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In general, crystalline porous materials can have several terminologies, for example, metal-organic material (MOM), coordination polymer (CP), coordination network (CN), porous coordination polymer (PCP), porous coordination network (PCN), microporous coordination polymer (MCP), and metal-organic coordination network (MOCN), which are habitually used by different scientists to designate, at least some, MOFs. All these subclasses of coordination compounds have very similar structural features with slight differences and therefore confer an inevitable overlap in their properties. For example, coordination polymer (CP) is a common term that has occasionally been used as an alternative word for MOF. The term “coordination polymer” implies that coordination compounds that constitute one-, two-, or three-dimensional (1D, 2D, or 3D) polymeric structures via linking of the metal ions by bridging ligands are CPs [1]. The synthesis of MOFs requires two principal components, the ligands commonly called linkers, and the metals in the form of different salts such as nitrates, chlorates, perchlorates, or sulfates. The ligands are usually any atom or any organic molecule, the latter possesses in its structure different functional groups as carboxylic acid, amine, pyridine group, among others, with the ability to donate at list a lone electron pair to the metal, commonly known as Lewis’s base. The pore size depends mostly on the length of the ligand. On the other hand, the second component corresponds to the metal, which may vary from the s-block, p-block, transition metals, or even rare earth metals. The obtention of MOFs in 1D, 2D, and 3D dimensions depends directly on the metal employed for the synthesis, which has to do with its oxidation state and the types of geometries that the metal can acquire. And finally, a very important issue to consider is the technique used to obtain the MOFs that involves several parameters such as solvent or solvent mixture, temperature, pressure, pH value among others, all these variables together may or may not give rise to the desired materials. Different synthesis methods to obtain MOFs have been applied in the last 20 years in addition to the room temperature or slow evaporation synthesis, which are conventional electric (CE) heating, microwave (MW) heating, electrochemistry (EC), mechanochemistry (MC), ultrasonic (US) methods, and a combination of the previous techniques before mentioned. Conventional step-by-step methods, as well as high-throughput methods, have been employed in some of the studies. There have been various studies regarding the morphology of the MOF products, in addition to the crystal size or shape, thin films, membranes, and various other shapes made of MOFs have been reported, which require the application of different synthesis methods [2].
The geometry and connectivity of a linker dictate the structure of the resulting MOF, which are broadly classified into neutral (MOFs) and ionic (iMOFs), based on the charge of the framework backbone. Ionic MOFs (iMOFs) are subdivided into cationic (iMOF-C) and anionic (iMOF-A). Azolate based linkers may give neutral as well as ionic framework depending on the connectivity of the linker, metal coordination environment, and coordination geometry. Figure 1 shows the type of MOF obtained according to the N-donor linker base used [3].
Classification of MOFs constructed from N-donor linkers [
Many of the systems reported from the use of azolate-based linkers are neutral in nature, wherein the charge balance is either via anionic donor groups of azolates or the presence of coordinating anion used in the synthesis. For instance, all the ZIF-series MOFs, which are constructed from imidazolates, are electrically neutral. Likewise, pyrazolate and triazolate-based systems have been found to self-assemble with metal ions/clusters into neutral MOFs. A good example of a nitrogen-containing linker is the 4,4′-bipyridine, which is an aromatic organic compound with nitrogen hetero atoms located in the para positions of the aromatic rings. Nitrogen atoms possess an electron lone pair located in the plane of the carbon atoms of the ring, such arrangement allows a very specific coordination binding to the metal. Figure 2 shows different N-donor linkers used in the synthesis of coordination polymeric materials [3].
Typical donor groups in N-donor linkers.
Typical N-donor linkers can have 1, 2, 3, 4 or more nitrogen atoms. It’s very important to select the appropriate linker to obtain the desired pore size, i.e., the linker 4,4′-bipyridine, which was reported by Wang and coworkers, describes a MOF synthesized through hydrothermal conditions and using two different linkers [4]. As could be measured from the .cif file, the distance between the Cd atoms is in the range of 11.59–7.50 Å. Also, the rings of the N-ligands are almost planar showing π-π interactions. Due to the electron-rich cloud inside the pore, small cations, or even small molecules with a deficiency of electrons, could interact with each other to form stable systems. This analysis can be deduced from the packing material obtained by X-ray diffraction. Figure 3 shows a small portion of the material, which is composed of two different organic linkers where the cadmium atoms are hexacoordinated arranged in an octahedral fashion [4].
Pore size and distances between Cd atoms in the MOF described by Wang.
The exchange of the 4,4′-bipyridine linker for a small one like the pyrazine linker leads to a decrease in the distance between the metal atoms and hence the pore size is reduced. Arenzano and coworkers reported the pillared MOF shown in Figure 4, which is composed of two different organic linkers, pyrazine and 2-amine isophthalic acid, which possess free amino groups in the final structure that can interact with other atoms or molecules by hydrogen bonding or even donating the electron pair to another metal atom to form a coordination bond. In the same way as the material reported by Wang, this keeps the π-π interactions between the pyrazine rings. The distances between cobalt atoms are in the range from 7.34 Å to 7.14 Å. The material that possesses free functional NH2 groups able to form hydrogen bonding interactions can be used as a carrier system [5].
Distances between cobalt atoms and free amino groups present in MOF.
Carboxylate linkers possess two oxygen atoms, which contain four-electron lone pairs ready to be donated to a metal to form a coordination bond; for this reason, the carboxylate ligand, [RCO2]−, is one of the most versatile and hence also one of the most abundant ligands in coordination chemistry. A great difference between the N-ligands and carboxylate ligands is the coordination modes. Although simple coordination modes are exhibited by the carboxylate and multicarboxylate family of ligands, their utility has been immense, Figure 5 [6].
Carboxylate coordination modes.
Designing the network topology in MOFs can be done within two main routes, changing the cluster connectivity or altering the linker’s topological geometry. In the same way as the N-linkers, the carboxylate length may vary the pore size in the final structure. Linkers can be functionalized, that is, functional groups are added in different sites of the benzene ring to confer certain desired properties in the final material [6, 7, 8, 9, 10]. Figure 6 shows different carboxylate linkers, which differ mainly in length, generally used in the synthesis of coordination polymers. Metal clusters adopt established geometries that cannot be easily modified to change the connectivity. The creation and modification of pore space with optimized size, functionality, and diversity can be precisely tuned at the molecular level by rationally designing building blocks and synthetic procedures. Therefore, logical designing of linker geometry is essential for discovering specified topologies as an ideal platform for designing MOFs.
Linkers based on the carboxylate functional group to synthesize MOFs.
MOFs made up of s-block main group elements, alkali and alkaline earth metals, have been less considered in both the fundamental and applied chemistry because of their low stability and most importantly, preconceived chemical features Despite the limited structures and difficulties in the structural formation of s-block MOFs originating from the unpredicted coordination behavior of metals in group 1A and 2A, s-block MOFs adopt many distinctive, appealing, and intriguing features that are suited to many applications. S-block MOFs inherit the characteristics of s-block main group elements that are (1) naturally high abundance, making them inexpensive; (2) less toxicity, unlike the other MOFs based on transition metals, thus expanding their applicability into various fields, especially in biological processes; and (3) low density, one of the essential factors for gas sorption applications [11].
Types of channels with electronic charge distribution observed in red color in MOF Sc-CAU-21.
The IBUs (Inorganic Building Units) are connected by 4,4′-oxidibenzoate linker molecules to form a 3Dframework, which is isostructural to the nonporous Al-CAU-21. Doping of Sc-CAU-21 was carried out to tune the luminescence properties where Sc-CAU-21 showed a linker-based blue emission, the (co)doping of Dy3+ and Eu3+ ions resulted in a single-phase white-light-emitting phosphor [16].
There are many reports on the synthesis of
Pore size representation of a small part of the MOF, dimethyl ammonium molecules were omitted for clarity [
While MOFs based on divalent metals, such as Zn2+ and Cu2+, have received much attention over the past decade, less progress has been achieved on the synthesis of new MOFs containing tri- and tetravalent metals [22]. Among these, vanadium MOFs are particularly rare. Applications of vanadium-based-MOFs can be found in areas of chemistry such as catalysis, adsorption, separation of N2, CO2, CH4, magnetism, and others [23, 24, 25]. Ferey and coworkers reported three-dimensional vanadium (III) dicarboxylate, derived from terephthalic acid in HF, MIL-71. MIL-71 was prepared from a mixture of metallic vanadium, HF, 1,4-benzenedicarboxylic acid, and deionized water heated 3 days at 473 K under hydrothermal conditions. MIL-71 exhibits two features according to the authors: (i), it is the first solid with a two-dimensional inorganic subnetwork among the series of hybrid vanadocarboxylates, and (ii) compared with other trivalent cations, it exemplifies once more the peculiar behavior of V(III), which easily oxidizes into V(IV) [26]. Finally, the Vanadium atoms show an octahedral geometry where four oxygen atoms coordinated to the metal occupy the equatorial positions and two fluorine atoms that occupy the apical positions as observed from Figure 9.
Molecular representation, where the vanadium atom is hexacoordinated displaying an octahedral geometry.
More interesting to observe is the pore size obtained in MIL-71 in the different planes. Figure 9 represents the pores in the MOF, the left side denotes the 010 planes with distances of 3.57 Å × 10.72 Å and the right plane 100 with distances of 3.57 Å × 3.87 Å. The right side represents the front part, and the left side represents the lateral view, forming in this way a rectangle. Red color represents oxygen atoms, green color represents fluorine atoms, gray color represents carbon atoms, and purple color represents vanadium atoms. Metals and many small molecules could be adsorbed in this material due to the great number of electrons spported by the oxygen and fluorine atoms and the aromatic rings in the MOF, Figure 10.
Lateral view plane 010 (left) and frontal view plane 100 (right) of MIL-71.
Chromium-based MOFs have been widely used with different applications such as environmental remediation, gases sorption, catalysis, carrier systems, among others [27, 28, 29, 30, 31]. Feng and coworkers have recently reported an ultrastable High-Connected Chromium Metal-Organic Framework, which was obtained using a Teflon cup, weighing, and combining chromium nitrate nonahydrate, 1,4-benzenedicarboxylic acid, 2,4,6-tri(4-pyridyl)-1,3,5-triazine, and 50 μL hydrofluoric acid dissolved in water. The solvothermal technique indicates that after being stirred for an hour, the vessel was sealed and was subsequently placed in a 220°C preheated oven for 2 days. As mentioned before, the importance to follow the technique is imperative to obtain the correct product, because a minimal variation of temperature, reaction time, pH, and even stir velocity can conduce to a different product. The obtained MOF gives rise to a tridimensional structure, and the material presents high porosity. The chromium atoms in the structure are hexacoordinated showing an octahedral geometry with typical bond distances in the range from 1.94 Å to 2.17 Å, Figure 11 [32].
Illustration showing graphic depicts of the porosity of Cr-based MOF.
Manganese-based MOFs are very stables, and the reports in the literature are very large, which include catalysis, materials with magnetic properties, transport, energy, gas sorption, among others [33, 34, 35, 36, 37]. Manganese(II) ions/clusters have been used as secondary building units (SUBs) to build MOFs in fields of gas adsorption and magnetism attributed to their specific electronic configuration.
Wang and coworkers reported a manganese-based MOF applied in the decomposition of ozone, which means that the MOF works like a catalytic species to decompose the ozone in water. The technique employed for the synthesis was solvothermal, weighing the corresponding moles of Mn (NO3)2·6H2O and the linker H4TTPE, which were dissolved in a mixture of DMAc/H2O. The yellow solution obtained was stirred at room temperature for 5 min, sealed in a 25 mL Teflon-lined bomb, and heated at 120°C for 72 h [38].
The material shows according to the X-ray structure, two different kinds of manganese atoms, one manganese being pentacoordinate with a very distorted trigonal bipyramidal geometry, and the second manganese being surrounded by six atoms accommodated in an octahedral fashion. The X-ray shows two different types of pores in the structure, and the water molecules are coordinated to the manganese metal atom. The two water molecules occupy part of the interior of the pores, and although both pores are similar in size, it could be a slight difference in sorption capacity when small molecules go inside the pore and interact either with the benzene electron-rich rings pores or the more exposed electron-rich pores that contain oxygen and nitrogen atoms from the tetrazole moiety, Figure 12.
Manganese-based MOF shows the pores for possible sorption of ions and molecules.
Iron-based MOFs have been widely reported in biological applications due to their high stability, ease of synthesis, and low toxicity of the metal to the human being. Application in areas such as environmental remediation, adsorption of volatile compounds, catalysis, drug delivery, water remedying, glucose biosensing, among others [39, 40, 41, 42, 43].
Long and coworkers described an iron MOF that was synthesized from anhydrous ferrous, 1,4-dihydroxyterephthalic acid, DMF, and methanol. The reaction mixture was heated at 393 K and stirred for 18 h to afford a red-orange precipitate. The solid was collected by filtration and washed with 100 mL of DMF to yield 2.0 g (91%) [44].
Although the reaction implies a solvothermal method for 18 h, worth it for the high yielding obtained. In Figure 12, we observe a small representation of the MOF, orange, gray, and red spheres represent Fe, C, and O atoms, respectively, and the hydrogen atoms were omitted for clarity. The iron atom possesses two different coordination ways, square pyramidal and octahedral. The pores are well defined and the oxygen atoms possessing two-electron lone pairs can interact with different metals and molecules. Even more, all the channels are well defined, and Figure 13 shows a small portion of the crystal.
Well-defined pores in the MOF Fe2(dobdc), where solvent molecules were omitted for clarity.
Cobalt-based MOFs have been broadly studied due that cobalt salts being cheap and easy to obtain, even more, the cobalt atom can form Penta or Hexa coordinate geometries, increasing the possibilities of coordination modes. These materials found applications in oxygen and hydrogen evolution, magnetism and superconductivity, catalysis, electrocatalysis, synthesis of nanomaterials, and more [45, 46, 47, 48, 49].
Burgos and coworkers could develop nanosheets of cobalt MOF for enhanced electrocatalytic water oxidation. The X-ray studies show that there exists just one type of cobalt atom, which is hexacoordinate with an octahedral geometry, and the pyridine solvent is coordinated to the cobalt atom. The pyridine rings are close enough to interact via π-π stacking with an average distance of 9.25 Å. The cobalt atoms are hexacoordinated showing a distorted octahedral geometry with coordination distances in the range of 2055–2179 Å. Because this material contains two different types of cavities, both with an electron-rich environment, metals or small molecules can interact in the surroundings to produce stable states [50].
The use of a well-defined cobalt cluster as the starting compound for the synthesis directs the construction of a Co-MOF with an unusual topology. In this MOF, the layered double nanosheets are held together by π − π stacking interactions between labile pyridine ligands. It has been shown that this material delaminates in the presence of water and that the original 3D layered structure can be regenerated by solvothermal treatment with pyridine so that the individual nanosheets have associated memory Figure 14.
A small part of the crystal shows the proximity of the pyridine groups that originate the π-π interactions.
The combination of porosity and the presence of coordinatively unsaturated Ni2+ sites are also of special interest because of catalytic properties and the strong H2 binding affinity. Added to this, the chemical and thermal stability and the presence of accessible Lewis acid sites are some of the reasons why Nickel-based MOFS find application in a great variety of fields of chemistry and reports can be found on catalysis for the ethylene oligomerization, CO2/CH4 separation, magnetic and conducting materials, methanol oxidation, among others [51, 52, 53, 54, 55].
Gong and coworkers reported the synthesis of Nickel-based MOFS using the microwave-assisted [MA] technique combined with the solvothermal reaction. In contrast to conventional methods, MA methods allow the rapid and systematic investigation of large synthesis fields. This enables the effective discovery of new compounds, the fast optimization of synthesis conditions, and because of the large amount of data, it allows the extraction of reaction trends. MA methods have been successfully applied in the investigation of porous MOFs.
The resulting material was obtained as a crystalline solid and the X-ray diffraction showed the structure that possesses a hexacoordinated cobalt atom arranged in an octahedral fashion with a Ni-Ni interaction of 2.713 Å. The coordination bond distances are in the range from 1.972 to 2.009 Å [56] Part of the structure is shown in Figure 15.
Part of the structure of Ni-based MOF obtained by microwave-assisted technique.
Reports on MOFs containing copper include novel application in coordination strategies to control the growth orientation of the crystals, modification, and adsorption of different volatile organic compounds, MOF nanoparticles applied for sensitive fluorescent detection of ferric ion, copper-based MOFs for sensitive colorimetric detection of staphylococcus aureus, separation of CO2 over CH4 or N2, among others [57, 58, 59, 60, 61].
Park and coworkers adopted a facile green synthesis for the preparation of a copper-based MOF applied in the cycloaddition reaction of CO2 and epoxide. The coordination geometry around each Cu in the bimetallic cluster is octahedral, where the square base is established by the four BDC units with their four carboxylate oxygen atoms. The PNU-25 structure contains 3D channels with rectangular windows of dimensions 15.21 × 10.80, which undergo interpenetration
The PNU-25 structure contains 3D channels left, with copper metal atoms being hexacoordinated within an octahedral geometry, right.
The heterogeneous PNU catalysts efficiently catalyzed the synthesis of cyclic carbonates by the coupling of epoxide and CO2 under ambient pressure and lower reaction temperature. The PNU catalysts demonstrated remarkably good thermal stability for the cycloaddition reaction. The coordinatively unsaturated Cu(II) units and the basic N atoms resulted in a large number of acidic-basic sites, facilitating the conversion of epoxides.
One of the important applications of zinc-based MOFs is the separation of materials, gases, and compounds. By using the modified MOFs, diverse gases, organic and inorganic compounds were separated, i.e., H2/CO2, Xe, and Kr, O2/N2/CH4, other applications such as catalysis in organic synthesis, removal and detection of antibiotics in water, sensing, photocatalytic activity, semiconductive and magnetic properties, thin-film nanocomposite membrane incorporated with Porous Zn-Based Metal-Organic Frameworks, among others [63, 64, 65, 66, 67].
Yang and coworkers develop a low toxicity MOF for the detection of organic and inorganic contaminants from water. The material was obtained according to the mixture of the linker Httb and Zn (NO3)2·6H2O in a mixture of solvents, H2O, and CH3CN, and the mixture was stirred for 20 min before adding in a steel vessel at 160°C for 5 days to obtain the Zn-based MOF, with yield 64%.
The MOF exhibits high water and chemical stability as well as excellent fluorescence properties. The remaining binding sites show higher sensitivity and better fluorescence response to the representative organic micropollutant TNP and inorganic pollutants (Fe3+ and Cr2O72− in wastewater. The Zn metal is hexacoordinated to four nitrogen atoms from the tetrazole ring and two oxygen atoms belonging to water molecules, Figure 17 [68]. The final structure presents π-π interactions between the aromatic rings.
A small fraction of Zn-ttb-bdc MOF shows two coordination water molecules.
There are many reports in the literature about the ways and techniques commonly used, frequently called reaction conditions, which are in some cases very specific to synthesize the metal transition-based MOFs. The different synthesis methods that have been applied in the last 20 years in addition to room temperature synthesis are conventional electric (CE) heating, microwave (MW) heating, electrochemistry (EC), mechanochemistry (MC), and ultrasonic (US) methods that have been employed.
Conventional step-by-step methods, as well as high-throughput methods, have been employed in some of the studies. In addition to the crystal size or shape, thin films, membranes, and various other shapes made of MOFs have been reported, which require the application of different and specific synthesis methods. Nevertheless, many other synthetic methods and parameters, such as temperature, reaction time, pressure, pH, and solvent, must be considered as well. Numerous different synthetic approaches, including slow diffusion, hydrothermal, and solvothermal, can be applied to produce MOFs relying on the resulting structures and features [69]. Figure 18 presents a resume of the different techniques applied for the synthesis of MOFs, where we observe the conventional heating, sonochemistry, microwave-assisted, using different temperature programs that let the correct nucleation and growth of single crystals.
Strategies and methods for the synthesis of crystalline materials [
As could be discussed in the previous part, there are many different techniques to achieve the synthesis of MOFs, and something very important to consider is the combination of procedures that can allow the formation of materials with specific pore sizes and shapes. The environmental applications of MOFs depend on the final structure obtained, which is very related to the technique employed and the metals and linkers used for the synthesis. Pore size and electron charge distribution into the pores and the surface let those metals or even neutral or charged molecules interact with each other. In this section, we’ll focus on three environmental applications, heavy metal atoms, and azo dyes removal from water, hydrogen evolution, and catalysis directed to the transesterification process of non-edible oils to obtain biofuels.
There are many reports in the literature of heavy metal atoms removed from aqueous mediums using crystalline materials. The remotion of those metals from wasted water is due to the weak interactions generated between the metals and the electron-rich environment of the pores. In the same way, the remotion of azo dyes (medium-size molecules). i.e., Congo red, methylene blue, and methyl orange from wastewater, has been widely described, due to those azo dyes are considered toxic and carcinogenic pullulans in the water.
Heavy metals such as arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, nickel, and zing with a density over 5 g cm−3polluting our water are a rapidly growing global concern. These elements can be found within the environment, be it in water reservoirs, the atmosphere, or soil [70]. The recovery and elimination of toxic metal ions from wastewater are of concern with increasing awareness toward the need for protecting nature. Mercury and lead are the most toxic species and can cause bioaccumulation in kidneys, brain, lung tissues, gastrointestinal tract, central nervous system, and reproductive system [71].
To date, several approaches have been applied to remove the heavy metals from water including nanofiltration, membrane separation, ion exchange, resin, photocatalytic degradation, chemical moisture, membrane filtration, freezing, chemical deposition, biological treatment, reverse osmosis, adsorption, etc. [72].
Studies to investigate the sorption mechanisms governing the sorption process and to determine whether the sorption mechanism are controlled by a chemical or physical mechanism, Morsali et al. applied conventional sorption kinetics models such as pseudo-first-order, pseudo-second-order, and intraparticle diffusion to the study. The correlation coefficient of the pseudo-second-order model for Cd(II) is close to 1 (R2 = 0.9999) and exhibited that the pseudo-second-order model is more consistent with experimental data than the other model. Therefore, it is compatible with chemical sorption, which indicates that transfer, exchange, or sharing of electrons has taken place. Therefore, supramolecular interactions between cadmium ion and the free electrons of ligand nitrogens and the electrostatic interaction between the cation and the dipole of nitrogen on the dihydropyrazine ring of ligand are proposed as the dominant interactions between the metal ion and the structure [73].
The X-ray structure showed that the aromatic rings from the linker are available to interact through supramolecular interactions with different metals or even small molecules through week interactions Figure 19.
A small portion in MOF TMU-60 and pore size obtained after the synthesis.
The synthesis was achieved in DMF at 60°C, and then the solution was transferred to a Teflon autoclave and heated to 120°C for 72.
Large amounts of dyes are commonly used in many manufacturing, such as textiles, clothing, and printing. Among these, azo dyes are one of the largest groups that are heavily used, but most difficult to be degraded, and even more, the azo dyes and their derivative products are toxic to the aquatic environment and are mutagenic and carcinogenic to humans. Therefore, the treatment of wastewaters containing these dyes is necessary [74].
Numerous studies have considered new processes to eliminate emerging organic contaminants (EOCs) from water, i.e., ozonization, chlorination, sonodegradation, biodegradation, inorganic heterogeneous catalysis, activated carbon treatment, and more. Among these technologies, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have been recently investigated for the removal of contaminants in water [75].
Separation or degradation requires strong research efforts to modify MOFs via controlling their pore diameter (adding functional groups, creating defects) or to construct MOF composites to engineer materials as improved adsorbents and/or catalysts for contaminated water treatment. MOFs and MOF composites have been proposed for the removal of a wide range of contaminants, including dyes, pharmaceuticals, plasticizers, herbicides and pesticides, industrial products, among others. While a few reviews have already documented the use of MOFs in the removal of novel contaminants [76].
Choe et al. reported the adsorptive removal of various dyes using a Zr porphyrinic MOF, PCN-224. The plausible mechanism for adsorptive removal revealed multiple interactions between the dye and porphyrin linker/Zr6 node via π − π interactions and hydrogen bonding, respectively. Such results demonstrate that PCN-224 is an excellent adsorbent, providing superior water stability, pore aperture of suitable size, and multiple interaction sites Figure 20 [77].
Zr porphyrinic metal-organic framework (MOF) for removal of azo dyes [
The best performance of dye adsorption onto PCN-224 comes from structural properties such as appropriate pore aperture, volume as well as various types of interactions such as π−π interaction, hydrogen bonding, and electrostatic interaction. Significantly, an interaction between the sulfonate group of the MO molecule and the Zr6 node of PCN-224 was demonstrated through experimental and theoretical studies. Arrangement of tripod form between Zr node and sulfonate group of the MO molecule can form hydrogen bonding.
Highly efficient hydrogen evolution reactions (HERs) will determine the mass distributions of hydrogen-powered clean technologies in the future. That’s why hydrogen evolution is one of the topics more explored in the last years because molecular hydrogen is the best environmentally friendly fuel available, which reacts with oxygen to produce energy and water.
The procedures employed to produce hydrogen are still expensive because of the catalysts employed to obtain the gas and the conditions and hence the high-cost obtention. Current industrial hydrogen production methods include coal gasification (followed by water-gas shift reaction), steam reforming, cryogenic distillation, and water splitting.
The specific surface area of MOFs can range from 1000 to over 6000 m2 g−1, thanks to their tailorable porous structures, which play a significant role in enhancing the catalytic HER process. Large surface area and pore volume ensure sufficient contact between the electrolyte (or reactant solution) and the surface of the catalyst, which essentially improves catalytic performance by exposing more active sites for the catalytic reactions to take place. It is that research on MOFs for HER primarily focuses on the following three techniques: electrocatalytic, photocatalytic, and chemocatalytic HER [78].
MOFs, MOF supports, and MOF derivatives can be utilized as catalysts in the abovementioned hydrogen production methods. Most of the materials used for photocatalytic hydrogen evolution PHE applications include inorganic oxides such as TiO2, ZnO, and SrZrO3, due to their high stability. The application of metalorganic frameworks in these processes is limited due to the loss of efficiency attributed to the recombination of electrons and holes [79]. Even so, together with the unique porous structure of MOFs, a remarkable hydrogen evolution reaction HER performance can be achieved using different overpotential in phosphate buffer solution (PBS, pH = 7.0) [80].
In the same way, the significant effect of crystallinity in the photocatalytic activity of metal-organic frameworks was demonstrated through the evaluation of different samples with different crystallinity in the HER reactions. The samples with high crystallinity produce too a higher amount of hydrogen, which is attributed to the lower recombination supported by the experiments of photoluminescence and electrochemical impedance directly related to a high-ordered material.
Rivera et al. described the synthesis of a BDC-Zn MOF, which was firstly used for methyl orange and methyl blue sorption and followed by PHE under solar light. MO presented the best adsorption result, with a maximum adsorption capacity of 2100 mg/g, which is higher than all the MOFs reported in the literature. For HER, the activity was enhanced 24 times in photocatalyst with MO adsorbed, and 27 times for the MB adsorbed (from 47 to 1148 and 1259 μmol/gh, respectively). This result is attributed to better light adsorption and a decrease in charge recombination. It’s important to mention that even though the reflux method presented the disadvantage that it is not possible to obtain single crystals, the reaction conditions such as temperature, pressure, and time are more ecological in comparison with the traditional MOF 5 solvothermal synthesis and analogous [81].
Figure 21 shows the mechanism for HER. In the first step, MO/MB molecules linker to BDC-Zn MOF captures the light from the solar simulator. Light produces the transference of electrons from the conduction (LUMO orbital analog) to the valence band (HOMO orbital analog), this produces a hole formed in the conduction band, which oxidizes water molecules, finally, the electron in the valence band reduces H+ to H2. At the same time the species O2− and OH− are formed, and these could affect MOFs by redox reactions; however, possibly MO/MB acts as a sacrificial agent avoiding the BDC-Zn MOF structure collapse by the capture of these species. Therefore, growing hydrogen production is observed.
Mechanism of HER by using the BDC-Zn-MOF obtained under solvothermal conditions [
Biodiesel is green and renewable energy, which is a promising substitute to replace fossil combustibles. Normally, biodiesel is produced via transesterification/esterification with the assistance of a homogeneous or heterogeneous catalyst. Biodiesel is a series of fatty acid alkyl ester (FAAE), which is normally derived from transesterification of vegetable oil or animal fat (triglyceride) and alcohol with the assistance of catalyst as shown in Figure 22.
Transesterification reaction of triglycerides in alcohol as a solvent.
In general, transesterification is the most used technique for biodiesel production, which is proceeded in three steps. In the first step, triglyceride reacts with alcohol generating monomolecular FAAE and diglyceride. Then, diglyceride reacts with alcohol resulting in monomolecular FAAE and monoglyceride. Finally, monoglyceride reacts with alcohols giving rise to monomolecular FAAE and glycerol [82].
Industrial biodiesel production is based on the transesterification of triglycerides with methanol or ethanol using stoichiometric amounts of strong Brönsted base (e.g., sodium or potassium hydroxide/methoxide) and homogeneous acid catalysis, such as H2SO4, HCl, H3PO4, but the problem with this homogeneous catalyst is their difficult recovery from the media. The ease of heterogeneous catalyst to be recovered at the end of the reaction just by a simple filtration reduces dramatically the cost in the biodiesel obtention process.
One of the properties of MOFs compared with other porous solids is the facile introduction of the desired active sites. Solvent/water molecules weakly bounded around metal nodes in MOFs could be removed upon activation; thus, these coordinatively unsaturated metal sites behave as Lewis acid sites [83].
MOFs can be used in combination with other materials to form composites or as catalytic support to solve two specific problems, stability, and recyclability issues. The porous materials, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are suitable for enzyme immobilization owing to their ideal features of tunable pore size, and topological and compositional versatility. Currently, multiple enzyme-MOF composites have been successfully created using physical adsorption or covalent attachment strategies. Also, because MOFS catalyze many reactions, they accelerate the velocity of the reaction and low the transition states of the molecules to react faster and slower reaction times and energy consumption [84].
To increase the catalytic activity in MOFs, three different strategies can be used. The first strategy is post modification of MOFs, which results in the linker modification to increase the active sites and hence the catalytic activity. The second strategy is the formation of composites, which results in mixing the MOFs with different basic or acid materials together to obtain better results and structural stability in MOFs. The third strategy is to develop new linkers that incorporate the specific active sites that remain free once the MOFs are obtained [85]. Finally, because the transesterification process requires very large reactions times, the energy consumption is high; therefore, different synthesis techniques can be used in combination. Rivera et al. could obtain through hydrothermal synthesis a 3D-Co-based MOF. The Ultrasonic-assisted synthesis is a powerful technique, the yields obtained are increased, and the reaction times are decreased using milder conditions.
Rivera et al. reported the green synthetic approach that involves the ultrasonic technique that allows in terms of energy conservation higher purity products. The high catalytic activity exhibited by the catalyst reported has to do in part with the free carboxylic acid groups that remain free in the structure, as revealed by the X-ray diffraction. The application of this catalyst resulted in 80% of total conversion after 12 h at just 60°C [86].
The use of composite MOFs is widely described in the literature, and the idea to produce biodiesel is to add new basicity or acidity sites to the material to increase the catalytic activity or simply to get better stability. Zhang et al. synthesized the reusable and highly active Fe-BTC and UiO-66 metal-organic framework by hydrothermal method, and the MOF was applied for the acid-catalyzed esterification of oleic acid with methanol. Typically, the esterification reactions of oleic acid with methanol were performed in a 50 mL stainless steel reactor equipped with a magnetic stirrer. The mechanism proposed for the esterification reaction is shown in Figure 23.
Possible reaction mechanism for the esterification reaction process [
Characterization analyses indicated that the ZrSiW/UiO-66 possesses an appropriate structure and high acidity. The highest oleic acid conversion of 98.0% was obtained using the ZrSiW/UiO-66 nano-hybrids nanocatalyst under the optimal esterification reactions: 150°C, 0.24 g catalyst, 1:20 molar ratio of oleic acid to methanol, and a reaction time of 4 h [87]. The easy preparation of MOF composites lets these materials find better opportunities to be investigated [87].
Metal-organic materials are easy to synthesize and have a wide variety of applications. MOF materials are constructed from linkers and different metal atoms, which can interact via coordination bonds to produce 1D, 2D, and 3D porous structures. The final porous structure depends primarily on the linkers and metals used for the synthesis but equally important to obtain specific crystalline structures and hence high-ordered and porous materials is to apply the correct technique that involves the correct pressure, reaction time, temperature, pH value, solvent, or a mixture of solvents, stirring, or even microwave and ultrasonic-assisted synthesis, which can be applied and combined with other techniques to obtain desirable size and porous structures in the MOFs. The environmental applications of MOFs such as sorption of metals and azo dyes depend on the final structure obtained, the pore size, and the electron charge distribution into the pores, and the surface allows metals or even neutral or charged molecules to interact with the MOF to form different contacts such as hydrogen bonding, π-π interactions, or simply interact through Van der walls forces. On the other hand, the catalytic activity for the transesterification process to obtain biodiesel depends mainly on the availability of metal centers, which are acid sites that can be increased by adding more acid sites by a post-modification synthesis or simply by using a specific linker containing the acid sites in the original structure. Finally, the hydrogen evolution reaction depends mainly on the structure of MOFs (crystallinity) and the linkers, that is, delocalized systems that allow HOMO and LUMO orbitals to get less separated, and hence the electrons can get transferred more efficiently to oxidase water.
Thanks to committee pro-mejoras from Universidad Veracruzana, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Orizaba, Ver. México, who supported the funding of this project.
“The authors declare no conflict of interest.”
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These molecules can derive from the grape, in which the non-volatile forms are usually present as glycosylated molecules, the metabolic activities of yeast and bacteria, the chemical reactions taking place during the wine aging and storage, and the environment. The sulfur compounds include molecules positively correlated to the aromatic profile of wine, namely the volatile thiols, and are responsible for certain defects, imparting notes described as cabbage, onion, rotten egg, garlic, sulfur and rubber. Due to the low concentration of these molecules in wine, their high reactivity and the matrix complexity, the analytical methods which enable their detection and quantification represent a challenge. The solid phase microextraction (SPME) technique has been developed for sulfur compounds associated with off-flavors. The analysis of volatile thiols usually requires a derivatization followed by gas chromatography (GC)-MS or UPLC-MS methods. 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The analysis of GSH has been proposed using a liquid chromatography technique (HPLC or UPLC) coupled with fluorescence, MS and UV detectors.",book:{id:"6077",slug:"grapes-and-wines-advances-in-production-processing-analysis-and-valorization",title:"Grapes and Wines",fullTitle:"Grapes and Wines - Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization"},signatures:"Daniela Fracassetti and Ileana Vigentini",authors:[{id:"207271",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela",middleName:null,surname:"Fracassetti",slug:"daniela-fracassetti",fullName:"Daniela Fracassetti"},{id:"220967",title:"Dr.",name:"Ileana",middleName:null,surname:"Vigentini",slug:"ileana-vigentini",fullName:"Ileana Vigentini"}]},{id:"66619",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85692",title:"Contribution of the Microbiome as a Tool for Estimating Wine’s Fermentation Output and Authentication",slug:"contribution-of-the-microbiome-as-a-tool-for-estimating-wine-s-fermentation-output-and-authenticatio",totalDownloads:1087,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Wine is the alcoholic beverage which is the product of alcoholic fermentation, usually, of fresh grape must. Grape microbiome is the source of a vastly diverse pool of filamentous fungi, yeast, and bacteria, the combination of which plays a crucial role for the quality of the final product of any grape must fermentation. In recent times, the significance of this pool of microorganisms has been acknowledged by several studies analyzing the microbial ecology of grape berries of different geographical origins, cultural practices, grape varieties, and climatic conditions. Furthermore, the microbial evolution of must during fermentation process has been overstudied. The combination of the microbial evolution along with metabolic and sensorial characterizations of the produced wines could lead to the suggestion of the microbial terroir. These aspects are today leading to open a new horizon for products such as wines, especially in the case of PDO-PGI products. The aims of this review is to describe (a) how the microbiome communities are dynamically differentiated during the process of fermentation from grape to ready-to-drink wine, in order to finalize each wine’s unique sensorial characteristics, and (b) whether the microbiome could be used as a fingerprinting tool for geographical indication, based on high-throughput sequencing (HTS) technologies. Nowadays, it has been strongly indicated that microbiome analysis of grapes and fermenting musts using next-generation sequencing (NGS) could open a new horizon for wine, in the case of protected designation of origin (PDO) and protected geographical indication (PGI) determination.",book:{id:"8054",slug:"advances-in-grape-and-wine-biotechnology",title:"Advances in Grape and Wine Biotechnology",fullTitle:"Advances in Grape and Wine Biotechnology"},signatures:"Dimitrios A. Anagnostopoulos, Eleni Kamilari and Dimitrios Tsaltas",authors:[{id:"180885",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Dimitris",middleName:null,surname:"Tsaltas",slug:"dimitris-tsaltas",fullName:"Dimitris Tsaltas"},{id:"203761",title:"MSc.",name:"Dimitris",middleName:null,surname:"Anagnostopoulos",slug:"dimitris-anagnostopoulos",fullName:"Dimitris Anagnostopoulos"},{id:"271801",title:"Ms.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Kamilari",slug:"elena-kamilari",fullName:"Elena Kamilari"}]},{id:"67444",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86443",title:"Somatic Variation and Cultivar Innovation in Grapevine",slug:"somatic-variation-and-cultivar-innovation-in-grapevine",totalDownloads:1032,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Paradoxically, continuous vegetative multiplication of traditional grapevine cultivars aimed to maintain cultivar attributes in this highly heterozygous species ends in the accumulation of considerable somatic variation. This variation has long contributed to cultivar adaptation and evolution under changing environmental and cultivation conditions and has also been a source of novel traits. Understanding how this somatic variation originates provides tools for genetics-assisted tracking of selected variants and breeding. Potentially, the identification of the mutations causing the observed phenotypic variation can now help to direct genome editing approaches to improve the genotype of elite traditional cultivars. Molecular characterization of somatic variants can also generate basic information helping to understand gene biological function. In this chapter, we review the state of the art on somatic variation in grapevine at phenotypic and genome sequence levels, present possible strategies for the study of this variation, and describe a few examples in which the genetic and molecular basis or very relevant grapevine traits were successfully identified.",book:{id:"8054",slug:"advances-in-grape-and-wine-biotechnology",title:"Advances in Grape and Wine Biotechnology",fullTitle:"Advances in Grape and Wine Biotechnology"},signatures:"Pablo Carbonell-Bejerano, Carolina Royo, Nuria Mauri, Javier Ibáñez and José Miguel Martínez Zapater",authors:[{id:"287215",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Martinez Zapater",slug:"jose-miguel-martinez-zapater",fullName:"Jose Miguel Martinez Zapater"},{id:"287226",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Ibáñez",slug:"javier-ibanez",fullName:"Javier Ibáñez"},{id:"300441",title:"Dr.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Carbonell-Bejerano",slug:"pablo-carbonell-bejerano",fullName:"Pablo Carbonell-Bejerano"},{id:"300442",title:"Dr.",name:"Carolina",middleName:null,surname:"Royo",slug:"carolina-royo",fullName:"Carolina Royo"},{id:"300444",title:"Dr.",name:"Nuria",middleName:null,surname:"Mauri",slug:"nuria-mauri",fullName:"Nuria Mauri"}]},{id:"59216",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73132",title:"Potential for Use of the Residues of the Wine Industry in Human Nutrition and as Agricultural Input",slug:"potential-for-use-of-the-residues-of-the-wine-industry-in-human-nutrition-and-as-agricultural-input",totalDownloads:1253,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"The use of underutilized resources, with the aim of increasing productivity and creating wealth, will increasingly deserve the attention of the wine sector. The treatment of agricultural by-products will increasingly enter the priority agenda of the agribusiness sector, with a view to its use, the environment’s re-cleanliness and, in many cases, whenever possible, for both purposes. Solid waste from the process of grape industrialization, when not adequately disposed, is aggressive to the environment. Such residues release significant amounts of liquid effluents when disposed in the soil, and this liquid contains high content of nutrients, organic matter, and other elements that can change the environment, especially of streams and sources, causing the death of aquatic beings. However, if properly used, they can be used as raw materials for other purposes. The solid residues of industrially processed grapes, which may have some potential economic interest, are pomace, seeds, liquid (lees), and other materials. In this context, this chapter presents the description of these by-products and their potential for use.",book:{id:"6077",slug:"grapes-and-wines-advances-in-production-processing-analysis-and-valorization",title:"Grapes and Wines",fullTitle:"Grapes and Wines - Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization"},signatures:"Renato Vasconcelos Botelho, Gabriela Datsch Bennemann,\nYohandra Reyes Torres and Alessandro Jefferson Sato",authors:[{id:"64335",title:"Prof.",name:"Renato",middleName:"Vasconcelos",surname:"Botelho",slug:"renato-botelho",fullName:"Renato Botelho"},{id:"208714",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabriela",middleName:null,surname:"Datsch Bennemann",slug:"gabriela-datsch-bennemann",fullName:"Gabriela Datsch Bennemann"},{id:"208715",title:"Dr.",name:"Yohandra",middleName:null,surname:"Reyes Torres",slug:"yohandra-reyes-torres",fullName:"Yohandra Reyes Torres"},{id:"208716",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessandro Jefferson",middleName:null,surname:"Sato",slug:"alessandro-jefferson-sato",fullName:"Alessandro Jefferson Sato"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"58638",title:"Occurrence and Analysis of Sulfur Compounds in Wine",slug:"occurrence-and-analysis-of-sulfur-compounds-in-wine",totalDownloads:1953,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Sulfur compounds play an important role in the sensory characteristics of wine. These molecules can derive from the grape, in which the non-volatile forms are usually present as glycosylated molecules, the metabolic activities of yeast and bacteria, the chemical reactions taking place during the wine aging and storage, and the environment. The sulfur compounds include molecules positively correlated to the aromatic profile of wine, namely the volatile thiols, and are responsible for certain defects, imparting notes described as cabbage, onion, rotten egg, garlic, sulfur and rubber. Due to the low concentration of these molecules in wine, their high reactivity and the matrix complexity, the analytical methods which enable their detection and quantification represent a challenge. The solid phase microextraction (SPME) technique has been developed for sulfur compounds associated with off-flavors. The analysis of volatile thiols usually requires a derivatization followed by gas chromatography (GC)-MS or UPLC-MS methods. Besides the sulfur-containing aromas, another sulfur compound that deserves mention is the reduced glutathione (GSH) which has been widely studied due to its antioxidant properties. The analysis of GSH has been proposed using a liquid chromatography technique (HPLC or UPLC) coupled with fluorescence, MS and UV detectors.",book:{id:"6077",slug:"grapes-and-wines-advances-in-production-processing-analysis-and-valorization",title:"Grapes and Wines",fullTitle:"Grapes and Wines - Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization"},signatures:"Daniela Fracassetti and Ileana Vigentini",authors:[{id:"207271",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela",middleName:null,surname:"Fracassetti",slug:"daniela-fracassetti",fullName:"Daniela Fracassetti"},{id:"220967",title:"Dr.",name:"Ileana",middleName:null,surname:"Vigentini",slug:"ileana-vigentini",fullName:"Ileana Vigentini"}]},{id:"57497",title:"Recovering Ancient Grapevine Varieties: From Genetic Variability to In Vitro Conservation, A Case Study",slug:"recovering-ancient-grapevine-varieties-from-genetic-variability-to-in-vitro-conservation-a-case-stud",totalDownloads:1767,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"A great number of varieties have been described in grapevine; however, few of them are currently in use. The increasing concern on varietal diversity loss has encouraged actions for recovering and preserving grapevine germplasm, which represents valuable resources for breeding as well as for diversification in grapevine-derived products. On the other hand, it is expected that this important crop, which is distributed in warm areas worldwide, will suffer the climate changes. Therefore, it is also convenient the identification of intravarietal variability and the recovery of accessions well adapted to particular environments. In this chapter, we will contribute to highlight the importance of recovering ancient materials, the usefulness of SSR markers to determine their molecular profile, the importance to analyze their virus status, and the possibilities that offer biotechnological tools for virus sanitation and in vitro storage as a complement of field preservation. In this context, we have evaluated different grapevine accessions and developed in vitro culture protocols for micropropagation, sanitation, and storage grapevine cultivars. In this work, we report the results obtained for the historic variety “Valencí Blanc” (or “Beba”) and the historic and endangered variety “Esclafagerres” (“Esclafacherres” or “Esclafacherris”).",book:{id:"6077",slug:"grapes-and-wines-advances-in-production-processing-analysis-and-valorization",title:"Grapes and Wines",fullTitle:"Grapes and Wines - Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization"},signatures:"Carmina Gisbert, Rosa Peiró, Tania San Pedro, Antonio Olmos,\nCarles Jiménez and Julio García",authors:[{id:"207745",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmina",middleName:null,surname:"Gisbert",slug:"carmina-gisbert",fullName:"Carmina Gisbert"},{id:"207748",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Peiró",slug:"rosa-maria-peiro",fullName:"Rosa María Peiró"},{id:"207749",title:"Ms.",name:"Tania",middleName:null,surname:"San Pedro Galán",slug:"tania-san-pedro-galan",fullName:"Tania San Pedro Galán"},{id:"207750",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Olmos",slug:"antonio-olmos",fullName:"Antonio Olmos"}]},{id:"58633",title:"The Evolution of Polyphenols from Grapes to Wines",slug:"the-evolution-of-polyphenols-from-grapes-to-wines",totalDownloads:2021,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Polyphenols play an important role in the quality of wines, due to their contribution to the wine sensory properties: color, astringency and bitterness. They act as antioxidants, having positive role in human health. They can be divided into non-flavonoid (hydroxybenzoic and hydroxycinnamic acids and stilbenes) and flavonoid compounds (anthocyanins, flavan-3-ols and flavonols). Anthocyanins are responsible for the color of red grapes and wines, hydroxycinnamic and hydroxybenzoic acids act as copigments, stilbenes as antioxidants and the flavan-3-ols are mainly responsible for the astringency, bitterness and structure of wines, being involved also in the color stabilization during aging. This chapter will focus on the chemical structures of the main polyphenols, their identification and quantification in grapes and wines by advanced analytical techniques, highlighting also the maceration and aging impact on the polyphenols evolution. The factors influencing the phenolic accumulation in grapes are also reviewed, emphasizing as well the relationship between phenolic content in grapes versus wine. Polyphenolic changes during the wine making process are highlighted along with the main polyphenol extraction methods and analysis techniques. This research will contribute to the improvement in the knowledge of polyphenols: their presence in grapes, the relationship with wine quality and the influence of the external factors on their evolution.",book:{id:"6077",slug:"grapes-and-wines-advances-in-production-processing-analysis-and-valorization",title:"Grapes and Wines",fullTitle:"Grapes and Wines - Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization"},signatures:"Violeta-Carolina Niculescu, Nadia Paun and Roxana-Elena Ionete",authors:[{id:"187102",title:"Dr.",name:"Roxana",middleName:null,surname:"Ionete",slug:"roxana-ionete",fullName:"Roxana Ionete"},{id:"206056",title:"Dr.",name:"Violeta",middleName:"Carolina",surname:"Niculescu",slug:"violeta-niculescu",fullName:"Violeta Niculescu"},{id:"207020",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nadia",middleName:null,surname:"Paun",slug:"nadia-paun",fullName:"Nadia Paun"}]},{id:"67760",title:"Production and Marketing of Low-Alcohol Wine",slug:"production-and-marketing-of-low-alcohol-wine",totalDownloads:1299,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Moderate wine consumption may be associated with specific health benefits and a healthy lifestyle. However, increased amounts of ethanol are cytotoxic and associated with adverse health outcomes. Alcohol reduction in wine might be an avenue to reduce alcohol related harm without forcing consumers to compromise on lifestyle and benefit from positive aspects of moderate consumption. The aim of this review is to give an overview of viticultural and pre and post fermentation methods to produce low-alcohol wine, and to summarize the current evidence on the consumer acceptance and behaviour related to low-alcohol wine. Strategies for the labelling and marketing of wines with reduced alcohol content are discussed.",book:{id:"8054",slug:"advances-in-grape-and-wine-biotechnology",title:"Advances in Grape and Wine Biotechnology",fullTitle:"Advances in Grape and Wine Biotechnology"},signatures:"Tamara Bucher, Kristine Deroover and Creina Stockley",authors:[{id:"289140",title:"Dr.",name:"Creina",middleName:null,surname:"Stockley",slug:"creina-stockley",fullName:"Creina Stockley"},{id:"289141",title:"Dr.",name:"Tamara",middleName:null,surname:"Bucher",slug:"tamara-bucher",fullName:"Tamara Bucher"},{id:"289142",title:"Ms.",name:"Kristine",middleName:null,surname:"Deroover",slug:"kristine-deroover",fullName:"Kristine Deroover"}]},{id:"57946",title:"Microbiological, Physical, and Chemical Procedures to Elaborate High-Quality SO2-Free Wines",slug:"microbiological-physical-and-chemical-procedures-to-elaborate-high-quality-so2-free-wines",totalDownloads:1613,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is the most preservative used in the wine industry and has been widely applied, as antioxidant and antibacterial agent. However, the use of sulfur dioxide implicates a range of adverse clinical effects. Therefore, the replacement of the SO2 content in wines is one of the most important challenges for scientist and winemakers. This book chapter gives an overview regarding different microbiological, physical, and chemical alternatives to elaborate high-quality SO2-free wines. In the present chapter, original research articles as well as review articles and results obtained by the research group of the Wine Technology Center (VITEC) are shown. This study provides useful information related to this novel and healthy type of wines, highlighting the development of winemaking strategies and procedures.",book:{id:"6077",slug:"grapes-and-wines-advances-in-production-processing-analysis-and-valorization",title:"Grapes and Wines",fullTitle:"Grapes and Wines - Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization"},signatures:"Raúl Ferrer-Gallego, Miquel Puxeu, Laura Martín, Enric Nart, Claudio\nHidalgo and Imma Andorrà",authors:[{id:"207221",title:"Dr.",name:"Raúl",middleName:null,surname:"Ferrer-Gallego",slug:"raul-ferrer-gallego",fullName:"Raúl Ferrer-Gallego"},{id:"208597",title:"Dr.",name:"Miquel",middleName:null,surname:"Puxeu",slug:"miquel-puxeu",fullName:"Miquel Puxeu"},{id:"208598",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Martín",slug:"laura-martin",fullName:"Laura Martín"},{id:"208599",title:"Mr.",name:"Enric",middleName:null,surname:"Nart",slug:"enric-nart",fullName:"Enric Nart"},{id:"208600",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudio",middleName:null,surname:"Hidalgo",slug:"claudio-hidalgo",fullName:"Claudio Hidalgo"},{id:"208601",title:"Dr.",name:"Imma",middleName:null,surname:"Andorrà",slug:"imma-andorra",fullName:"Imma Andorrà"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1410",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81659",title:"State-of-the-Art Knowledge about 2,4,6-Trichloroanisole (TCA) and Strategies to Avoid Cork Taint in Wine",slug:"state-of-the-art-knowledge-about-2-4-6-trichloroanisole-tca-and-strategies-to-avoid-cork-taint-in-wi",totalDownloads:26,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103709",abstract:"Cork stoppers have been used for many centuries to seal wine in various vessels. Therefore, corks have become a traditional part of wine packaging in many countries and still play an important role for the entire wine industry. Nowadays, there is a wide option of bottle cork stoppers on the market, such as natural corks, agglomerated and technical stoppers (1 + 1), etc. These cork closures have a number of advantages, including positive sustainable and ecological aspects. Natural cork material can also be responsible for cork taint, which imparts musty/moldy or wet cardboard off-odors to the wine. However, corks are not the only source of cork taint in wine, as will be shown in the present chapter. Over the past decades, a number of compounds have been detected that can contribute to the cork taint. Among them, haloanisoles play a major role, in particular 2,4,6-trichloroanisole (TCA), which has been shown to be responsible for 50–80% or more of musty defect cases in wine. Currently, the cork and wine industries have developed a number of tools and technologies to effectively prevent cork tait in wine or to remove it if the wine is already contaminated. These practical as well as analytical questions about the TCA defects are the subject of the actual chapter.",book:{id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg"},signatures:"Andrii Tarasov, Miguel Cabral, Christophe Loisel, Paulo Lopes, Christoph Schuessler and Rainer Jung"},{id:"78620",title:"Table Grapes: There Is More to Vitiviniculture than Wine…",slug:"table-grapes-there-is-more-to-vitiviniculture-than-wine",totalDownloads:141,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99986",abstract:"Table grapes are fruits intended for fresh human consumption due to their sensory attributes and nutritional value. The objective of this chapter is to review the existing knowledge about table grapes, including a description of different varieties, with particular emphasis on the new highly appreciated seedless varieties. Following an introductory note on the world distribution and production of table grapes, also considering the impact of climate change, selected varieties of table grapes will be characterized in terms of their physiology, postharvest features, and consumer preferences. A morphological description of each variety, with emphasis on grape skin, grape rachis and grape cluster will be included. A final note on the drying of table grapes into raisins, and the most appropriate varieties for drying, will be given. The major changes occurring throughout the growth, development, and ripening phases of table grapes production will be discussed, regarding both physical (skin color and skin and pulp texture) and chemical (phenolic compounds, sugar content and acidity) parameters, as well as growth regulators.",book:{id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg"},signatures:"Ana Cristina Agulheiro-Santos, Marta Laranjo and Sara Ricardo-Rodrigues"},{id:"79500",title:"New Insights about the Influence of Yeasts Autolysis on Sparkling Wines Composition and Quality",slug:"new-insights-about-the-influence-of-yeasts-autolysis-on-sparkling-wines-composition-and-quality",totalDownloads:92,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101314",abstract:"Sparkling wines elaborated using the traditional method undergo a second fermentation in the bottle. This process involves an aging time in contact with the lees, which enriches the wine in various substances, especially proteins, mannoproteins and polysaccharides, thanks to the autolysis of the yeasts. As a result of this yeast autolysis, sparkling wines benefit from better integration of carbon dioxide and a clear sensory improvement, especially in the case of long aging. This chapter synthetizes the main results that our research group has obtained about the influence of yeasts autolysis on sparkling wines composition and quality during last years, making special emphasis on the capacity of the lees to release proteins and polysaccharides as well as on their capacity to consume oxygen and thus protect the sparkling wines from oxidation.",book:{id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg"},signatures:"Pere Pons-Mercadé, Pol Giménez, Glòria Vilomara, Marta Conde, Antoni Cantos, Nicolas Rozès, Sergi Ferrer, Joan Miquel Canals and Fernando Zamora"},{id:"79110",title:"Microbial Decontamination by Pulsed Electric Fields (PEF) in Winemaking",slug:"microbial-decontamination-by-pulsed-electric-fields-pef-in-winemaking",totalDownloads:80,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101112",abstract:"Pulsed Electric Fields (PEF) is a non-thermal technique that causes electroporation of cell membranes by applying very short pulses (μs) of a high-intensity electric field (kV/cm). Irreversible electroporation leads to the formation of permanent conductive channels in the cytoplasmic membrane of cells, resulting in the loss of cell viability. This effect is achieved with low energy requirements and minimal deterioration of quality. This chapter reviews the studies hitherto conducted to evaluate the potential of PEF as a technology for microbial decontamination in the winemaking process for reducing or replacing the use of SO2, for guaranteeing reproducible fermentations or for wine stabilization.",book:{id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg"},signatures:"Carlota Delso, Alejandro Berzosa, Jorge Sanz, Ignacio Álvarez and Javier Raso"},{id:"78993",title:"pH Control and Aroma Improvement Using the Non-Saccharomyces Lachancea thermotolerans and Hanseniaspora spp. Yeasts to Improve Wine Freshness in Warm Areas",slug:"ph-control-and-aroma-improvement-using-the-non-saccharomyces-lachancea-thermotolerans-and-hanseniasp",totalDownloads:90,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100538",abstract:"Lachancea thermotolerans is a yeast species that works as a powerful bio tool capable of metabolizing grape sugars into lactic acid via lactate dehydrogenase enzymes. The enological impact is an increase in total acidity and a decrease in pH levels (sometimes >0.5 pH units) with a concomitant slight reduction in alcohol (0.2–0.4% vol.), which helps balance freshness in wines from warm areas. In addition, higher levels of molecular SO2 are favored, which helps to decrease SO2 total content and achieve better antioxidant and antimicrobial performance. The simultaneous use with some apiculate yeast species of the genus Hanseniaspora helps to improve the aromatic profile through the production of acetyl esters and, in some cases, terpenes, which makes the wine aroma more complex, enhancing floral and fruity scents and making more complex and fresh wines. Furthermore, many species of Hanseniaspora increase the structure of wines, thus improving their body and palatability. Ternary fermentations with Lachancea thermotolerans and Hanseniaspora spp. sequentially followed by Saccharomyces cerevisiae are a useful bio tool for producing fresher wines from neutral varieties in warm areas.",book:{id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg"},signatures:"Antonio Morata, Carlos Escott, Iris Loira, Juan Manuel Del Fresno, Cristian Vaquero, María Antonia Bañuelos, Felipe Palomero, Carmen López and Carmen González"},{id:"78970",title:"Alternatives to CU Applications in Viticulture. How R&D Projects Can Provide Applied Solutions, Helping to Establish Legislation Limits",slug:"alternatives-to-cu-applications-in-viticulture-how-r-d-projects-can-provide-applied-solutions-helpin",totalDownloads:179,totalDimensionsCites:2,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100500",abstract:"Copper (Cu) and its based preparations have been used for over 200 years to control fungi and bacterial diseases in cultivated plants. Downy mildew caused by the obligate biotrophic oomycete Plasmopara viticola is one of the most relevant and recurrent diseases of grapevines. Recently, the use of Cu is being limited by some regulations because of its high impact at different levels (health and environmental problems). Due to its accumulation in soil, this metal causes a little controversy with the principles of sustainable production. Therefore, international legislation and initiatives have recently been arisen to start limiting its use, with the main goal to replace it. In this framework, some alternatives have been tested and others are recently being developed to replace, at least partially, the use of Cu in viticulture. Many of them, are being developed and tested under the scope of research and development EU funded projects. To not compromise sustainability targets in viticulture, results from these R&D projects need to be considered to assess the present risks of using Cu in viticulture and to better support establishing limits for its applications, considering soils vulnerability, while no sustainable alternatives are available in the market.",book:{id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg"},signatures:"Mario De La Fuente, David Fernández-Calviño, Bartosz Tylkowski, Josep M. 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His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 255 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 2 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. 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Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. degree in chemistry in 2000 and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He moved to School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia in 2009 and joined Dr. Ron Clarke as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+/K+-ATPase and dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ATP; then he went back to Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum as an assistant professor, and in 2014 he was promoted as an associate professor. In 2011, he joined the staff of Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently an assistant professor. His research interests include the following: P-Type ATPase enzyme kinetics and mechanisms, kinetics and mechanisms of redox reactions, autocatalytic reactions, computational enzyme kinetics, allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP, exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases, and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424836",title:"Dr.",name:"Orsolya",middleName:null,surname:"Borsai",slug:"orsolya-borsai",fullName:"Orsolya Borsai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"422262",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Paola Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Palmeros-Suárez",slug:"paola-andrea-palmeros-suarez",fullName:"Paola Andrea Palmeros-Suárez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Guadalajara",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"12",type:"subseries",title:"Human Physiology",keywords:"Anatomy, Cells, Organs, Systems, Homeostasis, Functions",scope:"Human physiology is the scientific exploration of the various functions (physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties) of humans, their organs, and their constituent cells. The endocrine and nervous systems play important roles in maintaining homeostasis in the human body. Integration, which is the biological basis of physiology, is achieved through communication between the many overlapping functions of the human body's systems, which takes place through electrical and chemical means. Much of the basis of our knowledge of human physiology has been provided by animal experiments. Because of the close relationship between structure and function, studies in human physiology and anatomy seek to understand the mechanisms that help the human body function. 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His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. 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