The 3-year (2010–2012) protein content range and mean for different maturity group (MG) elite breeding lines created at the agricultural institute Osijek in comparison to standard cultivars.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8558",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Aerodynamics",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Aerodynamics, the study of air motion around solid objects, allows us to understand and measure the dominating forces acting on aircrafts, buildings, bridges, automobiles, and other structures. The forces that result in an aircraft overcoming gravity and drag are called thrust and lift. Various parameters such as geometrical configurations of objects, as well as physical properties of air, which may be functions of position and time, affect those forces. This book covers some of the latest studies regarding the application of the principles of aerodynamics to the design of many different engineered objects. This book will be of interest to mechanical and aerospace engineering students, academics, and researchers who are looking for new insights into this fascinating branch of fluid mechanics.",isbn:"978-1-83880-168-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-167-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-003-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78935",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"aerodynamics",numberOfPages:248,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",publishedDate:"February 10th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",numberOfDownloads:8061,numberOfWosCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitations:14,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:26,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:45,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 27th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 4th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 3rd 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 22nd 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 22nd 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35542/images/system/35542.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mofid Gorji-Bandpy received his MS in Mechanical Engineering from the Faculty of Engineering, University of Tehran, Iran, in 1978. In 1990, he obtained his Ph.D. in Hydraulic Engineering from the School of Engineering, University of Wales College of Cardiff (UWCC), UK. At present, he is a full professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the Babol Noshirvani University of Technology, Babol, Iran. He is also a visiting professor in the Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering at the University of Toronto, Canada. His major interests are in advanced methods of energy-conversion systems, turbo machinery, fluid mechanics, water distribution networks, and solutions to both energy and environmental problems. He has published more than 300 papers in these fields. He has also published several refereed publications in different fields of mechanical engineering, applied mathematics, and aerodynamics. In addition, Dr. Gorji-Bandpy was recognized as a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate Analytics in 2017 and 2018.",institutionString:"Babol Noshirvani University of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Babol Noshirvani University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"207384",title:null,name:"Aly-Mousaad",middleName:null,surname:"Aly",slug:"aly-mousaad-aly",fullName:"Aly-Mousaad Aly",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/207384/images/system/207384.png",biography:"Dr. Aly-Mousaad Aly is an associate professor at Louisiana State University (LSU). His research aims at creating fundamental knowledge in wind engineering, dynamics, and control to build more resilient, economic, and recoverable infrastructure to enhance safety and reduce the huge cost of rebuilding after windstorms and earthquakes. He is the director of the LSU Windstorm Impact, Science, and Engineering (WISE) research and education program (wise.lsu.edu). His research enables advanced wind testing, which yields loads that mimic those at full scale. His research advanced the implementation of smart dampers in super-tall structures and a novel probabilistic theory that enables the analytical modeling of semi-active damping.",institutionString:"Louisiana State University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Louisiana State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"682",title:"Aerodynamics",slug:"aerospace-engineering-aerodynamics"}],chapters:[{id:"69247",title:"Application of an Asynchronous Synchronous Alternator for Wind Power Plant of Low, Medium and High Power",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89255",slug:"application-of-an-asynchronous-synchronous-alternator-for-wind-power-plant-of-low-medium-and-high-po",totalDownloads:693,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The chapter shows the prospects for the development of alternative energy. The growth rate of wind energy is ahead of other types of alternative energy, but the development of wind energy is constrained by a number of technical contradictions that need to be solved. The main problem of wind power is that the power and direction of the wind flow are continuously changing. This leads to the fact that the frequency of rotation of the generator constantly varies and alternator produces energy with nonstandard parameters in amplitude, frequency and phase. Converting this energy into energy with standard parameters is a difficult technical task. A brief analysis of the different directions to solve this problem is shown. It is proved that the promising direction of solving this problem from the point of view of efficiency is the use of double-fed induction alternator (DFIA). The chapter describes the principle of operation of the DFIA, the theory of energy conversion based on equivalent circuits. Approaches to the optimal design of generators based on generalized variables are shown. Two variants of the generator design are described. One option is to contain an additional exciter generator to power the rotor. The design of this 10 kW generator is presented. In another version, the power supply function of the rotor is performed by the battery. In addition, the battery performs the function of accumulation of electricity. It is concluded that the development of wind power in the direction of the DFIA is promising. On the basis of the proposed concept, a number of wind power plants can be built with power from 10 kW to 6 MW. DFIA can operate in standalone mode and in conjunction with electrical grid. The design for the range of wind turbines will be the same type. The DFIA will differ only in size.",signatures:"Sergey Gandzha and Anton Kotov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69247",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69247",authors:[{id:"303625",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Gandzha",slug:"sergey-gandzha",fullName:"Sergey Gandzha"},{id:"309534",title:"MSc.",name:"Anton",surname:"Kotov",slug:"anton-kotov",fullName:"Anton Kotov"}],corrections:null},{id:"72520",title:"Aerodynamics of Low-Rise Buildings: Challenges and Recent Advances in Experimental and Computational Methods",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92794",slug:"aerodynamics-of-low-rise-buildings-challenges-and-recent-advances-in-experimental-and-computational-",totalDownloads:721,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Buildings are bluff bodies, compared to streamline objects, such as airfoil. Wind flow over buildings leads to separation and hence a complex spatial and temporal mechanism that governs the nature and intensity of aerodynamic forces. This complexity mainly comes from the transient nature of incident turbulent winds and the fluctuating flow pattern in the separation bubble. The study of building aerodynamics is vital for the evaluation of cladding pressures, drag, shear, and uplift forces that are essential for safe and economic design. Flow separation makes it challenging to estimate loads without referring to direct physical and/or computational simulation. For several decades, aerodynamic testing has been employed for the estimation of wind pressures and forces on buildings. However, for residential homes and low-rise buildings, it has been always a challenge to predict full-scale pressures by traditional wind tunnel testing, as per the lack of large turbulence and Reynolds number effects, among other factors. The mismatch in flow physics makes it difficult to scale up wind-induced loads as the process can be highly nonlinear, which is the case when full-scale pressure coefficients do not meet those from small-scale aerodynamic testing. This chapter presents the challenges in the modeling and evaluation of aerodynamic forces on low-rise buildings, along with recent advances in both experimental and computational methods.",signatures:"Aly Mousaad Aly, Faiaz Khaled and Hamzeh Gol-Zaroudi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72520",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72520",authors:[{id:"207384",title:null,name:"Aly-Mousaad",surname:"Aly",slug:"aly-mousaad-aly",fullName:"Aly-Mousaad Aly"}],corrections:null},{id:"71605",title:"Research on Aeroelasticity Phenomenon in Aeronautical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91748",slug:"research-on-aeroelasticity-phenomenon-in-aeronautical-engineering",totalDownloads:706,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Aeroelasticity phenomena arise when structural deformations induce changes on aerodynamic forces due to airplane structures that are not completely rigid. The additional aerodynamic forces cause an increase in the structural deformations, which leads to greater aerodynamic forces in a feedback process. These interactions may become smaller until reaching a condition of equilibrium or may diverge catastrophically if resonance occurs. Flutter is an instability aeroelasticity phenomenon which is the most difficult to predict. In this chapter, a numerical method and an experimental method were realized to predict aeroelastic response and characteristic parameters of a wing structure. The numerical method was firstly developed based on the interaction between computational fluid dynamic and computational structural dynamic methods using a coupling system, fluid–solid interaction (FSI), in the ANSYS software. Then, an experiment was set up in suitable conditions to study aeroelasticity characteristics with the goal of comparing the numerical results with the experimental results on the same wing structure at low speed. After that, a developed code based on immersed boundary method (IBM) was realized to predict aeroelasticity response and characteristic parameters of the wing structure. AGARD 445.6 wing model was chosen for this developed procedure at high speed. Obtained results were compared to other numerical and experimental results.",signatures:"Hoang Thi Kim Dung and Nguyen Phu Khanh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71605",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71605",authors:[{id:"288958",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Hoang",surname:"Thi Kim Dung",slug:"hoang-thi-kim-dung",fullName:"Hoang Thi Kim Dung"},{id:"290148",title:"Prof.",name:"Nguyen",surname:"Phu Khanh",slug:"nguyen-phu-khanh",fullName:"Nguyen Phu Khanh"}],corrections:null},{id:"69044",title:"Optimization of Lift-Curve Slope for Wing-Fuselage Combination",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89056",slug:"optimization-of-lift-curve-slope-for-wing-fuselage-combination",totalDownloads:598,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The paper presents results obtained by the author for wing-body interference. The lift-curve slopes of the wing-body combinations are considered. A 2D potential model for cross-flow around the fuselage and a discrete vortex method (DVM) are used. Flat wings of various forms and the circular and elliptical cross sections of the fuselage are considered. It was found that the value of the lift-curve slopes of the wing-body combinations may exceed the same value for an isolated wing. An experimental and theoretical data obtained by other authors earlier confirm this result. Investigations to optimize the wing-body combination were carried within the framework of the proposed model. It was revealed that the maximums of the lift-curve slopes for the optimal midwing configuration with elliptical cross-section body had a sufficiently large relative width (more than 30% of the span wing). The advantage of the wing-fuselage combination with a circular cross section over an isolated wing for wing aspect ratio greater than 6 can reach 7.5% at the relative diameter of fuselage equal to approximately 0.2.",signatures:"Vladimir Frolov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69044",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69044",authors:[{id:"215894",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Vladimir",surname:"Frolov",slug:"vladimir-frolov",fullName:"Vladimir Frolov"}],corrections:null},{id:"67946",title:"Wave Drag Modification in the Presence of Discharges",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86858",slug:"wave-drag-modification-in-the-presence-of-discharges",totalDownloads:469,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A phenomenological model of wave drag modification following the thermal energy deposition in a hypersonic flow is presented. While most of the previous research was concentrated on finding optimal gas parameter values and the amount of energy, this work points at closer attention to the effect of the parameter distribution and the geometry of experimental arrangements. The approach discussed here is to fill the gap in the understanding of the complex mechanism of the flow transformation leading to the wave drag reduction. Analytical expressions used in the model identify a number of adjustment parameters that can be used to optimize thermal energy input and thus achieve fundamentally lower drag values than that of conventional approaches.",signatures:"Anna Markhotok",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67946",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67946",authors:[{id:"293548",title:"Prof.",name:"Anna",surname:"Markhotok",slug:"anna-markhotok",fullName:"Anna Markhotok"}],corrections:null},{id:"68702",title:"Boundary Layer Theory: New Analytical Approximations with Error and Lambert Functions for Flat Plate without/with Suction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88637",slug:"boundary-layer-theory-new-analytical-approximations-with-error-and-lambert-functions-for-flat-plate-",totalDownloads:450,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this work, we investigated the problem of the boundary layer suction on a flat plate with null incidence and without pressure gradient. There is an analytical resolution using the Bianchini approximate integral method. This approximation has been achieved by Lambert or Error functions for boundary layer profiles with uniform suction, even in the case without suction. Based on these new laws, we brought out analytical expressions of several boundary layer features. This gives a necessary data to suction effect modeling for boundary layer control. To recommend our theoretical results, we numerically studied the boundary layer suction on a porous flat plate equipped with trailing edge flap deflected to 40°. We showed that this flap moves the stagnation point on the upper surface, resulting to avoid the formation of the laminar bulb of separation. Good agreement was obtained between the new analytical laws, the numerical results (CFD Fluent), and the literature results.",signatures:"Chedhli Hafien, Adnen Bourehla and Mounir Bouzaiane",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68702",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68702",authors:[{id:"305636",title:"Dr.",name:"Chedhli",surname:"Hafien",slug:"chedhli-hafien",fullName:"Chedhli Hafien"}],corrections:null},{id:"66116",title:"High Entropy Alloys for Aerospace Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84982",slug:"high-entropy-alloys-for-aerospace-applications",totalDownloads:1658,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:14,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"In the aerospace industry, materials used as modern engine components must be able to withstand extreme operating temperatures, creep, fatigue crack growth and translational movements of parts at high speed. Therefore, the parts produced must be lightweight and have good elevated-temperature strength, fatigue, resistant to chemical degradation, wear and oxidation resistance. High entropy alloys (HEAs) characterize the cutting edge of high-performance materials. These alloys are materials with complex compositions of multiple elements and striking characteristics in contrast to conventional alloys; their high configuration entropy mixing is more stable at elevated temperatures. This attribute allows suitable alloying elements to increase the properties of the materials based on four core effects , which gives tremendous possibilities as potential structural materials in jet engine applications. Researchers fabricate most of these materials using formative manufacturing technologies; arc melting. However, the challenges of heating the elements together have the tendency to form hypoeutectic that separates itself from the rest of the elements and defects reported are introduced during the casting process. Nevertheless, Laser Engineering Net Shaping (LENS™) and Selective Laser Melting (SLM); a powder-based laser additive manufacturing process offers versatility, accuracy in geometry and fabrication of three-dimensional dense structures layer by layer avoiding production errors.",signatures:"Modupeola Dada, Patricia Popoola, Samson Adeosun and Ntombi Mathe",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66116",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66116",authors:[{id:"169258",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia",surname:"Popoola",slug:"patricia-popoola",fullName:"Patricia Popoola"},{id:"285697",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Modupeola",surname:"Dada",slug:"modupeola-dada",fullName:"Modupeola Dada"},{id:"292368",title:"Dr.",name:"Samson",surname:"Adeosun",slug:"samson-adeosun",fullName:"Samson Adeosun"},{id:"292369",title:"Dr.",name:"Ntombi",surname:"Mathe",slug:"ntombi-mathe",fullName:"Ntombi Mathe"}],corrections:null},{id:"72028",title:"Flight Vehicle Performance",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92105",slug:"flight-vehicle-performance",totalDownloads:702,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, the problem of flight vehicle performance is described. Performance parameters, such as lift-to-drag ratio, maximum and minimum level flight speed, speeds for the best rate of climb, steepest climb, maximum range and endurance, and most economical climb are described using graphical methods, such as drag polar, Zhukovsky curves with combination of analytical derivations. The approach of graphical description of flight vehicle performance allows to understand the physical basics of the aerodynamic properties of flight vehicles easier and to develop deeper connectivity between their interpretations. In addition, flight envelope and operational limits are discussed using both analytical and graphical methods for better understanding.",signatures:"Aram Baghiyan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72028",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72028",authors:[{id:"315958",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Aram",surname:"Baghiyan",slug:"aram-baghiyan",fullName:"Aram Baghiyan"}],corrections:null},{id:"74839",title:"Critical Mach Numbers of Flow around Two-Dimensional and Axisymmetric Bodies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94981",slug:"critical-mach-numbers-of-flow-around-two-dimensional-and-axisymmetric-bodies",totalDownloads:389,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The paper presents the calculated results obtained by the author for critical Mach numbers of the flow around two-dimensional and axisymmetric bodies. Although the previously proposed method was applied by the author for two media, air and water, this chapter is devoted only to air. The main goal of the work is to show the high accuracy of the method. For this purpose, the work presents numerous comparisons with the data of other authors. This method showed acceptable accuracy in comparison with the Dorodnitsyn method of integral relations and other methods. In the method under consideration, the parameters of the compressible flow are calculated from the parameters of the flow of an incompressible fluid up to the Mach number of the incoming flow equal to the critical Mach number. This method does not depend on the means determination parameters of the incompressible flow. The calculation in software Flow Simulation was shown that the viscosity factor does not affect the value critical Mach number. It was found that with an increase in the relative thickness of the body, the value of the critical Mach number decreases. It was also found that the value of the critical Mach number for the two-dimensional case is always less than for the axisymmetric case for bodies with the same cross-section.",signatures:"Vladimir Frolov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74839",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74839",authors:[{id:"215894",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Vladimir",surname:"Frolov",slug:"vladimir-frolov",fullName:"Vladimir Frolov"}],corrections:null},{id:"66879",title:"Laser Based Additive Manufacturing Technology for Fabrication of Titanium Aluminide-Based Composites in Aerospace Component Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85538",slug:"laser-based-additive-manufacturing-technology-for-fabrication-of-titanium-aluminide-based-composites",totalDownloads:1045,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Titanium aluminides has the potential of replacing nickel-based superalloys in the aerospace industries because its density is almost half that of nickel-based alloys. Nevertheless, the room temperature properties (ductility) have made the wider application of this class of intermetallic alloy far from being realized. This has led to various research been carried out in adjusting the production processing and/or material through alloying, heat treatment, ingot metallurgy, powder metallurgy and most recently additive manufacturing processing. One of the additive manufacturing processing of titanium aluminide is laser engineered net shaping (LENS). It is used to produce components from powders by melting and forming on a substrate based on a computer-aided design (CAD) to shape the components. This contribution will focus on the laser processing of titanium aluminides components for aerospace applications. Also, the challenges confronting this processing techniques as well as suggested finding to solve the problems would be outlined. The objective of this work is to present an insight into how titanium aluminides components have been developed by researchers with emphasis on aerospace applications.",signatures:"Sadiq Abiola Raji, Abimbola Patricia Idowu Popoola, Sisa Leslie Pityana, Olawale Muhmmed Popoola, Fatai Olufemi Aramide, Monnamme Tlotleng and Nana Kwamina Kum Arthur",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66879",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66879",authors:[{id:"169258",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia",surname:"Popoola",slug:"patricia-popoola",fullName:"Patricia Popoola"},{id:"176896",title:"Dr.",name:"Sisa",surname:"Pityana",slug:"sisa-pityana",fullName:"Sisa Pityana"},{id:"177716",title:"Dr.",name:"Olawale",surname:"Popoola",slug:"olawale-popoola",fullName:"Olawale Popoola"},{id:"283922",title:"Mr.",name:"Sadiq",surname:"Raji",slug:"sadiq-raji",fullName:"Sadiq Raji"},{id:"292715",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatai",surname:"Aramide",slug:"fatai-aramide",fullName:"Fatai Aramide"}],corrections:[{id:"69565",title:"Erratum - Laser Based Additive Manufacturing Technology for Fabrication of Titanium Aluminide-Based Composites in Aerospace Component Applications",doi:null,slug:"erratum-laser-based-additive-manufacturing-technology-for-fabrication-of-titanium-aluminide-based-co",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,correctionPdfUrl:null}]},{id:"69643",title:"Study of the Wind Speed Forecasting Applying Computational Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89758",slug:"study-of-the-wind-speed-forecasting-applying-computational-intelligence",totalDownloads:634,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The conventional sources of energy such as oil, natural gas, coal, or nuclear are finite and generate environmental pollution. Alternatively, renewable energy source like wind is clean and abundantly available in nature. Wind power has a huge potential of becoming a major source of renewable energy for this modern world. It is a clean, emission-free power generation technology. Wind energy has been experiencing very rapid growth in Brazil and in Uruguay; therefore, it’s a promising industry in these countries. Thus, this rapid expansion can bring several regional benefits and contribute to sustainable development, especially in places with low economic development. Therefore, the scope of this chapter is to estimate short-term wind speed forecasting applying computational intelligence, by recurrent neural networks (RNN), using anemometers data collected by an anemometric tower at a height of 100.0 m in Brazil (tropical region) and 101.8 m in Uruguay (subtropical region), both Latin American countries. The results of this study are compared with wind speed prediction results from the literature. In one of the cases investigated, this study proved to be more appropriate when analyzing evaluation metrics (error and regression) of the prediction results obtained by the proposed model.",signatures:"Pedro Junior Zucatelli, Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento, Alex Álisson Bandeira Santos, Alejandro Mauricio Gutiérrez Arce and Davidson Martins Moreira",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69643",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69643",authors:[{id:"172442",title:"Dr.",name:"Davidson",surname:"Moreira",slug:"davidson-moreira",fullName:"Davidson Moreira"},{id:"267484",title:"Dr.",name:"Alex",surname:"Santos",slug:"alex-santos",fullName:"Alex Santos"},{id:"307526",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Pedro",surname:"Zucatelli",slug:"pedro-zucatelli",fullName:"Pedro Zucatelli"},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio 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Regardless of the final goal, the prerequisite of successful crop improvement is genetic variability of the traits of interest. Assessment of genetic diversity is necessary for germplasm characterisation, conservation, utilisation and the establishment of breeding programmes [9]. If sources of genetic variability are available, the genetic advance can be achieved not only with genetic engineering but also with continuous breeding efforts using conventional hybridization and selection methods together with modern chemical, biochemical and genetic analyses [10]. Conventional soybean improvement starts with the creation of a large recombinant inbred line population of significant diversity by hybridization of chosen parental components carrying the traits of interest. According to Burton [11], genetically distant elite parental lines have the greatest chance of producing superior progeny. Genetic characterisation and evaluation of divergence of parental material prior to hybridization can be made based on the pedigree [12], by measuring and analysing the variability of qualitative and quantitative morphological properties [13], on the basis of biochemical properties [14, 15] and with the help of molecular markers [16, 17]. All phenotype determination methods must consider the interaction of genotype and environment, whereas the efficacy and reliability of molecular markers are based on the ability of direct and rapid determination of genotype divergence excluding the environmental influences. Even if molecular methods of determining the differences in genetic constitutions are not available, creating a diverse population is enabled by the positive correlation between phenotypic variability and genetic divergence [18]. Therefore, phenotype evaluation is crucial for successful crop improvement.
The process that negatively affects crop improvement is the loss of genetic diversity as a consequence of human activity and the influence of the environment. This process, which Harlan [19] called genetic erosion, appears because of the replacement of diverse indigenous populations with modern, new, uniform cultivars and hybrids, and it causes a considerable threat to the production of food and hence the survival of humans. A narrow genetic base has been identified in most soybean germplasm studies [20, 21]. However, Hahn and Würschum [22] noted that the genetic base of middle European genotypes was not as narrow as expected because of the unsystematic phenotype selection. If narrowing of the genetic base is not stopped, it can result in complete crop destruction due to the lack of tolerance to adverse abiotic or biotic factors. This is why it is important to take all the measures necessary for preserving genetic diversity not only as it is crucial for crop improvement [23] but also to preserve biodiversity which ensures natural sustainability for all life forms. Furthermore, it is crucial to ensure the availability of this biodiversity to breeders, researchers and producers in order to ensure the genetic advance of cultivars in the future. As in other plant species, genetic diversity for soybean is preserved by creating germplasm collections on a local level and gene banks on a global level. Creating large and diverse germplasm collections as genetic resources necessary for the production of high-yielding and high-quality, commercially important cultivars is only possible if there is a continuous research. Since the commercial significance of soybean emanates mainly from the chemical composition of its seed, further improving the genetic basis of soybean seed quality should nowadays be as important as increasing the seed yield. Higher seed yield means more food produced on the same land area, but when 2 billion people worldwide are known to suffer from malnutrition [24], the quality of that food is of concern as well. This is why crops with high nutritional value, such as soybean, can greatly contribute to improving human and animal diets and health, as well as provide quality stock for pharmaceutical and functional food industries.
This chapter is giving insight into soybean seed quality research beneficial for defining the quality traits in available germplasm and choosing parental components in the soybean breeding programmes aiming to improve the added value properties of final soybean products. The studies presented here are mainly focused on maturity groups (MGs) 00 to II commonly sown in Central and South-eastern Europe but suitable for growing in almost all European regions [7]. The most important traits of soybean seed quality discussed here are protein content and amino acid composition; oil content and fatty acid composition; content and composition of soluble sugars, especially oligosaccharides; and content and composition of isoflavones.
Soybean protein, taking up 40% of the dry seed weight (DW) on average [25], is highly valued for food and feed because of its amino acid composition and a high digestibility [26]. Although it is thought to be the equivalent of animal protein [27], soybean proteins are deficient in sulphur-containing amino acids of which methionine and cysteine are considered the most limiting in animal feed [28]. Nevertheless, after appropriate heat treatment to reduce protease inhibitor activity, soybean proteins are considered to be superior to the proteins of other legumes in their growth-promoting properties [29]. Soybean seed proteins are made up from four major fractions: 2S, 7S, 11S and 15S, with 7S (glycinin) and 11S (ß-conglycinin) being the most abundant [30]. The ratio between 7S and 11S subunits has an important role in determining the functional properties of food made from soybean [31] and protein quality in soybean as glycinin has more sulphur-containing amino acids (cysteine and methionine) than ß-conglycinin [32]. Furthermore, glycinin is considered to lower the cholesterol levels in human serum [33], and it is important for tofu gel formation [34], whereas α subunit of ß-conglycinin is identified as one of the major allergenic proteins in soybean [32]. The nutritional value, utilization and digestibility of soybean proteins are further affected by bioactive compounds with toxic and/or anti-nutritional properties such as lipoxygenases, lectins, urease, the Kunitz trypsin inhibitor and the Bowman-Birk trypsin inhibitor [35], causing digestive and metabolic diseases in animals [36]. Some of these anti-nutritional factors can be destroyed or inactivated by heat treatment and some by supplemental enzymes, but others are unaffected by the methods applied commercially [37]. Nevertheless, in 2018, soybean represented 70% of protein meal used worldwide [38]. Defatted soybean meal has the highest level of crude protein among plant-based protein sources [26], and it is the main source of protein in commercial feed mixtures for poultry, livestock and fish farms [39]. For the production of these nutritionally valuable proteins, soybean needs less land area and less N than wheat and other small grains, maize, rice, fruits and vegetables. The emergence of soybean as a dominant global crop resulted in a partial offsetting of the dramatic increases in global soil nutrient withdrawals occurring as a result of the expansion of agriculture over newly cultivated land and rising yields in the recent decades while, at the same time, slightly increasing the overall protein content of the global harvest [40]. In the last several decades, the dominance of the soybean on the world crop market was further enhanced by the increase in meat consumption and livestock production, which caused the increase of the demand for high-protein materials for livestock feed in Europe as well [41]. It was estimated that global meat and milk demand would have an increase of 57 and 48% respectively, between 2005 and 2050, due to the fast-growing population and rising incomes in developing countries [42], while livestock production was estimated to increase by 21% between 2010 and 2025 [43]. Plant protein production in the EU, on the other hand, does not follow this increase, so almost 70% of domestic needs are covered by imported plant protein [44]. Because importing 1 kg of dried soybean meal to the European Union from South America is associated with 11.65 kg CO2 equivalent emissions [45] and because the price of proteins on the world market is continuously rising [46], this imposes major environmental, economic and social problems. Therefore, increasing local plant protein production and superseding the import of feed protein would not only increase Europe’s protein self-sufficiency but also decrease the negative environmental footprint of animal production [47]. Furthermore, including legumes such as soybean in crop rotation dominated mainly by cereals and non-legume oilseeds, which is the case in Europe [44], can have positive effects on soil quality and agrobiodiversity and can contribute to reducing nitrous oxide emissions and nitrate-N leaching [48]. These environmental benefits, together with benefits arising from the better balance of EU agriculture and trade, are the main reasons the provisions of the new Common Agriculture Policy (CAP) include the promotion of protein crops in Europe as a priority [49].
In general, increasing plant protein production can be done by increasing the area under high-protein crops or by increasing the protein content by breeding. Even some management practices can influence protein content. For example, minimum tillage and herbicide application can decrease the protein content in comparison to conventional tillage and no herbicides [50], and irrigation at the beginning of pod formation and during seed-filling can result in protein content increase [51–53]. Furthermore, Foroud et al. [54] and Bouniols et al. [55] noted that protein content was highest when irrigation was applied after the flowering, whereas continuous water supply decreased it. According to Afza et al. [56], nitrogen (N) fertilization during the seed-filling stage increased the protein content, and earlier N application, e.g. in flowering, did not affect the protein content [57], whereas, sulphur-containing amino acid composition fluctuated depending on the nitrogen source [58] and on the availability of reduced forms of sulphur as well [59]. Zimmer et al. [60] reported that protein content of non-inoculated soybeans was significantly lower than protein content of the inoculated soybeans, and Vollmann et al. [61] reported that N fertilization at the flowering stage was superior to both the control and rhizobium inoculation in increasing seed protein content, but as symbiotic N fixation is a highly complex phenomenon, the difference in protein content could have been the result of many different factors and their interactions which demand further investigation. Although correct management practices can increase the protein yield of soybean crops, improving the genetic base of protein content is the right approach for providing high-quality soybean cultivars. Furthermore, because the agroclimatic conditions in Europe are not ideal for widespread cultivation of protein crops like soybeans [62], increasing protein yield per area of arable land by plant breeding is the only efficient way of decreasing the plant protein deficit in Europe in which genetic diversity and population structure have a key role [22].
The soybean protein content is a quantitative trait inherited polygenetically, and it ranges between 30 and 50% on a dry weight basis [10]. Besides earlier mentioned management practices (M), protein content is influenced by genotype (G), environment (E) and interactions G × E × M, but the contribution of each is still not well established [50, 63–67]. The G and E interaction is one of the main problems in genotype selection as well as in the recommendation of cultivars. Because of this, estimating the broad sense trait heritability is essential for successful genetic advance and the larger the estimated value of this parameter is, the greater will be the chance of success with selection [68]. Broad-sense heritability assessments for soybean vary from middle, which suggests variability due to the combination of genetic and environmental factors, to high, where genetic factors are more pronounced in determining the protein phenotypes [67, 69, 70]. The influence of the environment on protein content has been researched by many authors. According to Popović et al. [71] and Josipović et al. [66], protein content is higher in years with lower average temperatures and more precipitation during pod formation and seed-filling stages. On the other hand, Hurburgh [72] and Nian et al. [73] reported reduced protein content in northern regions of soybean cultivation with lower temperatures and higher amounts of precipitation, which can be the result of reduced symbiotic N fixation and synthesis of proteins due to the low root-zone temperatures [74]. Gibson and Mullen [75] reported that high daily temperatures in combination with high night temperatures during the period from seed-filling to maturity can cause positive linear relationship of average temperatures and protein content. Furthermore, Dornbos and Mullen [76] reported that high temperatures in combination with drought in seed-filling period can result in significant protein content rise, whereas Vollmann et al. [61] and Matoša Kočar et al. [77] noticed that seed protein content was highest for soybean crops grown under moderately dry conditions and high temperature during the seed-filling stage. Such contradictory reports are a major concern in plant breeding since they complicate decision-making process during selection. Breeding for increased protein content is further complicated by negative correlation between protein content and yield reported by many authors [70, 78, 79], although there are studies indicating no significant correlation between those two parameters [80, 81]. Furthermore, Vollmann et al. [61] suggested that even moderately negative correlation between seed protein content and seed yield, means the selection of breeding lines with both improved protein content and acceptable yield level should be possible. On the other hand, the relationship between protein content and oil content is almost always significantly negative [61, 70, 81] which is caused by either pleiotropic effect or linkage [82] where every 2% protein content increase usually decreases oil content by 1% [83]. Apart from protein content, the content of sulphur-containing amino acids should be considered as it affects the nutritional value of soybean meal, so increasing the content of both would be beneficial. However, Wilcox and Shibles [84] determined a weak and inverse correlation between protein content and methionine and cysteine levels which means protein quality decreases with the increase in protein content, so Paek et al. [58] concluded that it would be beneficial to focus on improving protein quality over protein content. Nevertheless, Burton et al. [85] noticed no significant changes in methionine content among cycles of recurrent selection for high protein. Furthermore, Krober and Cartter [86] reported a positive relationship between methionine content and protein content suggesting the possibility of combining high-yield, high-quality protein soybean lines.
As mentioned earlier, improving any trait of interest should start with screening the available materials. In Europe, soybean seed content was researched by many authors over the years. Vollmann et al. [61] determined a considerable variation in protein content of early maturing genotypes studied during 6 years in Austria. In their study, genotype × treatment and genotype × year interactions were of a much lower magnitude than the effect of genotype on protein content [61]. Sudarić et al. [63] researched 14 MG 0-I soybean genotypes at three locations in eastern Croatia during 5 years and reported highly significant effects of genotype, year, location, genotype × year, genotype × location interactions as well as a highly significant effect of the interaction between genotype, year and location with year effects being larger than location effects. Protein content range in the research by Popović et al. [71] was 36.65–37.66%, and average value was 37.15%. Fogelberg and Recknagel [87] determined the protein content range of early matured, well-adapted soybean cultivars evaluated at three sites in Germany during 3 years to be 37–43%, while Pannecoucque et al. [81] reported a protein content range of 35.5–43.3% in 14 early maturing soybean varieties tested in two consecutive years in two locations in Belgium. In a study by Kurasch et al. [70] two types of European soybean varieties that maximise protein yield were distinguished: one that produces high grain yields per hectare with protein contents around 39–42% and the other with slightly lower protein yields than the first type but characterised by very high-protein contents (above 42%). Soybean breeding at the Agricultural Institute Osijek (Croatia) resulted in an increase of protein content over time, and this progress can be followed through three studies. The first one [88], conducted in the 1990s, researched 22 soybean cultivars (11 standard cultivars and 11 promising lines) whose protein content range was determined to be 35.9–38.4%. Afterwards, in a 3-year study (2001–2003), Vratarić et al. [89] tested 132 elite breeding lines and standard cultivars grouped according to their MG (00, 0, I) and reported that for all MGs, elite breeding lines had significantly higher values for protein content than their respective standards. Ranges determined were 35.2–38.7%, 36.2–39.6% and 38.7–41.2% for MG 00, 0 and I, respectively [89]. In the third research, Matoša Kočar et al. [77] determined significant variation for soybean seed protein content, influenced by genotype and year in a 3-year (2010–2012) screening study with 21 soybean genotypes (MG 00 to I) created at the Agricultural Institute Osijek (Croatia). The lack of significant difference in average protein content between elite breeding lines created at the Agricultural Institute Osijek and standard cultivars (Table 1) can be explained with the significant progress already achieved in previous selection cycles [89]. Nevertheless, wide ranges of variation for protein content in genotypes from the Agricultural Institute Osijek indicate there is still a room for improvement [77]. Although, according to Sato et al. [90], most of the world is focused towards increasing soybean seed oil content and oil yield, average protein content is at the world level higher than protein content reported for Central European soybean varieties [61]. For example, Bueno et al. [64] reported that average protein content value in 18 Brazilian soybean genotypes was 42.44% (40.20–44.49%), Sharma et al. [91] reported average protein content values being 41.4% (39.40–44.40%) in eight genotypes in India, while Ramteke et al. [92] reported somewhat lower average protein content (40.23%) determined in 92 soybean varieties in India with values ranging from 37.69 to 42.74%. Furthermore, protein content determined in the whole US Department of Agriculture (USDA) soybean germplasm collection ranged from 34.1 to 56.8% [93]. Higher average protein contents in non-European studies are maybe due to the fact that soybean breeding is still at a relatively low level in Europe compared to the USA or Asia because most of the soybean demand in Europe has been relying on import [44], so developing high-quality genotypes was not of great economic importance. Therefore, European breeding programmes would benefit from introducing foreign accessions with high-protein contents to be used as parental components in crosses, providing these accessions are not transgenic, since that is not socially acceptable in Europe [70].
MG | Elite breeding lines | Standard cultivars | t | P | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Range | Mean | Range | Mean | |||
Protein (% DW) | ||||||
00 | 35.86–43.82 | 39.87 | 35.52–43.55 | 39.44 | 0.37ns | P > 0.05 |
0 | 35.83–44.33 | 40.42 | 34.14–42.48 | 39.08 | 1.28ns | P > 0.05 |
I | 36.02–44.04 | 40.19 | 36.34–42.70 | 39.07 | 1.40ns | P > 0.05 |
The 3-year (2010–2012) protein content range and mean for different maturity group (MG) elite breeding lines created at the agricultural institute Osijek in comparison to standard cultivars.
The means were tested with Student’s t-test with ns indicating no significant difference.
If sources of variation for high-protein content are available, the next step is choosing the most efficient breeding method. Sato et al. [90] reported that crossing adapted elite genotypes with advanced high-protein donors exhibiting a seed protein content of approximately 470 g/kg protein improved protein content in progeny more than crossing adapted genotypes and food-grade cultivars. Increasing the protein content from 46.3% in the initial parental population to 48.4% was achieved after six cycles of selection, without significantly reducing yield [78]. Furthermore, Thorne and Fehr [94] concluded that three-way crosses were superior to two-way crosses for creating high-protein, high-yielding lines. Wehrmann et al. [95] reported that selection for high protein between two backcross generations increased protein content while maintaining seed yield. Wilcox and Cavins [96] were able to create high-protein BC3 line with the yield at the same level as the recurrent parents, but it took them 20 years because it was necessary to select for high protein between each backcross. Cober and Voldeng [80] evaluated single-cross and backcross breeding methods of achieving high-yield, high-protein soybean genotypes and found no significant differences between them. Selecting appropriate genotypes during the breeding process can be made easier and more efficient with marker-assisted selection (MAS), especially since quantitative trait loci (QTL) for proteins have been mapped to locations on all chromosomes. QTL mapping and genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have identified 252 QTL associated with soybean protein and distributed on all 20 soybean chromosomes [97]. Brummer et al. [98] evaluated eight soybean populations from the Midwestern USA for genetic markers linked to seed protein content detecting a significant association between markers and traits and identifying environmentally stable and sensitive QTL. Sebolt et al. [99] successfully integrated
The next step after increasing soybean seed protein content could be breeding for more favourable amino acid composition and improved 11S/7S protein fraction ratio. For example, while the manipulation of other aspects of seed composition and processing may improve amino acid assimilation, increasing the relative proportion of methionine, lysine and threonine has become a goal in soybean breeding [104]. Almost 20 years ago, the economic benefit of improved essential amino acid content was estimated to be ~$5 per ton per 10% increase of any of the above-mentioned amino acids [105], and today the benefit could be even bigger. The knowledge of the molecular mechanism of amino acid biosynthesis in soybean was mainly limited to genetic mapping [106, 107], but recent studies have enhanced our understating of amino acid genetic architecture in soybean. For example, Vaughn et al. [108] conducted GWAS for methionine, threonine, cysteine and lysine and identified multiple loci associated with multiple amino acids across different populations not reported previously. Furthermore, Qiu et al. [109] predicted 12 candidate genes based on the synteny between 113 genes of sulphur-containing amino acid synthases and 33 related QTLs in soybean and bioinformatic analyses, and many QTL related to the 7S (β-conglycinin) and 11S (glycinin) fractions of soybean storage proteins have been identified on chromosomes 1, 3, 4, 6, 10, 13, 16, 17, 19 and 20 [110–112]. The 11S/7S ratio of soybean seed can vary greatly due to both genetic and environmental differences [113, 114], which means there is room for improvement. In a study by Žilić et al. [32], the ratio of 11S/7S proteins varied from 2.43 to 3.29 among the seven soybean varieties adapted to South-Eastern European conditions. Murphy and Resurreccion [113] reported the 11S/7S protein ratio to vary from 2.1 to 3.4 in 12 soybean varieties, while Mujoo et al. [114] determined this ratio to be 1.63–2.05 in 7 soybean varieties. Since 7S protein fraction is more favourable for food and feed, lowering 11S/7S ratio would be beneficial, but at the moment it is still far from a priority for European breeding programmes. Furthermore, according to Zhang et al. [115], breeding efforts for the improvement of soybean seed amino acids have rarely been reported, much less developed on a commercial scale, because methods used for quantifying amino acids in soybean, such as HPLC, are time-consuming and not cost-effective, therefore not suitable for high-throughput screening of a large number of lines [116].
Soybeans represent 59% of the world’s oilseed production and 29% of the total vegetable oil consumption in the world [117]. Oil from soybean seed can be found in margarine, salad dressings and cooking oils and in industrial products such as plastics and biodiesel fuel as well. The content of oil in soybean seed can range from 12 to 24% DW, while most commercial cultivars contain between 19 and 23% [110]. Soybean oil is composed of triacylglycerols (TAGs), which are products of fatty acid esterification [118]. Soybean oil fatty acids are responsible for nutritional value, stability and taste of soybean oil, and commodity soybean oil is in average made up from 13% palmitic acid (16:0), 4% stearic acid (18:0), 20% oleic acid (18:1), 55% linoleic acid (18:2) and 8% linolenic acid (18:3) [119]. Fatty acids in soybean can be saturated (palmitic and stearic acid) or unsaturated (oleic, linoleic and linolenic acid). Soybean oil intended for frying should, for example, contain 7% saturates, 60% oleic acid, 31% linoleic acid and 2% linolenic acid, whereas desired fatty acid composition of oils intended for industrial use is 11% saturates, 12% oleic acid, 55% linoleic acid and 22% linolenic acid. Nevertheless, the most desirable fatty acid phenotypes for soybean oil are those having the most applications for food, feed and industry, i.e. phenotypes with saturates reduced to less than 7%, linolenic acid reduced to less than 3% and oleic acid increased to more than 55% [93]. Lowering saturates makes oil more suitable for the food industry and consumers concerned about dietary health issues such as high cholesterol and increased risk of coronary heart disease usually associated with diets high in saturated fats [120]. However, as stearic acid is thought to be heart neutral [121], increasing its content could satisfy the market demand for healthier foods without compromising desired functional qualities contributed by saturated fats [122]. Unsaturated fatty acids can be monounsaturated (MUFA), such as oleic acid (n-9, omega-9), or polyunsaturated (PUFA), such as linoleic (n-6, omega-6) and linolenic (n-3, omega-3) acids. Oleic acid is not considered to be an essential fatty acid (EFA) since the human body can synthesise it in small amounts, but it is significant as a precursor of some EFAs [123]. On the other hand, polyunsaturated linoleic and linolenic acids are considered essential, supporting the cardiovascular, reproductive, immune and nervous systems, crucial for manufacturing and repairing cell membranes [123]. However, these PUFAs are susceptible to oxidation, so they reduce the shelf life of the oil, causing low stability at high cooking temperatures as well as off-flavours [124]. Oxidative stability of soybean oil generally decreases with the increasing degree of unsaturation [125] and can be assessed by the ratio between MUFA and PUFA contents (MUFA/PUFA) [126]. Soybean oil has poor oxidative stability compared to other vegetable oils, and its MUFA/PUFA is about 0.5 on average [126]. The average value for MUFA/PUFA in the research by Matoša Kočar et al. [127] was 0.4 suggesting these genotypes would give less stable final product, i.e. edible oil with shorter shelf life and lower stability for cooking at high temperatures [126]. Oxidative stability of soybean oil can be improved in two ways: by trans-isomer producing catalytic hydrogenation or by breeding for higher content of oleic acid (MUFA), which is also known to reduce cholesterol and reduce the risk of arteriosclerosis and heart disease [93, 124, 126]. On the other hand, diets rich in trans-fatty acids increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases [128], so increasing oil stability by hydrogenation is becoming more and more unpopular. Soybean oil with high-oleic acid (>70%) and low-linolenic acid content (<3%) is desirable for its oxidative stability and health benefits, with the linolenic acid content of <3% being the current market target to increase soybean oil functionality [129]. As oxidative stability of soybean oil can be assessed by MUFA/PUFA, nutritional quality can be assessed by the linoleic and linolenic acid ratio (LA/ALA) with an optimal value between 5 and 10:1 [126]. Three-year average LA/ALA reported in the study by Matoša Kočar et al. [127] was 7.36, which falls within the recommended range for vegetable oils suggested by Rani et al. [126], meaning that tested genotypes can produce nutritionally acceptable oil. On the other hand, very high LA/ALA is considered detrimental for human health, and so lowering it by breeding can help with the prevention against degenerative pathologies [130]. Even though the demand for vegetable oil is continuously increasing and this increase is expected to continue in the period from 2018 to 2027, as the production of oilseeds is mainly concentrated in few regions of the world, weather fluctuations and extreme whether having a negative effect on the yield impact oilseed market more than other major crop markets, causing market uncertainties and price volatility [131]. This, together with evident changes in consumer preferences concerning dietary value and functional properties of oil, is causing the world oilseed market to become more competitive, which encourages breeding programmes to focus not only on increasing oil yield but also on increasing oil quality to meet the demands of industry and end-users alike [132]. Furthermore, because European consumers still prefer GM-free oilseed end products, while the area planted with soybean, the main oilseed crop of the world [1], is more than 80% planted with GM soybean [5], European soybean breeders should focus on creating high-oil GM-free varieties with conventional breeding methods so that they are able to provide high-quality and healthy end products to European consumers. Seed oil content is a complex quantitative trait, controlled by multiple genes and affected by environmental factors [124, 133]. The broad-sense heritability of soybean oil content varied considerably in the range between 0.13 and 0.99 [7, 134–136] suggesting that trait inheritance is a function of G, E, M and G × E × M. For example, oil content can be in positive correlation with temperature [137, 138], but negative linear relationships [139] and quadratic relationships [140] were also reported. Water stress negatively impacts oil content [141], but irrigation at the beginning of pod formation and during seed filling has resulted in oil content decline [51–53]. Some other crop management factors (no-till, seed treatments, foliar N, fungicide and insecticide applications and rotation) had an overall positive effect on oil content because they were improving crop growing conditions through conserving or supplying water and nutrients or improving soil physical and chemical properties and protecting the crop from diseases [142]. On the other hand, a decline in oil content with increased N application [141] and lack of response [143] were reported as well. While monocropping negatively affected soybean oil composition in comparison to crop rotation with maize [144], early planting benefited oil [145–147]. Furthermore, Assefa et al. [142] reported that planting date had larger impacts at northern latitudes (40–45 N) than southern latitudes (30–35 N). Although the influence of M for oil content was found to be significant [144–147], in a comprehensive analysis of G, M and E factors influencing soybean yield quantity and quality across the US Corn Belt, Assefa et al. [142] concluded that E is a dominant factor for the significant variability in seed composition and yield. According to Josipović et al. [66] and Popović et al. [71], the amount of oil in soybean seed was significantly higher in years with less precipitation and higher air temperatures at the time of pod formation and dry matter accumulation. This was also true for the average oil content determined by Matoša Kočar et al. [127], noting that hot and extremely humid conditions resulted in the lowest average amount of oil in soybean seed, whereas hot and dry conditions resulted in higher average amounts of oil. On the other hand, Vollmann et al. [61] reported that low precipitation rates and high temperatures did not favour oil synthesis and that, in genotypes of later maturity, oil synthesis was enhanced by late water availability. The significance of genotype and environmental factors for fatty acid content was determined by many authors as well [7, 61, 65, 67, 127, 146, 148]. Bellaloui et al. [146] noted that, among fatty acids, oleic acid was the most sensitive to environmental factors and palmitic and stearic acids were the least sensitive in clay soil, whereas stearic, linoleic and linolenic acids were the least sensitive in sandy loam soil. According to the same authors, cooler temperatures favour the synthesis of linolenic acid, whereas the synthesis of oleic acid is negatively affected as a result of the inverse relationship between them [146]. The same was true in the research done by Xue et al. [149], where increasing air temperature during pod fill significantly increased oleic acid and significantly decreased linoleic and linolenic acid contents which was later confirmed by Matoša Kočar et al. [129].
Together with understanding the sources of variation, knowing the strength and direction of relationships among different traits is of great value for breeding programmes as it enables the enhancement of more than one trait at the same time. Although significantly negative relationship between oil and protein content was reported in most researches [61, 70, 81, 84], in the research analysing variations from 21 studies conducted over 15 years (2002–2017), Assefa et al. [142] concluded that, when pooling data across all studies, there was no significant relationship between oil and protein content, but a tendency for a negative relationship was observed when plotting data separately for each of the studies evaluated in the database. Furthermore, oil content increased slowly with yield increase suggesting a positive relationship, but when relationships were investigated by study, 63% of studies supported a positive relationship, and the other 37% displayed a slightly negative relationship between seed yield and oil content [142]. Wilcox and Shibles [84] reported that oil increased by 1.9 g kg−1 for every 100 kg ha−1 increase in seed yield, whereas protein decreased by 15.6 g kg−1 for each 10 g kg−1 increase in oil, which is in accordance with determined significant positive correlation between oil content and yield and significant negative correlation between oil and protein contents. The analysis of the correlation between oil content and different fatty acid contents in eight early maturing soybean genotypes revealed a positive correlation between oil and saturated fatty acids but negative correlation between oil and unsaturated fatty acids [115]. Matoša Kočar et al. [127] reported a highly significant and positive correlation of oil with stearic acid and significant positive correlation with oleic acid but significant negative correlation with linoleic and linolenic acid. The results were somewhat different in the research conducted by Rani et al. [126] where oil was in highly significant positive correlation with stearic acid and linoleic acid but in negative correlation with oleic acid. The correlation between favourable oleic acid and linoleic acid was highly significant and negative in the research by Matoša Kočar et al. [127], the same as in some previous studies [126, 150], while the correlation between oleic acid and unfavourable linolenic acid was also highly significant and negative. These relationships indicate that it could be possible to create varieties with high oil amount, a high amount of oleic acid and low amount of linolenic acid, which is favourable for edible oil.
Whether the improvements in soybean oil yield and its quality are achieved by conventional breeding or genetic engineering [2, 119], having a favourable gene pool concerning the trait of interest is crucial. In Europe, the variability of oil content was studied by many authors [61, 70, 77, 88, 89, 127]. At the Agricultural Institute Osijek, breeding for soybean seed oil over time is presented by three studies. In the first one [88], the range for oil content determined in 22 soybean cultivars tested from 1993 to 1995 was 18.9–20.5%. The second one [89] tested 132 elite breeding lines and standard cultivars grouped according to their MG (00, 0, I) during 3 years (2001–2003). All three elite breeding line groups had significantly higher average oil contents than their respective standards. The range for MG 00 was 22.1–23.8%, for MG 0 22.5–23.4% and for MG I 21.9–22.7% [89]. The third research from the Agricultural Institute Osijek, conducted between 2010 and 2012 with eight MG 0 advanced soybean breeding lines, reported oil content ranges from 22.09 to 24.08% [77]. As it is evident from Table 2, there were no significant differences determined between the average oil content of elite breeding lines created at the Agricultural Institute Osijek in the last decade in comparison to standard cultivars. This is expected because significant progress has been achieved in earlier selection cycles and oil content in genotypes from Osijek is already at a relatively high level. Furthermore, as soybean seed is mostly used for animal feed in Croatia; further increasing oil content is not a priority. However, there were genotypes among the newer elite breeding lines that accumulated significantly higher amounts of oil than the rest, indicating their suitability for being used as parental components [77]. Somewhat lower oil content range values (18.55–18.73%) were reported by Kurasch et al. [70] researching 1008 F5:8 recombinant inbred lines MG (MG 000–00) that showed good agronomic performance in Central Europe. Pannecoucque et al. [81] determined the oil content range being 20.3–24.1% in 14 very early (MG 0000–00) soybean genotypes selected from the European plant variety catalogue. Outside Europe, Bueno et al. [64] reported 22.1% average oil content determined in 18 Brazilian soybean genotypes with values ranging from 20.72 to 22.81%, and Sharma et al. [91] noted 16.3% average oil content for 8 genotypes in India ranging from 14 to 18.7%, whereas oil content determined in the whole US Department of Agriculture soybean germplasm collection ranged from 8.1 to 27.9% [93]. Variability of soybean seed fatty acid content in European commercial breeding programmes has seldom been researched, but in other parts of the world where soybean is considered the main crop feeding oil industry, many studies have been conducted. Significant variability of the fatty acid content was determined in eight advanced soybean breeding lines (MG 0) developed at the Agricultural Institute Osijek, Croatia [127]. The contents were 10.81, 5.78, 26.41, 49.75 and 5.97% for palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic and linolenic acid, respectively [127], which mostly coincided with fatty acid content in commercial soybean [151]. The positive outcomes of initial breeding efforts for increasing oleic and reducing linolenic acid contents at the Agricultural Institute Osijek can be seen from the significant difference between the average oleic acid content of MG 0 elite breeding lines in comparison with the MG 0 standard cultivars and significant difference between the average linolenic acid content of MG 00 and 0 elite breeding lines in comparison with the MG 00 and 0 standard cultivars, respectively (Table 2). Nevertheless, according to Matoša Kočar et al. [127], none of the newly developed genotypes from the Agricultural Institute Osijek exhibited desirable values for oleic or linolenic acid contents; the breeding programme would benefit from the introduction of high-oleic and low-linolenic soybean germplasm. Average year values determined in a 3-year research with RILs exhibiting a broad variation for fatty acid content ranged between 10.3 and 11.1%, 3.7 and 3.9%, 22.3 and 26.2%, 51.4 and 55% and 7.5 and 8.6% for palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic and linolenic acid, respectively [148]. Average fatty acid contents determined in 96 diverse accessions originating from different regions of the world and evaluated for 2 years in Brazil were 10.59, 3.21, 24.54, 52.81 and 6.36% for palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic and linolenic acids, respectively [152]. In Indian soybean germplasm, the average fatty acid contents were 11.15, 3.45, 25.6, 52.56 and 6.91% [126], while in Chinese they amounted to 11, 3.63, 21.47, 53.99 and 9.93% [153] for palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic and linolenic acids, respectively. As it can be seen from the data presented, none of the genotypes exhibited target values for oleic acid (45–60%) and linolenic acid (<3%) contents desirable for avoiding partial hydrogenation [93] which emphasises the need for further research and screening studies.
MG | Elite breeding lines | Standard cultivars | t | P | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Range | Mean | Range | Mean | |||
Oil (% DW) | ||||||
00 | 20.59–25.48 | 23.29 | 21.01–23.81 | 22.54 | 1.49ns | P > 0.05 |
0 | 20.24–25.84 | 22.85 | 20.06–23.85 | 22.15 | 1.45ns | P > 0.05 |
I | 20.93–26.40 | 23.24 | 20.66–24.40 | 22.40 | 1.76ns | P > 0.05 |
Oleic acid (% oil) | ||||||
00 | 20.58–31.72 | 25.72 | 21.37–27.51 | 23.92 | 1.67ns | P > 0.05 |
0 | 19.51–28.91 | 23.59 | 18.74–24.84 | 21.38 | 2.68** | P < 0.01 |
I | 20.27–28.05 | 24.78 | 19.48–26.83 | 23.54 | 1.30ns | P > 0.05 |
Linolenic acid (% oil) | ||||||
00 | 4.41–7.04 | 5.99 | 5.36–8.27 | 6.93 | 2.23* | P < 0.05 |
0 | 4.99–8.65 | 7.15 | 6.97–7.99 | 7.59 | 2.54* | P < 0.05 |
I | 5.10–7.98 | 6.59 | 5.37–8.73 | 7.17 | 1.37ns | P > 0.05 |
The 3-year (2010–2012) oil, oleic and linolenic acid content range and mean for different maturity group elite breeding lines created at the agricultural institute Osijek in comparison to standard cultivars.
The means were tested with Student’s t-test with * and ** indicating significant differences at P ≤ 0.05 and P ≤ 0.01, respectively, and ns indicating no significant difference.
Nowadays, breeding for increased oil content can be facilitated by genetic markers or by monitoring metabolites, but although Wang et al. [103] reported that metabolic profiles of all progeny lines could be discriminated based on oil contents, there is still lack of sufficient information about the association between metabolites and oil content in soybean seeds. Nevertheless, QTL mapping and GWAS have identified 322 QTLs associated with soybean oil distributed over all 20 soybean chromosomes but mainly on chromosomes 5, 15 and 20 [97]. Fan et al. [148] identified 35 additive QTLs underlying individual fatty acid contents in a single environment and 17 additive QTLs across multiple environments or underlying multiple fatty acids. Priolli et al. [152] discovered 19 single-nucleotide polymorphism loci on 10 different chromosomes significantly associated with palmitic acid, oleic acid and total oil contents with loci and specific alleles that contributed to lower palmitic and higher oleic acid contents. Thapa et al. [154] identified independent mutations in the FAD3A associated with a reduced level of linolenic acid. Combs and Bilyeu [129] reported that seed stearic acid increased to 10–11% in lines containing combinations of FAD2-1A and FAD2-1B mutant alleles plus the SACPD-C missense mutant alleles, but this increase was associated with a decrease in the oleic acid content and did not meet the target of at least 20% stearic acid in the seed oil. Of all the reported QTLs associated with oil traits in soybean, only two (cqPro/oil-15, cqPro/oil-20) have been officially confirmed and repeatedly detected in several different populations, both associated with protein and oil contents and each showing opposite additive effect directions for the two traits, which is why identifying an environmentally stable major QTL regulating seed oil content is of crucial importance [100, 102, 103, 155]. Moreover, QTLs directly related to seed oil accumulation in soybean have not been cloned, so the underlying mechanism has not been thoroughly elucidated to date [133]. Although advance in oil content has been achieved over time, further increasing oil content by traditional breeding based on genetic crossing and phenotypic selection may be difficult and inefficient, because of the polygenic nature of oil regulation and the majority of oil-related loci having varying additive, epistatic or QTL × E effects [156–158]. Some studies suggest that increasing soybean oil could be achieved by genetic engineering of transcription factors involved in oil accumulation [159, 160]. As further increasing oil content is deemed challenging without genetic engineering [156–158] and taking into consideration that European oil industry is dominated by sunflower and rapeseed [1], it is evident that improving oil content and oil quality in Europe is not economically as important as in regions of the world where soybean is the main stock for oil production. Nevertheless, research and genotype screening for determining germplasm with favourable QTLs controlling oil traits are of great importance, especially since fatty acid phenotypes that meet the breeding objectives of providing improved oil quality are still lacking, not just in European soybean germplasm but in genotypes from all regions of the world.
Totally dry soybean seed contains 33% DW of carbohydrates on average, of which 16.6% DW is soluble sugars [25]. The significance of the soluble sugar profile is in its effect on quality, digestibility and nutritional value of soybean for food and feed. Five main soluble sugars in soybean seed are glucose, fructose, sucrose, raffinose and stachyose with sucrose and stachyose being the predominant ones [161]. Monosaccharides glucose and fructose and disaccharide sucrose can be easily digested and give soybean food products their characteristic sweet taste, whereas indigestible galactooligosaccharides (stachyose and raffinose) limit soybean food and feed nutritional value, reduce metabolizable energy and cause irritation of the gastrointestinal tract in humans and animals [162, 163]. In consequence, the use of soybean for food and feed is limited, but as the demand for animal feed in Europe rises [41], lowering galactooligosaccharides would increase the share of soybean seed used for feeding livestock, thus increasing the market for seed production. Furthermore, due to the increasing awareness of the health benefits connected with soy food consumption, more favourable saccharide profile would make soybean more amenable to human consumption. However, oligosaccharides are not necessarily undesirable because they serve as transport carbohydrates in the phloem, as cryoprotectants, and reportedly play a positive role in desiccation tolerance during seed maturation [164]. Furthermore, in human intestines, galactooligosaccharides ferment into low-chain fatty acids with prebiotic qualities, which make soybean seed interesting for pharmaceutical as well as functional food industry [165].
Broad-sense heritability is considered to be moderate to high for monosaccharides and high for oligosaccharides [166–168]. Geater et al. [169] determined that the differences in total sugar (TS) content among tested genotypes were constant in all environments, but significant year effect was determined for raffinose. Taira [170] found G to be the larger source of variation than E for raffinose and stachyose, whereas the opposite was true for TS and sucrose. Both G and E were statistically significant sources of variation for sucrose in the research by Maughan et al. [171]. Matoša Kočar et al. [172] reported that TS content was mostly under genetic control, whereas individual soluble sugars, as well as total oligosaccharides (TO), were significantly influenced by the year which means breeding for TS content should be much more predictable than altering sugar profiles in that particular set of genotypes. In mentioned research, glucose, fructose and raffinose contents were higher in years with higher temperatures, whereas the opposite was true for TO, sucrose and stachyose contents [172]. Wolf et al. [173] concluded that sucrose and stachyose concentrations decreased with the rise of average year temperature; however, the temperature had no effect on glucose, fructose and raffinose. The often occurring absence of G x E interaction [169], together with the determined maternal and additive effects [171–174], facilitates the selection and breeding for improved saccharide contents in soybean. To lower the expenses and reduce the time invested in analyses, plant breeders rely on favourable relationships between important traits which enable effective indirect selection. Significant positive correlation between raffinose and stachyose [161, 175] and significant and very strong negative relationship between sucrose and raffinose and/or stachyose [175, 176] enable breeders to increase the contents of favourable soluble sugars while decreasing the contents of unfavourable oligosaccharides simultaneously. Furthermore, Akond et al. [177] noted that the lack of strong correlations among tested soluble sugars indicated it should be possible to obtain lines that are high in sucrose but low in raffinose and stachyose. No significant correlation between raffinose, stachyose and sucrose was noticed by Geater et al. [169] as well. However, Hartwig et al. [178] reported a significant moderate positive correlation between raffinose and sucrose, while Hou et al. [161] determined the relationship between sucrose and raffinose to be significant, positive and strong. Another unfavourable relationship is the negative correlation determined between protein content and TS and protein content and sucrose [84, 178–179], whereas the negative correlation determined between protein content and raffinose [178] and between stachyose plus raffinose and protein content [84] is considered desirable. The difference in correlation reports from different researchers emphasises the importance of determining trait relationships in each breeding population.
Significant difference in sugar contents, i.e. variability among soybean genotypes that justifies selection, was determined in many studies [25, 161, 172, 176, 180–182]. Geater and Fehr [181] reported TS determined in 23 soybean cultivars tested at eight Iowa locations to range between 2.19 and 18.4%. The range for TS content determined by Matoša Kočar et al. [172] in a 3-year trial (2010–2012) with 22 soybean genotypes (MG 00-II) created at the Agricultural Institute Osijek (Croatia) was 5.69–7.68% with the average value being 6.62%. In the same study, glucose content ranged 0.16–0.29%, fructose 0.11–0.28%, sucrose 2.32–3.46%, raffinose 0.66–1.10% and stachyose 1.64–2.41% [173]. Breeding for improved soluble sugar content is at its beginnings at the Agricultural Institute Osijek, but some progress has been achieved in elite breeding lines, in which higher glucose, fructose, sucrose and TS contents and a lower TO content have been determined than the standard cultivars of the respective MG (Table 3). Hou et al. [161] investigated worldwide soybean germplasm collections with 241 genotypes and reported average contents for TS, glucose, fructose, sucrose, raffinose and stachyose to be 96.4, 5.4, 4.4, 46.8, 8.3 and 31.7 mg g−1, respectively. Values varied in wide ranges with genotypes from Peru having the least TS (72.6 mg g−1) but the lowest contents of raffinose (0.5 mg g−1) and stachyose (11.8 mg g−1) as well [161]. The highest contents for favourable glucose (23.9 mg g−1) and fructose (25.2 mg g−1) were determined in genotypes from Peru as well, while the highest sucrose content (83.1 mg g−1) was determined in genotypes from Angola [161]. If considering only genotypes from European countries, TS contents varied between 91.5 (Bulgaria) and 111.9 mg g−1 (Poland) [161]. The lowest glucose and fructose contents (0.3 mg g−1) together with the highest sucrose (49.2 mg g−1) and stachyose (39.2 mg g−1) contents were found in a genotype from Germany, whereas the highest glucose (15.4 mg g−1) and fructose (14.9 mg g−1) but the lowest sucrose (16.5 mg g−1), raffinose (5.2 mg g−1) and stachyose (26.7 mg g−1) contents were determined in three genotypes from Turkey [161]. Geater et al. [169] determined 6.2–7.1% range for sucrose, 0.49–0.58% range for raffinose and 4.7–4.9% range for stachyose in 16 small-seeded soybean cultivars. Wilcox and Shibles [84] reported combined stachyose and raffinose content in 43 random breeding lines varied in seed protein content and grown in three environments to be 38.5–42.2 g kg−1 and sucrose content to be 43.3–56.7 kg−1. Wide content ranges determined for soybean sugar traits [25, 161, 178] imply there is sufficient variability for altering TS or individual sugar contents. Furthermore, increasing the digestibility and taste of European soybean meal or food products necessitates the introduction of cultivars with specifically tailored sugar profiles intended for human consumption to be used as parent donors in European soybean breeding programmes, which earlier mostly have not put their focus on soluble sugars.
MG | Elite breeding lines | Standard cultivars | t | P | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Range | Mean | Range | Mean | |||
Glucose (% DW) | ||||||
00 | 0.17–0.33 | 0.25 | 0.12–0.27 | 0.19 | 3.05** | P < 0.01 |
0 | 0.11–0.35 | 0.23 | 0.13–0.19 | 0.16 | 6.58** | P < 0.01 |
I | 0.13–0.42 | 0.24 | 0.12–0.23 | 0.19 | 2.84** | P < 0.01 |
Fructose (% DW) | ||||||
00 | 0.04–0.30 | 0.18 | 0.05–0.25 | 0.16 | 0.65ns | P > 0.05 |
0 | 0.02–0.38 | 0.17 | 0.02–0.18 | 0.11 | 2.87** | P < 0.01 |
I | 0.02–0.43 | 0.21 | 0.02–0.19 | 0.13 | 3.11** | P < 0.01 |
Sucrose (% DW) | ||||||
00 | 2.56–3.91 | 3.18 | 2.20–2.83 | 2.62 | 4.19** | P < 0.01 |
0 | 1.77–3.96 | 3.01 | 1.89–2.71 | 2.32 | 5.74** | P < 0.01 |
I | 1.13–3.78 | 3.03 | 2.34–2.95 | 2.63 | 4.55** | P < 0.01 |
Total oligosaccharides (% DW) | ||||||
00 | 2.47–3.24 | 2.76 | 2.66–3.29 | 3.08 | 3. 95** | P < 0.01 |
0 | 1.81–3.53 | 2.75 | 3.02–3.34 | 3.18 | 6.83** | P < 0.01 |
I | 1.05–3.38 | 2.66 | 2.47–3.38 | 3.04 | 2.94** | P < 0.01 |
Total soluble sugars (% DW) | ||||||
00 | 5.23–7.67 | 6.97 | 5.56–6.95 | 6.09 | 3.99** | P < 0.01 |
0 | 4.96–9.19 | 6.67 | 5.01–6.63 | 5.73 | 4.17** | P < 0.01 |
I | 5.04–9.21 | 6.68 | 2.95–7.25 | 5.69 | 1.75ns | P > 0.05 |
The 3-year (2010–2012) soluble sugar content range and mean for different maturity group elite breeding lines created at the Agricultural Institute Osijek in comparison to standard cultivars.
The means were tested with Student’s t-test with * and ** indicating significant differences at P ≤ 0.05 and P ≤ 0.01, respectively, and ns indicating no significant difference.
The introduction of germplasm with favourable sugar profiles into European breeding programmes and selection of favourable phenotypes after backcrossing can be facilitated by marker-assisted selection. The first set of markers associated with sucrose content in soybean was discovered in the F2 population of an interspecific cross between
Soybean is considered to be the most abundant natural source of isoflavones in the human and animal diet [184]. Isoflavones are the main components of flavonoids and the most common form of phytoestrogens, i.e. non-steroidal compounds with oestrogen-like biological properties [185]. They are considered nutraceuticals as it is claimed they have potential benefits in preventing the development of cardiovascular diseases and cancers, menopausal symptoms and osteoporosis, as well as antifungal and antioxidant properties [186–188]. Their role in plants is to encourage infection and nodulation by nitrogen-fixing bacteria [189] and to help in abiotic and biotic stress resistance [190]. The most studied isoflavones are genistein, daidzein and glycitein [191]. As a quantitative trait controlled by many minor genes [192], isoflavone content in soybean seed largely depends on the environment [185, 193–195], to the extent that even the smallest changes in the microclimate can cause significant changes in the isoflavone contents. For example, it is reported that lower temperatures during the seed fill period increase the isoflavone content, whereas environments which were warmer and drier resulted in lower isoflavone contents [196–199]. In 76 environments during 12 years, Carrera and Dardanelli [200] found a 91% decrease in total isoflavone content with mean temperatures during the seed development rising from 14.1 to 26.7°C. Nevertheless, Morrison et al. [201] evaluated 14 cultivars across 12 years at one location determining that high mean temperature during seed development did not result in isoflavone concentration decrease which might be due to the fact that only one location provides a somewhat narrower range of temperature variation [200]. The negative impact of water deficit on soybean isoflavone concentration was confirmed in many earlier studies [192, 198, 202, 203] as well. Furthermore, synthesis of isoflavones in soybean seed depends on the geographical origin, seed size, seed colour, maturity, disease tolerance and resistance to insects as well [185, 187, 204–206]. Nevertheless, isoflavone broad-sense heritability was estimated to range from moderate [207] to high [192], indicating that genotype effects were high enough to enable efficient improvement of isoflavone contents [194, 208]. The predominance of genotype effects over environmental was confirmed by Gutierrez-Gonzalez et al. [192], Murphy et al. [199] and Hoeck et al. [206]. Successful high-isoflavone cultivar development necessitates investigating the relationships between isoflavones and other important traits. For example, total isoflavone (TI) content was reported to be in a positive [204, 205, 209, 210] and negative [211] correlation with seed yield, but the lack of interrelationship has also been reported [199, 212], which suggests that the development of high-yield, high-isoflavone cultivars would be possible. The relationship between isoflavone content and each oil and protein content was reported to be negative [194, 199, 205, 209, 2011], but no correlation between isoflavones and proteins was reported as well [212]. Conflicting reports on the relationships between total seed isoflavone content and other traits necessitate the need for studies including a wide range of genetic material grown across a range of environments to provide additional insight into the associations [199].
Because of the many abiotic and biotic factors influencing the isoflavone content, it is expected to vary in wide ranges. Wang and Murphy [213] found TI content to vary from 1176 to 3309 μg/g within a single cultivar of soybean. Gutierrez-Gonzales et al. [192] reported of extremely wide content range (12.4–317.4 mg 100−1 g DM) for TI determined in the population of RILs in the USA. Murphy et al. [199] determined 160–370 mg 100−1 g range for TI content in RIL population tested in 2-year, multilocation trials in Canada, while Adie et al. [194] determined 14.97–39.85 mg 100−1 g content range for 10 soybean lines tested during 1-year trial on eight locations in Indonesia. In Europe, Cvejić et al. [208] found TI content in 20 F1 soybean progenies ranged from 156 to 366 mg 100−1 g, while Bursać et al. [214] determined the TI content range of 211 to 524 mg 100 g−1 for different seed coat-coloured offsprings derived from the single cross between commercial variety and germplasm collection genotype with black seed coat. Matoša Kočar et al. [195] investigated 22 MG 00 to II soybean genotypes from the Agricultural Institute Osijek (Croatia) during 3 years (2010–2012) and determined average TI content varied from 124.06 to 286.2 mg 100−1 g, while average daidzein, glycitein and genistein contents were 49.27 mg 100−1 g, 20.90 mg 100−1 g and 94.41 mg 100−1 g DM, respectively. Although breeding of isoflavone content at the Agricultural Institute Osijek is at its beginnings, some shifts in the right direction have been made which can be seen from the higher average isoflavone contents in elite breeding lines than in standard cultivars of the same MG (Table 4). In Matoša Kočar et al. [195] study, genistein was the most abundant isoflavone component, followed by daidzein and glycitein. The same order of abundance was determined in the research by Lozovaya et al. [198] for two French and three US cultivars, whereas Sumardi et al. [215] researched 34 black soybeans in Indonesia and found that daidzein content was higher in 31 genotypes. In the research done by Cvejić et al. [208], Bursać et al. [214] and Tepavčević et al. [216], total daidzein was the highest followed by total genistein and total glycitein. Gutierrez-Gonzalez et al. [192] found that glycitein was the most abundant isoflavone, followed by genistein and daidzein. Although all three isoflavones are considered to have health benefits, the order of abundance is important because genistein is reported to have approximately 10 times higher biological activity compared to daidzein and glycitein [217], so genotypes with high genistein content should be favoured in selection processes aiming to create soybean genotypes suitable for food and dietetic supplement industries.
MG | Elite breeding lines | Standard cultivars | t | P | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Range | Mean | Range | Mean | |||
Daidzein (mg 100 g−1) | ||||||
00 | 10.65–106.48 | 65.07 | 20.34–63.99 | 45.02 | 2.11* | P < 0.05 |
0 | 11.08–93.39 | 50.54 | 19.02–48.53 | 36.71 | 3.28** | P < 0.01 |
I | 25.03–91.35 | 51.26 | 9.81–53.51 | 36.01 | 2.70** | P < 0.01 |
Glycitein (mg 100 g−1) | ||||||
00 | 10.72–40.31 | 24.26 | 19.08–27.24 | 22.77 | 0.68ns | P > 0.05 |
0 | 13.09–41.76 | 21.78 | 12.97–18.62 | 15.54 | 6.46** | P < 0.01 |
I | 10.09–47.38 | 19.91 | 9.70–18.94 | 13.41 | 4.71** | P < 0.01 |
Genistein (mg 100 g−1) | ||||||
00 | 43.35–355.31 | 184.85 | 57.59–128.23 | 93.89 | 4.08** | P < 0.01 |
0 | 52.32–112.25 | 80.49 | 54.82–86.38 | 67.44 | 2.86** | P < 0.01 |
I | 48.19–142.22 | 92.24 | 54.48–104.39 | 83.80 | 1.12ns | P > 0.05 |
Total isoflavones (mg 100 g−1) | ||||||
00 | 70.49–501.79 | 273.18 | 97.22–206.06 | 161.68 | 3.50** | P < 0.01 |
0 | 87.61–212.99 | 150.05 | 115.12–148.60 | 136.25 | 0.76ns | P > 0.05 |
I | 91.34–239.75 | 160.75 | 71.14–179.53 | 129.94 | 2.34* | P < 0.05 |
The 3-year (2010–2012) isoflavone content range and mean for different maturity group elite breeding lines created at the agricultural institute Osijek in comparison to standard cultivars.
The means were tested with Student’s t-test with * and ** indicating significant differences at P ≤ 0.05 and P ≤ 0.01, respectively, and ns indicating no significant difference.
The large influence the environmental factors have on the isoflavone content emphasises the necessity for molecular research and identification of molecular markers associated with favourable isoflavone profiles. To date, almost 90 QTLs associated with seed isoflavone content are registered in the SoyBase [97]. Akond et al. [193] identified 16 QTLs for seed isoflavones content on 12 different chromosomes (Chr) or linkage groups. Wang et al. [218] identified 33 expression QTLs on 15 soybean chromosomes, with 5 of them overlapping with phenotype QTL. In the overlapping region, 11 candidate genes underlying the accumulation of isoflavones were discovered which could be beneficial for the development of marker-assisted selection to breed soybean cultivars with high-isoflavone contents [218]. Furthermore, Wang et al. [219] identified 23 new isoflavone content QTLs and 34 QTLs in total in 130 RILs derived from the cross between high-isoflavone and low-isoflavone cultivars of which 6, 7, 10 and 11 QTLs were associated with daidzein, glycitein, genistein and TI, respectively. Akond et al. [193] identified three QTLs on three different linkage groups, one controlling daidzein content and two controlling glycitein content. Furthermore, QTL epistatic interactions are also thought to contribute to isoflavone variation [205]. Although many QTL have been discovered for isoflavone content, these are mainly minor effect often influenced by the environment, so discovering sufficient loci associated with isoflavone content stable in different environments that are going to significantly aid in selection is yet to be accomplished [219].
Although genetic enhancement of soybean seed quality contributes to advances in processing industries and improves the added value properties of final soybean products, soybean as a commodity is still mostly being paid for by weight and not by composition. Considering the fact that in Europe soybean is predominantly used as animal feed, i.e. as a protein source rather than oilseed crop, it is expected of European breeders to mainly focus on increasing the seed yield and protein content, since this would be most profitable for soybean producers. As soybean is becoming more appealing for human consumption in Europe, because of high nutritional value and health-promoting traits, breeding for improved amino acid, fatty acid and soluble sugar compositions as well as for increased isoflavone content is gaining importance but still not on a larger scale. Nevertheless, all efforts in describing the variability of important traits through research are invaluable not only for creating superior progeny but for germplasm preservation to oppose the narrowing of the genetic base. Although soybean is widely adaptable, significant environment effects for different seed quality traits, as well as the increased frequency of adverse weather events, emphasise the need for the development of local cultivars with improved performance and stability. The need for creating European soybean cultivars emanates from the demand for non-GM soybean as well, which motivates European breeders to use conventional breeding methods focusing on phenotype selection and MAS. Positive outcomes of breeding for improved seed quality recorded at the Agricultural Institute Osijek (Croatia) and other European soybean breeding programmes indicate that progress can be achieved even without genetic engineering. As this paper mainly focuses on MG 00 to II, commonly sown in Central and South-eastern Europe but suitable for growing in almost all European regions, information presented should be useful for soybean breeders and researches all over Europe and could promote the exchange of germplasm for introducing diversity, which is a prerequisite for any genetic advance.
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Stress is any adverse environmental condition that hampers proper growth of plant. Abiotic stress creates adverse effect on multiple procedures of morphology, biochemistry and physiology that are directly connected with growth and yield of plant. Abiotic stress are quantitative trait hence genes linked to these traits can be identified and used to select desirable alleles responsible for tolerance in plant. Plants can initiate a number of molecular, cellular and physiological modifications to react to and adapt to abiotic stress. Crop productivity is significantly affected by drought, salinity and cold. Abiotic stress reduce water availability to plant roots by increasing water soluble salts in soil and plants suffer from increased osmotic pressure outside the root. Physiological changes include lowering of leaf osmotic potential, water potential and relative water content, creation of nutritional imbalance, enhancing relative stress injury or one or more combination of these factors. Morphological and biochemical changes include changes in root and shoot length, number of leaves, secondary metabolite (glycine betaine, proline, MDA, abscisic acid) accumulation in plant, source and sink ratio. Proposed chapter will concentrate on enhancing plant response to abiotic stress and contemporary breeding application to increasing stress tolerance.",book:{id:"9345",slug:"sustainable-crop-production",title:"Sustainable Crop Production",fullTitle:"Sustainable Crop Production"},signatures:"Summy Yadav, Payal Modi, Akanksha Dave, Akdasbanu Vijapura, Disha Patel and Mohini Patel",authors:[{id:"186963",title:"Dr.",name:"Summy",middleName:null,surname:"Yadav",slug:"summy-yadav",fullName:"Summy Yadav"},{id:"308004",title:"Ms.",name:"Payal",middleName:null,surname:"Modi",slug:"payal-modi",fullName:"Payal Modi"},{id:"308005",title:"Ms.",name:"Akanksha",middleName:null,surname:"Dave",slug:"akanksha-dave",fullName:"Akanksha Dave"},{id:"308006",title:"Ms.",name:"Akdasbanu",middleName:null,surname:"Vijapara",slug:"akdasbanu-vijapara",fullName:"Akdasbanu Vijapara"},{id:"308007",title:"Ms.",name:"Disha",middleName:null,surname:"Patel",slug:"disha-patel",fullName:"Disha Patel"},{id:"308008",title:"Ms.",name:"Mohini",middleName:null,surname:"Patel",slug:"mohini-patel",fullName:"Mohini Patel"}]},{id:"68927",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89089",title:"Nano-Fertilizers for Sustainable Crop Production under Changing Climate: A Global Perspective",slug:"nano-fertilizers-for-sustainable-crop-production-under-changing-climate-a-global-perspective",totalDownloads:2088,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:33,abstract:"Since green revolution, chemical fertilizers are deemed an indispensable input of modern crop production systems, but these have associated environmental and ecological consequences. Loss of nutrients from agricultural fields in the form of leaching and gaseous emissions has been the leading cause of environmental pollution and climate change. Ensuring the sustainability of crop production necessitates exploring other sources of nutrients and modifying prevalent nutrient sources. Nanotechnology, which utilizes nanomaterials of less than 100 nm size, may offer an unprecedented opportunity to develop concentrated sources of plant nutrients having higher-absorption rate, utilization efficacy, and minimum losses. Nanofertilizers are being prepared by encapsulating plant nutrients into nanomaterials, employing thin coating of nanomaterials on plant nutrients, and delivering in the form of nano-sized emulsions. Nano-pores and stomatal openings in plant leaves facilitate nanomaterial uptake and their penetration deep inside leaves leading to higher nutrient use efficiency (NUE). Nanofertilizers have higher transport and delivery of nutrients through plasmodesmata, which are nanosized (50–60 nm) channels between cells. The higher NUE and significantly lesser nutrient losses of nanofertilizers lead to higher productivity (6–17%) and nutritional quality of field crops. However, production and availability, their sufficient effective legislation, and associated risk management are the prime limiting factors in their general adoption as plant nutrient sources.",book:{id:"9345",slug:"sustainable-crop-production",title:"Sustainable Crop Production",fullTitle:"Sustainable Crop Production"},signatures:"Muhammad Aamir Iqbal",authors:[{id:"249866",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Aamir",middleName:null,surname:"Iqbal",slug:"muhammad-aamir-iqbal",fullName:"Muhammad Aamir Iqbal"}]},{id:"67546",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86339",title:"Application Potentials of Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria and Fungi as an Alternative to Conventional Weed Control Methods",slug:"application-potentials-of-plant-growth-promoting-rhizobacteria-and-fungi-as-an-alternative-to-conven",totalDownloads:1116,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"Weeds are the plants usually grown on unwanted places and are notorious for causing interruptions in agricultural settings. Remarkable yield losses have been reported in fields infested with weeds worldwide. So far, these weeds cause about 34% of losses to yields of major agricultural crops and pose threats to economic condition of the farmers. Conventionally, weed control was achieved by the use of chemical herbicides and traditional agronomic practices. But these methods are no more sustainable as the magnitude of threats imposed by these conventionally outdated methods such as chemical herbicides is greater than the benefits achieved and their continuous use has disturbed biodiversity and weed ecology along with herbicide resistance in some weeds. Herbicide residues are held responsible for human health hazards as well. Therefore the future of weed control is to rely on alternative approaches which may be biological agents such as bacteria and fungi. This chapter highlights the potentials of using bacterial and fungal biocontrol agents against weeds in farmer fields. Moreover, detailed review on merits and demerits of conventional weed control methods is discussed in this chapter.",book:{id:"9345",slug:"sustainable-crop-production",title:"Sustainable Crop Production",fullTitle:"Sustainable Crop Production"},signatures:"Adnan Mustafa, Muhammad Naveed, Qudsia Saeed, Muhammad Nadeem Ashraf, Azhar Hussain, Tanveer Abbas, Muhammad Kamran, Nan-Sun and Xu Minggang",authors:[{id:"276041",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"azhar-hussain",fullName:"Azhar Hussain"},{id:"299110",title:"Dr.",name:"Adnan",middleName:null,surname:"Mustafa",slug:"adnan-mustafa",fullName:"Adnan Mustafa"},{id:"300582",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Naveed",slug:"muhammad-naveed",fullName:"Muhammad Naveed"},{id:"300583",title:"Ms.",name:"Qudsia",middleName:null,surname:"Saeed",slug:"qudsia-saeed",fullName:"Qudsia Saeed"},{id:"300584",title:"Dr.",name:"Tanveer",middleName:null,surname:"Abbas",slug:"tanveer-abbas",fullName:"Tanveer Abbas"},{id:"300585",title:"Mr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Nadeem Ashraf",slug:"muhammad-nadeem-ashraf",fullName:"Muhammad Nadeem Ashraf"},{id:"300586",title:"Prof.",name:"Xu",middleName:null,surname:"Minggang",slug:"xu-minggang",fullName:"Xu Minggang"},{id:"301223",title:"Mr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Kamran",slug:"muhammad-kamran",fullName:"Muhammad Kamran"}]},{id:"48142",doi:"10.5772/59933",title:"Wastes in Building Materials Industry",slug:"wastes-in-building-materials-industry",totalDownloads:4064,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:null,book:{id:"4566",slug:"agroecology",title:"Agroecology",fullTitle:"Agroecology"},signatures:"Marinela Barbuta, Roxana Dana Bucur, Sorin Mihai Cimpeanu, Gigel Paraschiv and Daniel Bucur",authors:[{id:"50794",title:"Prof.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"G",surname:"Bucur",slug:"daniel-bucur",fullName:"Daniel Bucur"}]},{id:"64340",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80365",title:"Deficit Irrigation in Mediterranean Fruit Trees and Grapevines: Water Stress Indicators and Crop Responses",slug:"deficit-irrigation-in-mediterranean-fruit-trees-and-grapevines-water-stress-indicators-and-crop-resp",totalDownloads:1429,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"In regions with Mediterranean climate, water is the major environmental resource that limits growth and production of plants, experiencing a long period of water scarcity during summer. Despite the fact that most plants developed morphological, anatomical, physiological, and biochemical mechanisms that allow to cope with such environments, these harsh summer conditions reduce growth, yield, and fruit quality. Irrigation is implemented to overcome such effects. Conditions of mild water deficit imposed by deficit irrigation strategies, with minimal effects on yield, are particularly suitable for such regions. Efficient irrigation strategies and scheduling techniques require the quantification of crop water requirements but also the identification of pertinent water stress indicators and their threshold. This chapter reviews the scientific information about deficit irrigation recommendations and thresholds concerning water stress indicators on peach trees, olive trees, and grapevines, as case studies.",book:{id:"6952",slug:"irrigation-in-agroecosystems",title:"Irrigation in Agroecosystems",fullTitle:"Irrigation in Agroecosystems"},signatures:"Anabela Fernandes-Silva, Manuel Oliveira, Teresa A. Paço and Isabel\nFerreira",authors:[{id:"81075",title:"Prof.",name:"Anabela",middleName:"Afonso",surname:"Fernandes-Silva",slug:"anabela-fernandes-silva",fullName:"Anabela Fernandes-Silva"},{id:"181227",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:"T.",surname:"Oliveira",slug:"manuel-oliveira",fullName:"Manuel Oliveira"},{id:"245447",title:"Prof.",name:"Teresa",middleName:null,surname:"Paço",slug:"teresa-paco",fullName:"Teresa Paço"},{id:"245449",title:"Prof.",name:"Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira",slug:"isabel-ferreira",fullName:"Isabel Ferreira"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"58509",title:"Activity and Variety of Soil Microorganisms Depending on the Diversity of the Soil Tillage System",slug:"activity-and-variety-of-soil-microorganisms-depending-on-the-diversity-of-the-soil-tillage-system",totalDownloads:2175,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Soil is an ecosystem capable of producing the resources necessary for the development of the living organisms. Soil microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) are responsible for biomass decomposition, biogenic element circulation, which makes nutrients available to plants, biodegradation of impurities, and maintenance of soil structure. The presence of microorganisms in soil depends on their chemical composition, moisture, pH, and structure. Human activity has an indispensable influence on the formation of ecosystems. Soil tillage has an impact on the chemical and physical parameters of the soil, and thus on its biological properties. The use of inappropriate agro-technology can lead to degradation of the soil environment. Changes in soil properties may cause changes in soil abundance, activity, and diversity. Cultivation can affect microorganisms, causing their mortality and reducing the availability of nourishment in the soil. Therefore, it is extremely important to assess the diversity and microbiological activity of soil in relation to soil-tillage technology.",book:{id:"6485",slug:"sustainability-of-agroecosystems",title:"Sustainability of Agroecosystems",fullTitle:"Sustainability of Agroecosystems"},signatures:"Karolina Furtak and Anna Maria Gajda",authors:[{id:"225887",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Gajda",slug:"anna-gajda",fullName:"Anna Gajda"},{id:"225889",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Karolina",middleName:null,surname:"Furtak",slug:"karolina-furtak",fullName:"Karolina Furtak"}]},{id:"72075",title:"Application and Mechanisms of Plant Growth Promoting Fungi (PGPF) for Phytostimulation",slug:"application-and-mechanisms-of-plant-growth-promoting-fungi-pgpf-for-phytostimulation",totalDownloads:1323,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Plant growth-promoting fungi (PGPF) constitute diverse genera of nonpathogenic fungi that provide a variety of benefits to their host plants. PGPF show an effective role in sustainable agriculture. Meeting increasing demand for crop production without damage to the environment is the biggest challenge nowadays. The use of PGPF has been recognized as an environmentally friendly way of increasing crop production. These fungi have proven to increase crop yields by improving germination, seedling vigor, plant growth, root morphogenesis, photosynthesis, and flowering through either a direct or indirect mechanism. The mechanisms of PGPF involve solubilizing and mineralizing nutrients for easy uptake by plants, regulating hormonal balance, producing volatile organic compounds and microbial enzyme, suppressing plant pathogens and ameliorating abiotic stresses. Successful colonization is an intrinsic factor for most PGPF to exert their beneficial effects on plants. A certain level of specificity exists in the interactions between plant species and PGPF for root colonization and growth promoting effects. There is a gap between the number of reported efficacious PGPF and the number of PGPF as biofertilizer. Efforts should be strengthened to improve the efficacy and commercialization of PGPF. Hence, this chapter summarizes valuable information regarding the application and mechanisms of PGPF in sustainable agriculture.",book:{id:"10134",slug:"organic-agriculture",title:"Organic Agriculture",fullTitle:"Organic Agriculture"},signatures:"Md. Motaher Hossain and Farjana Sultana",authors:[{id:"318381",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Motaher",middleName:null,surname:"Hossain",slug:"md.-motaher-hossain",fullName:"Md. Motaher Hossain"},{id:"318383",title:"Dr.",name:"Farjana",middleName:null,surname:"Sultana",slug:"farjana-sultana",fullName:"Farjana Sultana"}]},{id:"72566",title:"Formulations of BGA for Paddy Crop",slug:"formulations-of-bga-for-paddy-crop",totalDownloads:618,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Blue green algae (BGA) are prokaryotic phototrophic organisms that can fix the atmospheric nitrogen biologically, and were directly applied as a biofertilizers in agricultural fields specifically Paddy field. Since they are having the ability to fix nitrogen, they are formulated with various adsorbents for the purpose of enhancing the crop growth along with maintaining the soil fertility and other soil factors responsible for productivity. The present study revealed that the formulations of blue green algae isolated from paddy fields of southern districts with different adsorbents like alluvial soil, sand, charcoal, and powdered paddy straw. All the adsorbents mixed with blue green algae showed significant growth when compared to the control plant. This determined that the adsorbent formulated mixed blue green algae enhanced the paddy plant growth under greenhouse condition.",book:{id:"9685",slug:"agroecosystems-very-complex-environmental-systems",title:"Agroecosystems",fullTitle:"Agroecosystems – Very Complex Environmental Systems"},signatures:"Bagampriyal Selvaraj and Sadhana Balasubramanian",authors:[{id:"316222",title:"Dr.",name:"Sadhana",middleName:null,surname:"Balasubramanian",slug:"sadhana-balasubramanian",fullName:"Sadhana Balasubramanian"},{id:"316448",title:"Mrs.",name:"Bagampriyal",middleName:null,surname:"Selvaraj",slug:"bagampriyal-selvaraj",fullName:"Bagampriyal Selvaraj"}]},{id:"63233",title:"Paddy Fields as Artificial and Temporal Wetland",slug:"paddy-fields-as-artificial-and-temporal-wetland",totalDownloads:1368,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Paddy cultivation plays a significant and vital role on rice production. Most of the global population depends on the 480 million tons of rice produced each year as the basis for their lives. While about 90% of the world’s 160 million hectares of paddy fields are in Asian countries, mainly in monsoon regions, paddies are also seen in North America and Africa, even in dry regions. Most of the paddy fields are flooded naturally or artificially during rice production period. In the case that paddy fields are kept submerged artificially, hydraulic structures are required. Irrigated paddy fields produce traditionally much rice, taking befits of stable water supply and continuous ponding. Paddy fields are simultaneously performing other functions for local environment, including climate mitigation, flood control, groundwater recharge, biodiversity, and ecosystem development. On the other hand, since paddy fields require much water and modify the original and natural hydrological regime, they might cause adverse effect on local environment. Much water supply by irrigation sometimes requires drainage system, which also might alter local water balance. In this chapter, implication of paddy fields as artificial and temporal wetland is reviewed comprehensively with various aspects, focusing mainly on their role for local hydrological environment.",book:{id:"6952",slug:"irrigation-in-agroecosystems",title:"Irrigation in Agroecosystems",fullTitle:"Irrigation in Agroecosystems"},signatures:"Tsugihiro Watanabe",authors:[{id:"243864",title:"Prof.",name:"Tsugihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Watanabe",slug:"tsugihiro-watanabe",fullName:"Tsugihiro Watanabe"}]},{id:"69405",title:"Plant Nutrition and Sustainable Crop Production in Nigeria",slug:"plant-nutrition-and-sustainable-crop-production-in-nigeria",totalDownloads:909,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The aim of this study is to examine the determining factors of plant nutrition and sustainable crop production in Nigeria. The study applied an in-depth review of literature and observed that different biotic and abiotic factors interact together to determine the outcome of plant nutrition and sustainable crop production in Nigeria. These factors include; types of fertilizers applied, atmospheric emissions, level of technological development, infrastructural facilities, climatic conditions, irrigation method, and level of skilled labour force. The study recommended that there should be increased and equal access to credit facilities, social protection incentives, and more innovation and technological involvement in the agricultural sector in order to increase productivity and efficiency.",book:{id:"9345",slug:"sustainable-crop-production",title:"Sustainable Crop Production",fullTitle:"Sustainable Crop Production"},signatures:"Romanus Osabohien and Toun Ogunbiyi",authors:[{id:"290879",title:"Mr.",name:"Romanus",middleName:null,surname:"Osabohien",slug:"romanus-osabohien",fullName:"Romanus Osabohien"},{id:"310108",title:"Ms.",name:"Toun",middleName:null,surname:"Ogunbiyi",slug:"toun-ogunbiyi",fullName:"Toun Ogunbiyi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"307",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/14156",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"14156"},fullPath:"/chapters/14156",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()