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Chan",slug:"johnny-c.l.-chan"},{id:"185564",title:"Ms.",name:"Chunyan",middleName:null,surname:"Cao",fullName:"Chunyan Cao",slug:"chunyan-cao"},{id:"185565",title:"Mr.",name:"Cheng",middleName:null,surname:"Li",fullName:"Cheng Li",slug:"cheng-li"},{id:"185566",title:"Dr.",name:"Xingbao",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Xingbao Wang",slug:"xingbao-wang"}]},{id:"51689",title:"Climate Risk Early Warning System for Island Nations: Tropical Cyclones",slug:"climate-risk-early-warning-system-for-island-nations-tropical-cyclones",signatures:"Yuriy Kuleshov",authors:[{id:"102903",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuriy",middleName:null,surname:"Kuleshov",fullName:"Yuriy Kuleshov",slug:"yuriy-kuleshov"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1402",title:"Climate Change",subtitle:"Research and Technology for Adaptation and Mitigation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e90423b1dd2e255705177b4413f1d7de",slug:"climate-change-research-and-technology-for-adaptation-and-mitigation",bookSignature:"Juan Blanco and Houshang Kheradmand",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1402.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51995",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",surname:"Blanco",slug:"juan-blanco",fullName:"Juan Blanco"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1546",title:"Atmospheric Model Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30315ea16bedb67eebd4fb0e9f38f968",slug:"atmospheric-model-applications",bookSignature:"Ismail Yucel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1546.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"100229",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail",surname:"Yucel",slug:"ismail-yucel",fullName:"Ismail Yucel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1548",title:"Modern Climatology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1ff6285db485c8ded3e5a29b2f721f6d",slug:"modern-climatology",bookSignature:"Shih-Yu (Simon) Wang and Robert R. Gillies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1548.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"97884",title:"Dr.",name:"Shih-Yu (Simon)",surname:"Wang",slug:"shih-yu-(simon)-wang",fullName:"Shih-Yu (Simon) Wang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1549",title:"Climate Models",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"10f7a6546beaad2a6923bcd37ef49e47",slug:"climate-models",bookSignature:"Leonard M. Druyan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1549.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"87339",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonard",surname:"Druyan",slug:"leonard-druyan",fullName:"Leonard Druyan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1571",title:"Doppler Radar Observations",subtitle:"Weather Radar, Wind Profiler, Ionospheric Radar, and Other Advanced Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f6614a3df0bad532ed06d41891fe9c96",slug:"doppler-radar-observations-weather-radar-wind-profiler-ionospheric-radar-and-other-advanced-applications",bookSignature:"Joan Bech and Jorge Luis Chau",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1571.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"113007",title:"Dr.",name:"Joan",surname:"Bech",slug:"joan-bech",fullName:"Joan Bech"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[{type:"book",id:"59",title:"Recent Hurricane Research",subtitle:"Climate, Dynamics, and Societal Impacts",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"603bbf36aa423b62f05802dabb4a4b6b",slug:"recent-hurricane-research-climate-dynamics-and-societal-impacts",bookSignature:"Anthony Lupo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/59.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"18289",title:"Prof.",name:"Anthony",surname:"Lupo",slug:"anthony-lupo",fullName:"Anthony Lupo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"76353",title:"The Ghanaian Flora as a Potential Source of Anthelmintic and Anti-Schistosomal Agents",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97417",slug:"the-ghanaian-flora-as-a-potential-source-of-anthelmintic-and-anti-schistosomal-agents",body:'Neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) include a collection of chronic, disabling, and physically disfiguring infectious diseases that usually affect dwellers of poor rural populations in tropical and sub-tropical countries of the world [1]. Apart from their negative impact on the health of victims, NTDs exert an immense socio-economic burden on the society as a result of the social stigma and physical disabilities associated with them. These interrelated negative outcomes perpetuate a cycle of poverty and unproductivity resulting in a consistent decline in economic growth [2]. As a major element of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), much effort is being put in for the elimination of the NTDs [3].
Among the NTDs, helminth infections especially soil-transmitted helminthiasis (STHs) and schistosomiasis are among the most prevalent afflictions of humans [4]. About 2 billion people are estimated to suffer from helminth infections worldwide, out of whom 300 million suffer from severe morbidity [5]. The negative impact of helminth infections on human growth and development (including cognitive development in childhood and nutritional status), pregnancy and work performance cannot be overemphasized. Though considered as acute health problems in some developed parts of the world, chronic parasitic infections are common and recurrent in poor communities and usually result in long-lasting complications making them a significant health threat to the populations who are continuously at risk for infection [6].
Over the years, many highly effective chemotherapeutic agents have been developed for treating helminth infections. Unfortunately in the setting of rural poverty where these diseases are mostly prevalent, access to healthcare facilities and the cost of medications are a challenge [7, 8]. Additionally, environmental factors and unavoidable domestic or occupational exposures, strongly favor the process of re-infection even after a successful therapy [9, 10]. Given that these infections also require lengthy treatment regimens with related costs which cannot be afforded by the affected victims, many patients seek for alternative treatment options especially the use of herbal medicines which are readily available and less expensive [9, 11].
Herbal extracts have been used in traditional medicines since ancient times for the effective treatment of human diseases [12]. Ethnobotanical studies in various regions of the world have documented medicinal plants used for the treatment of various parasitic infections. Scientific investigations of selected plants have also revealed remarkable activity of medicinal plants against specific human parasites [13, 14]. In Ghana, numerous medicinal plants play an important role in the healthcare system of rural communities. The Ghanaian flora provides a ready source for new therapeutic interventions for the local population [15, 16, 17]. This chapter provides a review with special focus on medicinal plants collected from Ghana with anthelmintic and anti-schistosomal activity.
Soil transmitted helminth (STH) infections are a group of infections which are acquired by the ingestion of, or contact with, soil containing infectious worm eggs or larvae [18]. STHs have been reported as the most common parasitic infections encountered in humans with an estimation of more than 1 billion people infected with at least one or more helminth parasites. They constitute an important global health challenge in resource deprived parts of the world and are prevalent in areas of poor sanitary conditions [19].
The main species of clinical importance are the intestinal roundworm (
Anthelmintics are a group of antiparasitic drugs that expel worms and other internal parasites out of the body by either stunting or killing them. For the treatment of STHs, the benzimidazoles specifically albendazole and mebendazole are the current treatment drugs of choice [19]. The main challenge with these anthelminthics is the development of resistance due to the intensive use of drugs in both human and live-stock [22]. With few new drugs evolving against helminth infections over the years, the fight against these parasites could become a losing battle, thus the need to search for new alternatives.
Schistosomiasis, widely known as bilharzia, is caused by infection with blood flukes of the genus
Five species of the schistosome parasite namely:
For the eradication of schistosomiasis, control programmes have been based on preventive chemotherapy. The WHO endorsed and advocated for mass drug administration (MDA) especially among school children utilizing a single oral dose of 40 mg/kg praziquantel [27]. Unfortunately, the unavailability of the drugs due to cost, poor drug coverage, inequity of access to chemotherapy and non-compliance to therapy due to adverse side effects have impeded the progress of this approach [7, 28]. The expansion of preventive chemotherapy has also raised concerns about the potential development of resistance to praziquantel (PZQ) which remains the only commercially readily available drug for the control of schistosomiasis [29]. Some studies have reported low cure rates of PZQ attributing this to possible mutation of the schistosome parasite as well as inactivity of PZQ against early stages of the worms [30, 31]. It is thus not a satisfactory situation to have only one single effective treatment. Ideally, other anti-schistosome drugs should be developed so that the classical strategy of avoiding development of resistance could be followed.
Reported anthelmintic and anti-schistosomal activities of medicinal plants collected from various parts of Ghana were obtained from electronic databases including PubMed, SciFinder and Google Scholar. The inclusion criteria were that: (i) plants should be used in Ghanaian traditional medicine for treatment of worm infestations or expulsion of worms and schistosomiasis (urinary and intestinal) or other condition characterized by the symptoms of the above diseases (ii) plant should have been investigated for anthelmintic or anti-schistosomal (cercarididal) activity using one or more validated
The anthelmintic activity of plant extracts was mostly studied by evaluating their effect on worms after direct exposure for a period of time. Earthworms including
The anthelminthic potency of the petroleum ether, chloroform and methanol extracts of
The methanol extracts (50–150 mg/mL) of the stem bark and roots of
In another study, the aqueous and ethanolic stem bark extracts (50–200 mg/mL) of
The anthelmintic activity of the ethanolic extract of
The pawpaw tree is well known for its nutritional and medicinal values. The leaf decoction is used as a galactogogue and in the treatment of tonsillitis, ulcerative stomatitis, hemorrhoids, asthma, urinary tract infections, as poultice for sores and gingivitis and in the treatment of helminth infections. The roots are used as antidote to various poisons. The fruits are used to treat indigestion, chronic diarrhea, ringworm infections, bleeding piles, and amoebic dysentery [39]. Almost all parts of the plant are documented to be used for managing helminth infections. In Ghana, 74% traditional healers used this plant for treating helminth infections [40].
In a comparative assessment of the anthelminthic activity of various parts of the plant, the hydroethanolic extracts of the leaves, stem bark, and seeds of
Ethnopharmacological reports from parts of Ghana revealed the extensive use of the leaves of
In a previous study, the alcoholic leaf extract of
In another study, fractions and purified compounds from
The anthelmintic and helminth resistance modifying activities of methanol extract of
Further the extract at 1, 2 and 5 mg/mL significantly potentiated the activity of albendazole, mebendazole and levamisole against the test organism. In the presence of 2 mg/mL of the extract the paralysis and death times of albendazole (8 mg/mL) against
In a previous study, the methanol stem bark extract of
In a previous study, the methanol stem bark extract of
The foliage of
The hydroethanolic extract of the roots of
In another study, the 70% aqueous acetone extract, solvent fractions and isolated compounds from the roots of
In a previous, observations were made for the time taken for different solvent extracts of the leaves of
The leaves and stem bark of
The anthelmintic activity of the aqueous and ethanolic extracts of the roots of
In a previous study, the anthelmintic activity
In another study, the stem bark extracts (ethanol and chloroform extracts) of
The methanol extracts of the leaves and stem bark
The ethanolic extract of the dried fruits and leaves (300–300 mg/mL) were investigated for anthelmintic activity against earth worms. The anthelmintic activity of the fruit extract was more potent that the leaf extract. Both extracts demonstrated a concentration dependent activity with the fruit extract demonstrating significant paralytic and death times (
See Table 1.
Plant | Family | Common name | Part Investigated | Activity Type |
---|---|---|---|---|
Euphorbiaceae | Christmas Bush | Leaves | Anthelmintic activity against | |
Apocynaceae | Alstonia | Roots, stem bark | Anthelmintic activity against | |
Meliaceae | Neem | Seeds Leaves | Anthelmintic activity against Cercaricidal and adulticidal activity against | |
Caricaceae | Pawpaw | Leaves, stem bark, seeds | Anthelmintic activity against | |
Combretaceae | — | Leaves | Anthelmintic activity against | |
Cyperaceae | — | Whole plant | Anthelmintic activity against | |
Dichapeltaceae | — | Stems, roots | Anti-schistosomal activity against eggs obtained from clinical isolates of | |
— | Leaves, stem bark Roots | Cercaricidal activity against post-infective larvae (schistosomule) and adult parasite of Cercaricidal activity against freshly shed cercariae from | ||
Gutifferae | Bitter kola | Stem bark | Anthelmintic activity against | |
Apocynaceae | — | Stem bark | Cercariae from | |
Rubiaceae | — | Stem bark | Anthelmintic activity against Cercaricidal activity against Adulticidal effect against | |
Moringaceae | Moringa | Foliage | Anthelmintic activity against | |
Rubiaceae | African peach | Stem bark | Cercaricidal activity against Adulticidal effect against | |
Lamiaceae | Basil | Fruits | Anthelmintic activity against | |
Euphorbiaceae | — | Roots | Anthelmintic activity against the free-living nematode | |
Plumbaginaceae | — | Leaves | Anthelmintic activity against | |
Euphorbiaceae | — | Leaves | Cercaricidal activity against | |
Apocynaceae | Snakeroot | Leaves, roots Roots, stem bark | Anthelmintic activity against Cercaricidal activity against Adulticidal effect against | |
Anacardiaceae | Roots | Anthelmintic activity against | ||
Asteraceae | Bitter leaf | Leaves, stem bark Leaves | Anthelmintic activity against Cercaricidal activity against Adulticidal effect against | |
Apocynaceae | — | Leaf, stem bark | Anthelmintic activity against | |
Apocynaceae | African black pepper | Fruits, leaves | Anthelmintic activity against |
Medicinal plants from Ghana with anthelmintic and anti-schistosomal activity.
[Refer to Section 2.3 for plant description].
The methanol leaf extract of
The effect of
The effect of the extract on the weight of spleen and liver of infected mice were all significantly lesser in the
Crude extracts (pet-ether, ethyl acetate and methanol) and isolated triterpenoids from the stems and roots of
For the stem extracts, the ovicidal potency was in the following order petroleum ether (IC50 = 443.70) > EtOAc (IC50 = 638.00) > MeOH (IC50 = 893.70 μg/mL). The IC50 values for the root extracts were 248.60, 546.40, and 566.30 μg/mL respectively for the EtOAc, pet-ether and MeOH extracts.
The isolated compounds (Friedelan-3-one, β-Sitosterol/stigmasterol, Dichapetalin M and Dichapetalin A) showed higher ovicidal activity than the extracts though activities for both extracts and compounds were lower compared to the standard drug, praziquantel. The highest ovicidal potency was exhibited by β-sitosterol/stigmasterol mixture with an IC50 of 177.90 μg/mL which was about 11 times less potent than praziquantel (15.47 ± 0.06 μg/mL). The next highest was dichapetalin A (151.10 μg/mL) whiles friedelan-3-one showed the least potency with IC50 of 378.10 μg/mL. From the root extract, Dichapetalin M showed ovicidal effect with IC50 of 191.00 μg/mL [75].
The cercaricidal activity of the leaf and stem bark extracts of
In another study, the
The hydroethanolic and alkaloidal extracts from the stem bark of
[Refer to Section 2.8 for plant description].
In a previous study, the cercaricidal activity of the methanol stem bark extract of
Previous studies on the cercaricidal activity the methanolic extract of stem bark of
The methanolic extract (250 μg/mL) of
[Refer to Section 2.13 for plant description].
The root and stem bark of
The ethanolic extract of the root and stem bark were both found to be active against the cercariae and adult worms. At a concentration range of 62.5–1000 𝜇g/mL the stem bark extract exhibited significant anti-cercarial activity (
[Refer to Section 2.15 for plant description].
In a previous study, the evaluation of the cercaricidal and schistosomicidal activities of the methanol extract of the leaves of
The ability of the leaf extract (500 mg/kg
The anthelmintic and anti-schistosomal activities of some medicinal plants employed in Ghanaian traditional medicine have been validated. For most of these plants however, the specific bioactive constituents are not yet identified. It is therefore imperative that further studies to isolate and verify the constituents responsible for the observed activities be performed. Further, the evaluation of safety profiles will add substantial value to the reported bioactivities and make these plants attractive for adaptation to pharmaceutical companies for further development.
Authors have no conflict of interest to declare.
The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
",metaTitle:"Our story",metaDescription:"The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/our-story",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\\n\\nIn the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
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\\n\\nWe started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\n\nIn the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n\n2004
\n\n2005
\n\n2006
\n\n2008
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