitute. In this study, we evaluated three models for estimating ET, Priestly-Taylor (P-T), Shuttleworth-Wallace (S-W), and Penman-Monteith with dynamic stomatal resistance (P-M-d), in a ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) forest in northern Arizona where eddy covariance data exist for comparison. We tested the sensitivity of the models to the use of offsite meteorological data from a weather station and offsite soil moisture data from two snow monitoring sites in the SNOTEL network. Onsite data are required for accurate ET estimation with the P-M-d model because of its complexity. Acceptable accuracy in ET estimation required onsite net radiation data for the P-T model and onsite vapor pressure deficit data for the S-W model; other input data can be obtained from nearby offsite weather stations. Errors in ET estimation produced by the use of offsite soil moisture data varied between two nearby SNOTEL sites. Recommendations about the use of offsite data are presented.",signatures:"Wonsook Ha, Abraham E. Springer, Frances C. O'Donnell and\nThomas E. Kolb",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54972",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54972",authors:[{id:"198958",title:"Dr.",name:"Wonsook",surname:"Ha",slug:"wonsook-ha",fullName:"Wonsook Ha"},{id:"205040",title:"Prof.",name:"Abraham",surname:"Springer",slug:"abraham-springer",fullName:"Abraham Springer"},{id:"205044",title:"Dr.",name:"Frances",surname:"O'Donnell",slug:"frances-o'donnell",fullName:"Frances O'Donnell"},{id:"205045",title:"Prof.",name:"Thomas",surname:"Kolb",slug:"thomas-kolb",fullName:"Thomas Kolb"}],corrections:null},{id:"55248",title:"Evapotranspiration in Northern Agro-Ecosystems: Numerical Simulation and Experimental Comparison",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68347",slug:"evapotranspiration-in-northern-agro-ecosystems-numerical-simulation-and-experimental-comparison",totalDownloads:1462,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Evapotranspiration and near-surface soil moisture dynamics are key-entangled variables regulating flux at the surface-atmosphere interface. Both are central in improving mass and energy balances in agro ecosystems. However, under the extreme conditions of high-latitude soils and weather pattern variability, the implementation of such coupled liquid and vapor phase numerical simulation remain to be tested. We consider the nonisothermal solution of the vapor flux equation that accounts for the thermally driven water vapor transport and phase changes. Fully coupled flux model outputs are compared and contrasted against field measurements of soil temperature, heat flux, water content, and evaporation in a subarctic agroecosystem in Alaska. Two well-defined hydro-meteorological situations were selected: dry and wet periods. Numerical simulation was forced by time series of incoming global solar radiation and atmospheric surface layer thermodynamic parameters: surface wind speed, ambient temperature, relative humidity, precipitation, and soil temperature and soil moisture. In this simulation, soil parameters changing in depth and time are considered as dynamically adjusted boundary conditions for solving the set of coupled differential equations. Results from this evaluation give good correlation of modeled and observed data in net radiation (Rnet) (R2 of 0.92, root mean square error (RMSE) of 45 W m−2), latent heat (0.70, RMSE of 53 W m−2), and sensible heat (R2 = 0.63, RMSE = 32 W m−2) during the dry period. On the other hand, a poor agreement was obtained in the radiative fluxes and turbulent fluxes during the wet period due to the lack of representation in the radiation field and differences in soil dynamics across the landscape.",signatures:"Watcharee Ruairuen, Gilberto J. Fochesatto, Marco Bittelli, Elena B.\nSparrow, Mingchu Zhang and William Schnabel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55248",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55248",authors:[{id:"200621",title:"Prof.",name:"Gilberto",surname:"Fochesatto",slug:"gilberto-fochesatto",fullName:"Gilberto Fochesatto"},{id:"200648",title:"Dr.",name:"Watcharee",surname:"Ruairuen",slug:"watcharee-ruairuen",fullName:"Watcharee Ruairuen"}],corrections:null},{id:"55086",title:"Moisture Evaporation from Granular Biopesticides Containing Quiescent Entomopathogenic Nematodes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68519",slug:"moisture-evaporation-from-granular-biopesticides-containing-quiescent-entomopathogenic-nematodes",totalDownloads:1395,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The moisture evaporation process from granular biopesticides (GBs) containing entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) has influence in the shelf-life of these biological products, but the approach to design GBs with desired transport properties lacks of theoretical support to get closer in a better way to formulations design of long-term storage. In this chapter we review the state of art in theoretical studies about the physics of the moisture evaporation to elucidate what are the mechanisms of drying of GBs. We found that several external and internal factors influence the transport process of moisture exchange among others phenomenon that happened in a porous media such as GBs; consequently, complex and highly dynamic interactions between medium properties, transport processes, and boundary conditions result in a wide range of evaporation behaviors. The theory of drying process in two stages for porous materials with high moisture content seems to be a good starting point to explore further the drying of GBs at different scales and mechanistic and correlative models of evaporation are available to analyze the desiccation in different stages of the elaboration process, which is also of interest in the subject area of science and technology of the formulation of EPNs.",signatures:"Carlos Inocencio Cortés-Martínez, Jaime Ruiz-Vega and Gabino\nAlberto Martínez-Gutiérrez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55086",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55086",authors:[{id:"198823",title:"D.Sc.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Cortés-Martínez",slug:"carlos-cortes-martinez",fullName:"Carlos Cortés-Martínez"},{id:"200181",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaime",surname:"Ruiz-Vega",slug:"jaime-ruiz-vega",fullName:"Jaime Ruiz-Vega"},{id:"200182",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabino",surname:"Martínez-Gutiérrez",slug:"gabino-martinez-gutierrez",fullName:"Gabino Martínez-Gutiérrez"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5209",title:"River Basin Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"09b5a27ccab9d67afa66f2f0a14fb1a4",slug:"river-basin-management",bookSignature:"Daniel Bucur",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5209.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50794",title:"Prof.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Bucur",slug:"daniel-bucur",fullName:"Daniel Bucur"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6973",title:"Advanced Evapotranspiration Methods and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7c54751778dc2ff4a19cd84f1bf0c706",slug:"advanced-evapotranspiration-methods-and-applications",bookSignature:"Daniel Bucur",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6973.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50794",title:"Prof.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Bucur",slug:"daniel-bucur",fullName:"Daniel Bucur"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5301",title:"Tropical Forests",subtitle:"The Challenges of Maintaining Ecosystem Services while Managing the Landscape",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"818e94b80f9ae07a70326fa70c7df615",slug:"tropical-forests-the-challenges-of-maintaining-ecosystem-services-while-managing-the-landscape",bookSignature:"Juan A. Blanco, Shih-Chieh Chang and Yueh-Hsin Lo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5301.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51995",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",surname:"Blanco",slug:"juan-blanco",fullName:"Juan Blanco"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6982",title:"Arctic Studies",subtitle:"A Proxy for Climate Change",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6545831965fb2dcef181c46d18fed1ba",slug:"arctic-studies-a-proxy-for-climate-change",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Yoshihiro Kakinami and Genti Toyokuni",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6982.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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1. Introduction
In the pharmaceutical industry, plants and plant products are continually used as sources of drugs and excipients. In particular, plant-derived polymers have contributed significant roles in drug delivery systems where they function as excipients [1]. Excipients refer to the non-pharmacological ingredients that are required to convert the Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient (API) into a dosage form. The International Pharmaceutical Excipients Council (IPEC, 1995) defines excipients as all substances contained in a dosage form other than the active substance or finished dosage form, which have been appropriately evaluated for safety and are included in a drug delivery system [2]. Excipients are included in drug delivery systems to assist in processing during manufacture, protect, support, enhance stability, bioavailability and patient acceptability, help in product identification, or enhance any other aspects of the drug delivery system’s overall safety and effectiveness during use or storage [2, 3, 4]. Far from being just a random combination of ingredients, a pharmaceutical formulation is a well-rationalized formulation designed to satisfy quality and performance. Excipients are essential in the drug development process, as well as the formulation and administration of stable dosage forms [2]. Excipients are required in drug formulations to guarantee the potency, safety, predictability and reproducibility of the release of the API as well as its palatability and suitability for the patients [3].
The interest in excipients of plant origin over semi-synthetic or synthetic excipients is not far-fetched: low toxicity, relative abundance, cost-effectiveness and non-irritant nature make them preferable to others sources [5]. Plant-based polymeric excipients can be used in different pharmaceutical formulations where they act as diluents or bulking agents, thickeners, binders, disintegrants, suspending agents, emulsifiers, film formers, matrix formers, release modifiers, sweeteners and mucoadhesive polymers [6, 7, 8, 9]. These natural polymers would have to fulfill the requirements of an ideal excipient to be successful candidates for use as excipients in various formulations for pharmaceutical use. The requirements for an ideal excipient includes being pharmacologically inert, non-toxic and non-irritant as well as being non-reactive with drug or with other substances present in the formulation and the packaging. In addition, they must be easy to handle, cost-effective and readily available for the sustainable manufacture of the pharmaceutical product. Numerous plant polymers fulfill many of these requirements and have found application in pharmaceutical formulations. These include Inulin; a polysaccharide obtained from plant sources like; onion, garlic, artichoke and chicory, starches which are polymeric carbohydrates with large glucose units joined by glycosidic bonds, gums, and mucilage such as: acacia gum, tragacanth gum, locust bean gum, okra mucilage, seaweed polysaccharides which include carrageenan, agar and alginates, microbial polysaccharides such as: xanthan gum and pullulan obtained by the fermentation of carbohydrate products by specific bacteria or fungus, and polysaccharides of the plant cell wall with cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectin being the main polymers of this group [10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16].
Pectin, a structural heteropolysaccharide, is considered the second most abundant component of the cell wall of all terrestrial plants [17, 18]. It is a hydrophilic polymer that is biodegradable, biocompatible and non-toxic, making it a good biomaterial for packaging, coating and various pharmaceutical applications. Pectin is normally produced during the initial stages of growth of the primary cell wall and constitutes about one-third of the dry substance of the cell wall of some monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants [19]. A white to light brown powder, pectin is found in numerous fruits and vegetables. The main raw materials for pectin production are dried citrus peels or apple pomace, both by-products of juice production that are often discarded as waste. Alternative sources of pectin extraction include sugar beet waste from sugar manufacturing, mango waste from mango canning factories and sunflower seeds used for extracting edible oil, waterleaf leaves, cocoa husk, and potato pulps [20, 21, 22, 23].
Pectin is the methylated ester of polygalacturonic acid which contains 1, 4-linked α-D-galacturonic acid residues and a variety of neutral sugars like arabinose, galactose, rhamnose and lesser amounts of other sugars [24, 25]. It can be classified into different types based on the degree of esterification or the number of methoxy groups that substitutes the carboxylic acid moiety on the galacturonic acid residues [26]. The degree of esterification influences the gelation mechanism, processing conditions and properties of the pectin [18, 27]. High methoxyl pectin is primarily used for gelation and has a degree of esterification greater than 50%. It requires a large amount of sugar and is acid-sensitive. Because of hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions between the pectin chains, high methoxyl pectin forms a gel at low pH and a high concentration of soluble particles [28]. Low methoxyl pectin has a degree of esterification of less than 50% and is widely used in the food industry to form low sugar jams since it does not require a large amount of sugar for gelation. It shows less sensitivity toward acidity and requires Ca2+ ions to form gel [29]. Low methoxyl pectin is generally formed by the de-esterification of high methoxy pectin using acids, alkali, pectin methylesterase and ammonia in alcohol or concentrated aqueous ammonia. Monovalent cation i.e. alkali metal salts of pectin is normally soluble in water while di- and trivalent cations are partially or completely insoluble in water. When dissolved, pectin decomposes rapidly by de-esterification or depolymerization. The rate of decomposition depends on the pH and temperature of the solution. The maximum stability of pectin is at pH 4 [30]. Low pH and high temperature increase the rate of degradation due to hydrolysis of the glycosidic linkage. At alkaline pH, pectin is rapidly de-esterified and degraded even at room temperature [31].
In this Chapter, the sections that follow would review in detail, some important pharmaceutical applications of pectin and possible modifications to enhance the future uses of pectin in pharmaceutical formulations.
2. Pharmaceutical uses of pectin
2.1 Drug delivery systems
The polymer pectin has been put to several uses since its discovery over 200 years ago. Though its major application has been in the food industry where it has been used as a gelling agent, emulsifier, stabilizer, thickener, and more recently as a food packaging material, where they as used as edible films on fruits and vegetables etc. The most important use of pectin is based on its ability to form gels, hence its potential as an excipient; pectin has been used as a binding agent [32, 33] in tablets, carrier for drug delivery to the gastrointestinal tract from matrix tablets, and as a controlled-release matrix in tablet formulations [34, 35, 36]. It has also been used as a sustained release drug delivery system in gel beads prepared by the ionotropic gelation method [19, 37, 38], colon-specific drug delivery vehicle [39], and film-coated dosage forms. Gel formation is caused by hydrogen bonding between free carboxyl groups on the pectin molecules and between the hydroxyl groups of neighboring molecules [40]. Most of the unesterified carboxyl groups in pectin occur as partially ionized salts in a neutral or very slightly acid dispersion of pectin molecules. [41]. Those that are ionized produce a negative charge on the molecule, which together with the hydroxyl groups causes it to attract layers of water [38]. Because of their negative charge, the repulsive forces between these groups can be strong enough to preclude the creation of a pectin network. When acid is added, the carboxyl ions are converted to mostly unionized carboxylic acid groups [38]. The attraction between pectin and water molecules is lowered by a reduction in the number of negative charges, which also lowers the forces of repulsion between pectin molecules. Sugar further decreases the hydration of the pectin by competing for water [41]. These conditions decrease the ability of pectin to stay dispersed. When cooled, the unstable dispersion of less hydrated pectin forms a gel, a continuous network of pectin holding the aqueous solution. High methoxyl pectin produces gels with sugar and acid. Unlike Low methoxyl pectin, high methoxyl pectin does not contain sufficient acid groups to gel or precipitate with calcium ions, although other ions such as aluminum or copper cause precipitation under certain conditions [25]. The degree of esterification (DE) affects the rate at which gel formation takes place [38]. A higher DE causes a more rapid setting. Slow-set pectins (with DE 58–65%) gel at lower soluble solids and greater levels than rapid-set pectins (DE > 72 per cent). Low methoxyl pectins require the presence of divalent cations (usually calcium) for proper gel formation [38].
2.2 Bioadhesive systems
The ability of pectin to absorb water, swell and form bioadhesive bonds with biological tissue has found application in the preparation of mucoadhesive formulations such as patches [42]. Pectin has also been found useful as a demulcent in throat lozenges where it gives temporary relief for minor discomfort and protects irritated areas in sore mouth and sore throat [43]. The antihemorrhagic effect of pectin has also been utilized in wound healing as medical adhesives [44].
2.3 Disperse systems
Pectin has been shown to have foam stabilizing and emulsification potential since the protein and hydrophobic acetyl groups of pectin can act as anchors on the oil particle surface, thus decreasing the surface tension [45]. Other areas of use have been as an emulsifier in oil: water emulsions [46, 47], and as a viscosity enhancer in lipid digests [48]. Pectin slows gastric transit thus helps control energy intake and hence its use by weight-watchers, since the large water-binding capacity of pectin reduces contact between intestinal enzymes and food, thus prolonging gastric emptying half-life, allowing a marked reduction in quantity and frequency of eating [49]. Furthermore, its interaction with polyphenolic compounds leads to systemic anti-inflammation [50].
2.4 Health benefits
In the pharmaceutical industry, pectin has been used both for its health benefits and as an excipient. Pectin as an active agent was formerly used in diarrhea mixtures, in conjunction with kaolin and sometimes bismuth compounds, and in wound dusting powders and ulcer dressings where pectin appears to have some specific activity in promoting healing [25]. It has been found to have certain health benefits such as reducing cancer development, lowering blood cholesterol and blood glucose level through the different domains of the pectin structure, and stimulating the immune response [51, 52, 53, 54, 55].
2.5 Other applications
Pectin’s application has spread to water treatment where it is used as a biosorbent to remove heavy metals [47] and in urinary excretion of toxic minerals such as lead, cadmium, strontium, or arsenic [56, 57, 58]. In cosmetics, it is used as a plasticizer, texturizer and adhesive [59], and in biomedical applications, where it is used as a biomaterial ink to fabricate patient-specific scaffolds when cross-linked with 3-glycidyloxypropyl trimethoxysilane (GPTMS) [60]. Some examples of drug products that contain pectin are presented in Table 1.
Pectin is an important biomaterial that has numerous pharmaceutical applications. Its application, however, largely depends on its material properties such as degree of esterification (DE), degree of blockiness (DB), ash value and solubility. This section will focus on these properties and how each affects the application of pectin pharmaceutically.
3.1 Degree of esterification
The DE of pectin is the ratio of esterified D-galacturonic acid (GalA) groups to total GalA groups [34, 61]. Depending on the species, tissue, and maturity of the plant, the DE can have a wide range. In general, the structure of pectin is mostly composed of homogalacturonan (HG), regions (partially 6-methylated and 2- and/or 3-acetylated poly-α(1–4)-D-galacturonic acid residues), alternating with rhamnogalacturonan I (RG-I), regions (branched α(1–2)-L-rhamnosyl-α(1–4)-D-galacturonosyl chains substituted with side chains of mainly α-L-arabinofuranose and α-D-galactopyranose) [18, 62]. The interconnection of HG “smooth” (responsible for the gelling capability) and RG-I “hairy” (play a gel-stabilizing role) regions, in relative proportions determine the flexibility and rheological properties of the polymer in solution [63, 64]. The gelling mechanism of pectin is dictated by its degree of esterification (total methoxyl content) [65]. Pectin based on the DE can be classified as high methoxyl (HM) pectin with DE > 50% or low methoxyl (LM) pectin DE < 50%, which are either the conventionally demethylated or the amidated molecule [66, 67, 68]. The two groups of pectin gel by different mechanisms. To form gels, high methoxyl pectin requires a minimum amount of soluble solids and a pH of around 3.0.
HM pectins are generally hot water-soluble, thermally reversible, and often contain dextrose (a dispersion agent) to prevent lumping. Conversely, LM pectins produce gels independent of sugar content, are less sensitive to pH compared to the HM pectins, and require the presence of a controlled amount of calcium or other divalent cations for gelation [41].
The specific application to which pectin will be put is a function of its gelling behavior, which is dependent on its DE, the monosaccharide content (HG), and the spatial disposition of the cross-linking blocks (RG) [69]. While HM pectins have been used in tablet formulations as a binder, controlled-release matrix and taste masker through complexation with bitter molecules, the LM pectins have been used as sustained-release matrices in microspheres produced by ionotropic gelation [19, 53, 69].
3.2 Degree of blockiness
Pectin, an anionic cell wall polysaccharide through its non-methyl esterified galacturonic acid units, interacts with divalent cations [40, 47]. At pH values above the pKa of pectin (2.8 to 4.1), non-methyl esterified GalA residues can be negatively charged, giving pectin the ability to interact with cations [34, 70]. Thus, the lower the DE of pectin, the higher the number of non-methyl esterified GalA residues present, the higher the cation-binding capacity. Due to LM pectin’s higher number of negatively chargeable carboxyl groups (non-methyl esterified carboxyl groups) compared to HM pectin, it exhibits a higher charge density, further showing that the cation-binding capacity of pectin increases with decreasing DE [40, 70, 71]. Studies have shown that regardless of the method used, a stronger and higher bound interaction occurs between pectin with decreasing DE and cations (Fe2+, Zn2+, or Ca2+) [47]. Furthermore, the DE and the intramolecular distribution of the non-methyl esterified carboxyl groups within the pectin determine pectin’s anionic nature and associated functionality [72, 73]. Interestingly, less described in the literature is the influence of the distribution pattern of non-methyl esterified GalA units on the cation-binding capacity of pectin compared to DE [47].
Daas et al. first quantified the relative occurrence of blocks of non-methyl esterified GalA units within a pectin chain as the degree of blockiness, DB [47, 74]. Apart from the DB, the absolute number of non-methyl esterified GalA units present in blocks can be expressed as the absolute degree of blockiness (DBabs). Both parameters (DB and DBabs) were established by exhaustive enzymatic degradation of pectin using endo-polygalacturonase (endo-PG) of Kluyveromyces fragilis, which required at least four consecutive non-methyl esterified GalA units to hydrolyze the linkage between two non-methyl esterified GalA units [70]. The DB is the proportion of galacturonic acid units (mono-, di-, and tri-) released by the enzyme to the total amount of non-methyl esterified GalA units, while DBabs is the number of GalA oligomers released in the endo-PG digest to the total number of GalA units in the pectin polymer, without adjustment of the DE [47, 74, 75]. Thus, to characterize the presence of blocks of non-methyl esterified GalA units, these parameters (DB and DBabs) are used [70]. For most of the cations (divalent cations), the binding between them and pectin is known to follow the egg-box model [47]. The egg-box model of ´binding was mainly described for pectin-Ca2+ binding but assumed to be applicable for interaction between pectin and other divalent cations [76]. However, Assifaoui et al. [77] reported that the egg-box model was more appropriate for Zn2+ binding than Ca2+ as they found that Zn2+ interacts with both carboxyl and hydroxyl groups, comparable to the egg-box model, whereas Ca2+ binds only via carboxyl groups [40]. This egg-box model yields stronger gels [78, 79].
Applications to which a high DB is required would thus mean high cation-binding capacity and hence the use of LM pectins and the converse is true.
3.3 Ash value
The ash content of pectin is a valuable tool in determining the purity as well as the gel-forming capability of the polymer. The ash content of pectin has been found to increase as the yield of pectin decreases [80]. High levels of ash in pectin may be caused by elevated concentrations of negatively charged carboxylic groups of pectin and the counterions in solution during pectin precipitation [41]. However, for gel formation, low ash content (≤ 10%) is a more favorable criterion as this will aid in determining the applicability of the polymer [47, 81, 80]. Ash content along with the anhydrouronic acid value of pectin has also been used to determine its purity [82, 83].
3.4 Solubility
Pectins are soluble in pure water. The solubility appears to depend on the valency of the cation salt; monovalent cation salts of pectin and pectic acids are usually soluble in water, while the di- and trivalent cation salts are weakly soluble or insoluble in water. Dry powdered pectin hydrates very rapidly when added to water, but tends to form clumps. These clumps are semidry packets of pectin within a highly hydrated outer coating. Dry mixing the powder with water-soluble carrier material can prevent the formation of clumps or by the use of specially treated pectin that has improved dispersibility [20, 83]. Studies have shown that pectin extracted with distilled water showed a high yield and low ash content when compared to other solvents [79]. High ash content and the drying process of the extracted pectin, however, may reduce the solubility of pectin [47]. It has been shown too that a decrease in the esterified carboxylic group reduced the solubility of extracted pectin; this insolubility of the extracted pectin is probably due to the presence of electrolytes in de-methylated pectic acid [47]. Thus, pectins with lower DE are less hydrophilic [69].
Dilute pectin solutions are Newtonian in behavior but at a moderate concentration, they exhibit the non-Newtonian, pseudo plastic behavior characteristics. Solubility, viscosity, and gelation are generally related. Whatever factors increase gel strength will increase the gelling tendency, viscosity, decrease solubility, and vice versa [84].
3.5 Antioxidant activity
Another property of pectin that could affect its application is its antioxidant activity. However, there are limited studies to show how this property may be applied to either the food industry or the pharmaceutical sector [85].
4. Modifications of pectin for future applications
The presence of several hydroxyl and carboxyl groups distributed along its backbone as well as a certain amount of neutral sugars presented as side chains gives pectin the capability of producing a broad spectrum of derivatives with modified or new functional properties. Various methods used for pectin modification include substitution (alkylation, amidation, quaternization, thiolation, sulfation, oxidation, etc.), chain elongation (cross-linking and grafting) and depolymerization (chemical, physical, and enzymatic degradation). Saponification (a process catalyzed by mineral acids, bases, salts of weak acids and primary aliphatic amines) can also be used to modify pectin chemically. Modification induced by pH changes can produce new fragments that have their solubility and biological activities altered [86]. Enzymatic modification of pectin has been achieved by using endo-polygalacturonase (Endo-PG), resulting in highly selective and specific structural changes in the polymer backbone. This modification leads to the cleavage of glycosidic linkages between two non-esterified α-D-galacturonic acid residues inside the HG fragment, which is depolymerisation. The enzymatic modification method can alter the macromolecular structure of pectin and can yield modified pectin with newer and improved properties and functionalities [87].
A new hydrolyzed polyacrylamide-graft-sodium alginate (PAAmg-SA) and diclofenac sodium-loaded interpenetrating polymer network (IPN) beads of pectin were developed using the ionic gelation method. The results of the investigation verified that hydrolyzed PAAm-g-SA and pectin cross-linked with aluminum ion (Al3+) and glutaraldehyde could form an optimal matrix material for the production of IPN beads to support the sustained release of diclofenac sodium [88]. In another study, for the nasal administration of tacrine hydrochloride (an anti-Alzheimer drug), mucoadhesive microparticles based on chitosan/pectin polyelectrolyte complexes were prepared. The microparticles were produced by spray drying followed by lyophilization and direct spray drying. The study thus demonstrated the potential of the chitosan/pectin polyelectrolyte complexes to function variously in mucoadhesive microparticles [89, 90]. The chitosan/pectin molar ratio influenced the water uptake and tacrine hydrochloride permeation [90, 91].
Emerging advanced manufacturing technology in the field of tissue engineering and pharmaceutical formulations is the use of 3D bioprinting technology. 3D printing is an additive manufacturing technology in which objects are constructed in a layer-by-layer manner achieved by heat fusion, ultraviolet light (UV), and chemical bonding [91]. Spritam®, a fast disintegrating orodispersible tablet containing levetiracetam for epilepsy was the first 3D printed drug product approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2015 [91]. To sustain the manufacturing of these types of drugs using this new technique, biomaterials that are green and non-toxic, derived from renewable sources and can be processed through 3D bioprinting are being developed [42, 60]. Common techniques include powder bed printing, vat polymerization (VP), and fused deposition modeling (FDM) [92]. A major disadvantage of the FDM technology is the need to insert printing materials into a nozzle in the form of a solid filament, which is non-existing for many pharmaceutical materials, thus necessitating the transformation of pharmaceutical-grade materials, including active pharmaceutical ingredients (API), into FDM-suitable filaments using techniques like hot-melt extrusion (HME). However, thermolabile therapeutics are not suitable for extrusion via FDM, due to potential degradation concerns [93]. The use of bio-inks for extrusion-based bioprinting at room or body temperature has shown clinical potential in achieving personalized treatment [92]. For example, Long et al. developed a personalized 3D printed wound dressing composed of chitosan and pectin with the ability to control dimensional properties such as thickness and pore size using an extrusion-based bioprinter [91, 92], while allowing for facile lidocaine incorporation for immediate pain relief [94]. Pectin from citrus peels has also been cross-linked with (3-glycidyloxypropyl)trimethoxysilane (GPTMS) through a one-pot procedure to obtain freeze-dried porous pectin sponges with varying porosity, water uptake, and compressive modulus [42]. The addition of GPTMS improved the printability of pectin due to an increase in viscosity and yield stress [95]. Without the use of any additional support material, three-dimensional woodpile and complex anatomical-shaped scaffolds interconnected with micro and macro pores were, therefore, bioprinted [96]. Thus showing the great potential of pectin cross-linked with GPTMS as biomaterial ink to fabricate patient-specific scaffolds that could be used to promote tissue regeneration in vivo [42]. In another study, gelatin, another natural biopolymer has had its rheological properties improved to aid its bio-printing performance by using pectin as a rheology modifier of gelatin and GPTMS as a gelatin-pectin crosslinking agent [95]. Pectin played a key role in increasing the viscosity and the yield stress of low viscous gelatin solutions as shown through investigation of the rheological properties, as well as bioprinting assessments [96]. Water stable, three-dimensional, and self-supporting gelatin-pectin-GPTMS scaffolds with interconnected micro- and macro- porosity were successfully obtained by combining extrusion-based bioprinting and freeze-drying which did not require any additional temperature control to further modulate the rheological properties of gelatin solutions [95]. Patient-centric dosage forms have been produced through additive manufacturing techniques, which enable its design with precise control over dimension and microstructure, factors that are known to ultimately play key roles in modulating drug release kinetics, a feat not achieved through compression; traditional manufacturing techniques [92, 96, 97].
5. Conclusions
Pectin over the years has “metamorphosed” from just being a gelling agent for the production of jam and confectionaries to a biomaterial with health benefits to being useful as an excipient in drug delivery systems and more recently even personalized 3D printed medicine. This is as a result of a better understanding of its structure, mechanism by which it gels, and its properties such as degree of esterification and degree of blockiness, which has aided its classification and application.
The pharmaceutical industry has a material that can be explored in different functional dimensions as the usefulness and functionality of pectin unfolds.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"Pectin, Degree of Esterification, Drug Delivery, Polymer Matrix, Excipients",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/78624.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/78624.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78624",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78624",totalDownloads:147,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"August 20th 2021",dateReviewed:"August 26th 2021",datePrePublished:"September 16th 2021",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"September 16th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Pectin, a natural ionic polysaccharide found in the cell wall of terrestrial plants undergoes chain–chain association to form hydrogels upon addition of divalent cations. Based on its degree of esterification, pectin has been classified into two main types. The high methoxyl pectin with a degree of esterification greater than 50%, which is mainly used for its thickening and gelling properties and the low methoxyl pectin, which is widely used for its low sugar-content in jams, both applications being in the food industry. Pectin is mostly derived from citrus fruit peels, but can also be found in other plants such as waterleaf leaves, cocoa husk, and potato pulps. Pectin has been used as an excipient in pharmaceutical formulations for various functions. This chapter will focus on the various applications to which pectin has been used in the pharmaceutical industry.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/78624",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/78624",signatures:"Olufunke D. Akin-Ajani and Adenike Okunlola",book:{id:"10742",type:"book",title:"Pectins - The New-Old Polysaccharides",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Pectins - The New-Old Polysaccharides",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Martin Alberto Masuelli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10742.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-83969-597-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-596-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-598-8",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"99994",title:"Dr.",name:"Martin",middleName:"Alberto",surname:"Masuelli",slug:"martin-masuelli",fullName:"Martin Masuelli"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Pharmaceutical uses of pectin",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Drug delivery systems",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Bioadhesive systems",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Disperse systems",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4 Health benefits",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.5 Other applications",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"3. Material properties of pectin",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.1 Degree of esterification",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.2 Degree of blockiness",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.3 Ash value",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.4 Solubility",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"3.5 Antioxidant activity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"4. Modifications of pectin for future applications",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_19",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Nayak A, Olatunji O, Das DB, Vladvisavljevic G. Pharmaceutical Applications of Natural Polymers. 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These associations have been based almost entirely on the presence or absence of lesmas and “projectile points,” regardless of their morphological and technological features. In the Uruguayan archaeological literature, three other cultures are recognised: Fell industry, Catalanense industry, and Tigre tradition, all in the Uruguayan region. However, the last 10 years of systematic studies on the lithic assemblages from these sites have shown that Paleoindian societies from Eastern South America are more culturally diverse than expected and that previously defined archaeological cultures present several issues in their definition, suggesting that many of these “traditions” are not valid and should no longer be used. Instead, new lithic industries and archaeological cultures should be defined only when cultural patterns are observable through systematic analyses.",book:{id:"9251",slug:"pleistocene-archaeology-migration-technology-and-adaptation",title:"Pleistocene Archaeology",fullTitle:"Pleistocene Archaeology - Migration, Technology, and Adaptation"},signatures:"João Carlos Moreno De Sousa",authors:[{id:"303361",title:"Dr.",name:"João Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Moreno De Sousa",slug:"joao-carlos-moreno-de-sousa",fullName:"João Carlos Moreno De Sousa"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"36570",title:"Archaeological Geophysics - From Basics to New Perspectives",slug:"archaeological-geophysics-from-basics-to-new-perspectives",totalDownloads:6628,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:null,book:{id:"1999",slug:"archaeology-new-approaches-in-theory-and-techniques",title:"Archaeology",fullTitle:"Archaeology, New Approaches in Theory and Techniques"},signatures:"Roger Sala, Ekhine Garcia and Robert Tamba",authors:[{id:"131865",title:"Dr.",name:"Roger",middleName:null,surname:"Sala",slug:"roger-sala",fullName:"Roger Sala"}]},{id:"36576",title:"Homage to Marcel Proust - Aspects of Dissemination and Didactic in a Museum and a Science Centre: Science Communication Visions for the Third Generation Museums",slug:"generations-of-ancient-history-dissemination-towards-the-public-at-the-university-museum-in-trondhei",totalDownloads:2669,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:null,book:{id:"1999",slug:"archaeology-new-approaches-in-theory-and-techniques",title:"Archaeology",fullTitle:"Archaeology, New Approaches in Theory and Techniques"},signatures:"Kistian Overskaug",authors:[{id:"117119",title:"Dr.",name:"Kristian",middleName:null,surname:"Overskaug",slug:"kristian-overskaug",fullName:"Kristian Overskaug"}]},{id:"63772",title:"Cultural Heritage in Marker-Less Augmented Reality: A Survey",slug:"cultural-heritage-in-marker-less-augmented-reality-a-survey",totalDownloads:1644,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Augmented reality (AR) is considered as one of the most significant technologies in the field of computer graphics and is utilised in many applications. 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While the Oldowan as the earliest technocomplex continues to be elusive, the oldest Acheulean is dated to ~1.5 Ma and the early Middle Paleolithic is ~385 ka (from the same site). New Late Pleistocene dates have been reported for the Middle Paleolithic which continues up to 38 Ka in southern India. The Upper Paleolithic remains ambiguous and requires critically multidisciplinary investigations. The microlithic evidence appears to spread rapidly across the subcontinent soon after its emergence at ~48 Ka (though its origin is debated) and continues into the Iron Age. The timeline of the initial arrival of Homo sapiens continues to be debated based on the archaeology (advanced Middle Paleolithic vs. microlithic) and genetic studies on indigenous groups. Other issues that need consideration are: interactions between archaics and arriving moderns, the marginal occurrence of symbolic behavior, the absolute dating of rock art and the potential role of hominins in specific animal extinctions and ecological marginalization. The region does not appear to have been a corridor for dispersals towards Southeast Asia (although gene flow may have occurred). Instead, once various prehistoric technologies appeared in the Subcontinent, they possibly followed complex trajectories within relative isolation.",book:{id:"9251",slug:"pleistocene-archaeology-migration-technology-and-adaptation",title:"Pleistocene Archaeology",fullTitle:"Pleistocene Archaeology - Migration, Technology, and Adaptation"},signatures:"Parth R. Chauhan",authors:[{id:"307040",title:"Dr.",name:"Parth",middleName:null,surname:"Chauhan",slug:"parth-chauhan",fullName:"Parth Chauhan"}]},{id:"73386",title:"Island Migration, Resource Use, and Lithic Technology by Anatomically Modern Humans in Wallacea",slug:"island-migration-resource-use-and-lithic-technology-by-anatomically-modern-humans-in-wallacea",totalDownloads:742,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Island migration and adaptation including both marine and terrestrial resource use and technological development by anatomically modern humans (AMH) are among the most significant issues for Pleistocene archaeology in Southeast Asia and Oceania, and directly related to the behavioral and technological advancements by AMH. This paper discusses such cases in the Wallacean islands, located between the past Sundaland and the Sahul continent during the Pleistocene. The Pleistocene open sea gaps between the Wallacean islands and both landmasses are very likely the major factor for the relative scarcity of animal species originating from Asia and Oceania and the high diversity of endemic species in Wallacea. They were also a barrier for hominin migration into the Wallacean islands and Sahul continent. We summarize three recent excavation results on the Talaud Islands, Sulawesi Island and Mindoro Island in Wallacea region and discuss the evidence and timeline for migrations of early modern humans into the Wallacean islands and their adaptation to island environments during the Pleistocene.",book:{id:"9251",slug:"pleistocene-archaeology-migration-technology-and-adaptation",title:"Pleistocene Archaeology",fullTitle:"Pleistocene Archaeology - Migration, Technology, and Adaptation"},signatures:"Rintaro Ono, Alfred Pawlik and Riczar Fuentes",authors:[{id:"177123",title:"Dr.",name:"Rintaro",middleName:null,surname:"Ono",slug:"rintaro-ono",fullName:"Rintaro Ono"},{id:"300616",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfred",middleName:null,surname:"Pawlik",slug:"alfred-pawlik",fullName:"Alfred Pawlik"},{id:"330591",title:"Dr.",name:"Riczar",middleName:null,surname:"Fuentes",slug:"riczar-fuentes",fullName:"Riczar Fuentes"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"263",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:36,paginationItems:[{id:"82195",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum: A Hub in Lipid Homeostasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105450",signatures:"Raúl Ventura and María Isabel Hernández-Alvarez",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum-a-hub-in-lipid-homeostasis",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"82409",title:"Purinergic Signaling in Covid-19 Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105008",signatures:"Hailian Shen",slug:"purinergic-signaling-in-covid-19-disease",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82374",title:"The Potential of the Purinergic System as a Therapeutic Target of Natural Compounds in Cutaneous Melanoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105457",signatures:"Gilnei Bruno da Silva, Daiane Manica, Marcelo Moreno and Margarete Dulce Bagatini",slug:"the-potential-of-the-purinergic-system-as-a-therapeutic-target-of-natural-compounds-in-cutaneous-mel",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105543",signatures:"Mary Dover, Michael Kishek, Miranda Eddins, Naneeta Desar, Ketema Paul and Milan Fiala",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:32,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. 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Dr. Şentürk currently works as an professor of Biochemistry in the Department of Basic Pharmacy Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ağri Ibrahim Cecen University, Turkey. \nDr. Şentürk published over 120 scientific papers, reviews, and book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists. \nHis research interests span enzyme inhibitor or activator, protein expression, purification and characterization, drug design and synthesis, toxicology, and pharmacology. \nHis research work has focused on neurodegenerative diseases and cancer treatment. 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He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry"}}},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/15373",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"15373"},fullPath:"/chapters/15373",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()