Hot tearing index (HTI) of different Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys with varying Ti content.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10421",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Sustainable Organizations - Models, Applications, and New Perspectives",title:"Sustainable Organizations",subtitle:"Models, Applications, and New Perspectives",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Given the multidisciplinary nature of our object of study, sustainability, we have divided this book into twelve chapters. In the first four, we cover the content required to learn how to start a business and create companies based on sustainability. The following chapters provide guidance to help translate sustainability strategies across cultures. These processes are analyzed through the Triple Bottom Line perspective, which effectively describes the primary objectives of sustainability. The last chapters analyze current trends in sustainable development, framing education as a powerful tool to facilitate the transition to more sustainable forms of development. Through these chapters, the understanding of the theoretical concepts is facilitated and examples of sustainable enterprises are made available to the reader that serves as a reference and that allow the development of practical activities.",isbn:"978-1-83880-963-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-962-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-964-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91607",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"sustainable-organizations-models-applications-and-new-perspectives",numberOfPages:232,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"3580ca76579cfa211067a94148d5887d",bookSignature:"Jose C. Sánchez-García and Brizeida Hernández-Sánchez",publishedDate:"February 3rd 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10421.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6368,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:10,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:16,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 13th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 3rd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 2nd 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 21st 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 20th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"105695",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose C.",middleName:null,surname:"Sánchez-García",slug:"jose-c.-sanchez-garcia",fullName:"Jose C. Sánchez-García",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/105695/images/system/105695.png",biography:"José Carlos Sánchez-García holds a Doctoral degree in Psychology received from the Autonomous University of Madrid. He achieved his Master degrees in Clinical Psychology and later Industrial Psychology, from the Complutense University of Madrid. He is now a Professor of Entrepreneurship at the University of Salamanca where he has also served as Dean of the Faculty of Psychology for eight years. Currently Dr. Sánchez-García is the Director of Doctorate Program in Psychology, also Director of the Entrepreneurship Chair, and Director of different international postgraduate programs (masters degrees) in entrepreneurial development and innovation. He is the President of AFIDE (Association for Training, Research and Development of Entrepreneurship) and was awarded the OPA Award for his research and promotion of entrepreneurship at the university, as well as the Juan Huarte de San Juan Award for his career as a psychologist and for his promotion of psychology. He also received an award from the Municipality of Osorno (Chile) for promoting entrepreneurship in this region. Dr. Sánchez-García is an author of numerous articles published in international high-impact journals, also an author of books and book chapters of a national and international character, a member of different editorial committees of international magazines as well as a member of different international associations in the field of psychology and entrepreneurship, a visiting professor at different European and Latin American universities.",institutionString:"University of Salamanca",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Salamanca",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],equalEditorOne:{id:"171418",title:"Dr.",name:"Brizeida",middleName:null,surname:"Hernandez-Sanchez",slug:"brizeida-hernandez-sanchez",fullName:"Brizeida Hernandez-Sanchez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171418/images/system/171418.png",biography:"Professor Brizeida Hernández Sánchez has extensive training and pedagogical experience, with focus on curricular design and teaching; specialized in project management and educational quality processes, for different academic levels; she is an expert in Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) applied to education, social pedagogy, special education, educational technology and management of public policies and educational institutions (supervising training in different master's degrees). She is currently an associate professor at the University of Salamanca, Faculty of Education.\nThis training trajectory is combined with a wide and extensive experience, academic and professional, in the field of pedagogy: in planning agile methodologies and application of actions, based on the diagnosis of needs; in the organization and management of curricular and innovation projects, in improving the teaching and learning processes; in the design of personalized educational resources, educational technology, blended learning, etc.\nShe is the Academic Coordinator of the Training Program in the Entrepreneurship Chair at the University of Salamanca, a member of the Academic Committee for international postgraduate programs (masters) in Entrepreneurial Development and Innovation, and the National Secretary of the Network for Entrepreneurship Training, Research and Development.",institutionString:"University of Salamanca",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Salamanca",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"79",title:"Sustainable Development",slug:"business-management-and-economics-sustainable-development"}],chapters:[{id:"73366",title:"Organizational Insights, Challenges and Impact of Sustainable Development in Developing and Developed Nations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93748",slug:"organizational-insights-challenges-and-impact-of-sustainable-development-in-developing-and-developed",totalDownloads:849,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"While developed nations can fully explore various sustainable business models to achieve sustainability, this might not be easy for developing nations because of poor governance systems, characterized by inequality, patronage, and corruption and other challenges. This chapter evaluates organizations as developing and developed nation blocs by first providing insights on how organizations can contribute to the social and environmental sustainability, and second, by highlighting the challenges and approaches for sustainable development. The chapter further unravels the potential for both blocs to grow and achieve sustainability through technology and innovative strategies alongside the opportunities offered by having fast-growing populations and natural resources. To achieve sustainability, a twofold approach comprising the 360-organizational sustainability approaches and advanced sustainability system analysis approach is used. The key societal driving forces in both blocs for exploiting sustainable business practices are governance and institutions, technology and innovation, economy and society, population and behavior, and financing for development which can unlock sustainable business opportunities for sustainable development. To address the business climate challenges, it is inferred that organizations can achieve global sustainability by integrating sustainable production and consumption, biodiversity and ecosystem services, equity and resilience sectors to attain an environmentally and socially governed systems globally.",signatures:"Katundu Imasiku",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73366",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73366",authors:[{id:"322704",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Katundu",surname:"Imasiku",slug:"katundu-imasiku",fullName:"Katundu Imasiku"}],corrections:null},{id:"73406",title:"Workplace Innovation for Social Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93791",slug:"workplace-innovation-for-social-sustainable-development",totalDownloads:796,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the importance of workplace innovation to sustainable development of the organizational change process. Workplace innovation has been distinguished from the technical innovation and its significance to intangible service improvements. It has addressed how sustainable development is affected by workplace safety, health, productivity, and wellbeing at the workplace. The chapter also attempted to see the three pillars of sustainable development against the six pillars of sustainable development dimensions from prospective points of the previous studies. The previous studies’ findings considered sustainable development dimensions as economic, social, and environmental dimension, while the recent study has introduced additional three new sustainable development dimensions emanating from the existing dimension such as cultural, political and technological dimensions. Therefore, the paper tried to address the workplace innovation, its importance, model, and its impact on sustainable development of the global society.",signatures:"Kassu Jilcha",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73406",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73406",authors:[{id:"292841",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kassu",surname:"Jilcha Sileyew",slug:"kassu-jilcha-sileyew",fullName:"Kassu Jilcha Sileyew"}],corrections:null},{id:"74334",title:"Entrepreneurial Momentum for Sustainable Growth",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95099",slug:"entrepreneurial-momentum-for-sustainable-growth",totalDownloads:466,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Public and private sectors view entrepreneurship as a movement of active, creative people who exploit opportunities under uncertainty, create new products, jobs, contribute to economic development of region. Entrepreneurs with their ‘fresh’ vision and agility play an important role in creating the sustainable future for all by overcoming social and environmental challenges. Based on real cases, we illustrate the path travelled by entrepreneurs from identifying the problem and creating the platform for communication with stakeholders to building solution and scaleup. We demonstrate our ‘4A engine’ approach to maintain the momentum for startup consisting of 4 phases: Attention, Actualisation, Attraction, and Action. Even if the start is successful, statistics show that many startups fail between 18 and 24 months. Therefore, we ask startup founders about their practice and biggest surprise they came across, essential choices and important decisions they made. Readers who find this practice useful will reflect by writing a Letter from the Future.",signatures:"Ihor Katernyak and Viktoriya Loboda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74334",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74334",authors:[{id:"321708",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ihor",surname:"Katernyak",slug:"ihor-katernyak",fullName:"Ihor Katernyak"},{id:"331224",title:"Prof.",name:"Viktoriya",surname:"Loboda",slug:"viktoriya-loboda",fullName:"Viktoriya Loboda"}],corrections:null},{id:"73311",title:"Organizational Support and Sustainable Entrepreneurship Performance of SMEs, the Moderating Role of Strategic Sustainability Orientation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93803",slug:"organizational-support-and-sustainable-entrepreneurship-performance-of-smes-the-moderating-role-of-s",totalDownloads:445,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Small and medium sized enterprises’ (SMEs) activities have contributed significantly to environmental degradation that causes a disastrous effect on us and our future generation. Considering this, sustainable entrepreneurship has been promoted as a resolution of ecological problems capable of addressing climate change issues, public health, and safety concerns, and has become critical for competing in international markets. SMEs activities increased pollution exclusively causing environmental degradation. In response, the world is focusing on ensuring that SMEs produce products through safe and environmentally friendly practices. Literature suggests that organizational support provide SMEs with the impetus to achieve competitive advantage regarding turnover, customer attraction and market share opportunities to achieve business performance. Nonetheless, the implementation of sustainable entrepreneurship among them is still low due to numerous challenges. This paper intends to investigate the influence of organizational support on sustainable entrepreneurship towards performance among SMEs. A case study involving 300 herbal-based SMEs were surveyed using structured questionnaire. Data was analyzed using descriptive statistics, exploratory factor analysis, confirmatory factor analysis, and structural equation model. The results show that organizational support have a positive effect on sustainable entrepreneurship and performance among the SMEs, accounting for 52% and 47% variance respectively. This finding reveals that organizational support is significantly related to entrepreneurship performance, thus substantiates previous findings on the crucial roles of organizational support in enabling organizations to achieve sustainable entrepreneurship performance. This study contributes to triple bottom line literature based on incorporation of strategic choice theory, strategic sustainability orientation and resource-based view theory in entrepreneurship framework.",signatures:"Muhammad Auwal Abdullahi, Zainalabidin Mohamed, Mad Nasir Shamsudin, Juwaidah Sharifuddin and Fazlin Ali",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73311",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73311",authors:[{id:"321678",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Auwal",surname:"Abdullahi",slug:"muhammad-auwal-abdullahi",fullName:"Muhammad Auwal Abdullahi"},{id:"328576",title:"Prof.",name:"Zainalabidin",surname:"Mohamed",slug:"zainalabidin-mohamed",fullName:"Zainalabidin Mohamed"},{id:"328577",title:"Prof.",name:"Mad Nasir",surname:"Shamsudin",slug:"mad-nasir-shamsudin",fullName:"Mad Nasir Shamsudin"},{id:"328578",title:"Dr.",name:"Juwaidah",surname:"Sharifuddin",slug:"juwaidah-sharifuddin",fullName:"Juwaidah Sharifuddin"},{id:"328579",title:"Dr.",name:"Fazlin",surname:"Ali",slug:"fazlin-ali",fullName:"Fazlin Ali"}],corrections:null},{id:"73743",title:"Institutional Structures and Women Sustainability in the Labour Market for Developing Economies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94262",slug:"institutional-structures-and-women-sustainability-in-the-labour-market-for-developing-economies",totalDownloads:301,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The peculiarity of women in developing economies, through changing status (marriage, widowhood, divorce, separation) and in some cases occasioned by locational vicissitudes, have continually challenged the sustainability of women in the labour market. Again, some of these challenges women face via social structures such as patriarchy, customs and traditions and unpaid household chores have particularly resulted in labour somersault, underemployment and forced unemployment which in certain cases could be temporary or of a permanent nature. Owing to this growing vulnerability of women, this chapter examine models and structures that have shaped (promoted or otherwise) women’s’ participation in the labour market. In turn, this chapter advances alternative institutional and organizational structures that can check some bewilderment of women in participating in the labour market, as well as foster the sustainability of women in the labour market.",signatures:"Oluwabunmi O. Adejumo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73743",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73743",authors:[{id:"322286",title:"Dr.",name:"Oluwabunmi",surname:"Adejumo",slug:"oluwabunmi-adejumo",fullName:"Oluwabunmi Adejumo"}],corrections:null},{id:"73594",title:"Protection of Craft Products Embodied in Cultural and Creative Industries in South Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94111",slug:"protection-of-craft-products-embodied-in-cultural-and-creative-industries-in-south-africa",totalDownloads:719,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The Culture and Creative industries are commonly recognised as one of the strategic sectors. This sector has the potential for innovation and development which may lead to economic growth of a nation. Even though the culture and creative industries (CCIs) is the focus of several studies, precise consideration has not been given to the craft sectors as an essential component of the South African industrial development. The objective of this research is to identify the problems faced by crafts sectors, and to address those issues by providing policy intervention towards protection and sustainability of the sector. Also, the position of craft has been widely acknowledged, but the research regarding the protection of craft products is scarce. This gives rise to the research question: how can the crafts sectors be protected towards the sustainability and development of these sectors? This study provides an overview of the concept of craft and the CCIs focusing on the craft production and marketing activities. For this study, a qualitative research was conducted using a secondary data, and conducting an in-depth interview with crafters in the city of Durban South Africa. The results established some basic issues that need an urgent intervention towards the preservation of the craft sector in South Africa.",signatures:"Abisuga Oluwayemisi Adebola",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73594",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73594",authors:[{id:"247415",title:"Dr.",name:"Oluwayemisi",surname:"Abisuga",slug:"oluwayemisi-abisuga",fullName:"Oluwayemisi Abisuga"}],corrections:null},{id:"73263",title:"Sustainable Business Practices by Nigerian Organizations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93834",slug:"sustainable-business-practices-by-nigerian-organizations",totalDownloads:432,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Sustainability is the lifeline of any organization and it begins with its people. This paper investigates the sustainable business practices of Nigerian organizations. The pillars of sustainability, economic, social and environmental, have been linked to improve business performance when entrenched into long term strategies of a business. To address the challenges of power supply, multiple taxation, pollution and waste management faced in the business environment, it is imperative to develop solutions that will not compromise future needs yet meeting the needs of the present. Recycling, recovery and reuse, safe work initiatives, continuous learning are strategies businesses can adopt to reduce environmental waste, social and economic issues. For this purpose, this chapter examines sustainability practices of businesses from selected industries; construction, manufacturing, banking and hospitality industries were selected based on availability of sustainability reports of industry leaders. This research is expected to help business managers and policy makers understand sustainable business practices and its implications on business performance.",signatures:"Nkemdilim Iheanachor",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73263",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73263",authors:[{id:"322184",title:"Dr.",name:"Nkemdilim",surname:"Iheanachor",slug:"nkemdilim-iheanachor",fullName:"Nkemdilim Iheanachor"}],corrections:null},{id:"73472",title:"Evolving a Sustainable Paradigm for Harnessing Intellectual Resources in the Nigerian Space Industry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93905",slug:"evolving-a-sustainable-paradigm-for-harnessing-intellectual-resources-in-the-nigerian-space-industry",totalDownloads:346,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Over the years, one of the ways that have been identified as pivotal in building sustainable organisations is the manpower development component of any organisation. Such manpower development through capacity building can be gained by training and retraining to retool the workforce into having the relevant and up to date skill set that spurs competitiveness and growth. For the Nigerian space industry, this human capacity development component has been embraced, encouraged and adopted into a working model for sustainability. The Nigerian Space Industry has leveraged on its potential to harness its intellectual capital through a collaborative culture with national and international partners to provide sustainable growth in attaining technological competence in Space Science and Technology (SST). In this chapter, we present a capacity building context as a model by which Nigeria’s Space Industry mobilises its intellectual resources and collaborative efforts towards achieving sustainable development.",signatures:"Ngunan Monica Ikpaya, Ikpaya Ikpaya, Eseoghene Ovie, Chisom G. Nwokike, Sesugh Nongo and Godwin Ogor-Igbosuah",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73472",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73472",authors:[{id:"322642",title:"Mrs.",name:"Ngunan M.",surname:"Ikpaya",slug:"ngunan-m.-ikpaya",fullName:"Ngunan M. Ikpaya"},{id:"328859",title:"Dr.",name:"Ikpaya",surname:"Ikpaya",slug:"ikpaya-ikpaya",fullName:"Ikpaya Ikpaya"},{id:"328860",title:"Dr.",name:"Eseoghene",surname:"Ovie",slug:"eseoghene-ovie",fullName:"Eseoghene Ovie"},{id:"328861",title:"Dr.",name:"Chisom",surname:"Nwokike",slug:"chisom-nwokike",fullName:"Chisom Nwokike"},{id:"328862",title:"Dr.",name:"Sesugh",surname:"Nongo",slug:"sesugh-nongo",fullName:"Sesugh Nongo"},{id:"328863",title:"Mr.",name:"Godwin",surname:"Ogor-Igbosuah",slug:"godwin-ogor-igbosuah",fullName:"Godwin Ogor-Igbosuah"}],corrections:null},{id:"74348",title:"Sustainable Development and Islamic Ethical Tasks for Business-Organisations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94992",slug:"sustainable-development-and-islamic-ethical-tasks-for-business-organisations",totalDownloads:460,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The paper seeks to addresses the issues of sustainable development and it would be viewed as Islamic moral duties for business. To what level should business bodies should join in the sustainable development activities? Based on the existing literature, this study assimilates conventional as well as Islamic points about environment and sustainable development and contends that whatever explanation of sustainable development one may subscribe, ultimately, each should culminate in environmental concern. This study contends that Islamic style is more friendly to environmental protection and issues touching sustainable development have moral, social and ethical responsibility. With intense commitment of the businesses in the matter of Islamic ethics to equity, justice and wellbeing of humans, it demands that business organisations in the Islamic and other countries should participate in the sustainable development endeavours. Because of ethics of environmental aspects in Islam, the value chains of suppliers through customers, many companies may be alert for the environmental characteristics and effects of their businesses.",signatures:"Abul Hassan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74348",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74348",authors:[{id:"323154",title:"Dr.",name:"Abul",surname:"Hassan",slug:"abul-hassan",fullName:"Abul Hassan"}],corrections:null},{id:"74195",title:"Teacher Professional Competencies in Education for Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94991",slug:"teacher-professional-competencies-in-education-for-sustainable-development",totalDownloads:630,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"At present, combining sustainable development with education has become one of the school’s missions. Students must master sustainable development skills. In order to explore the ideal method of K-12 teachers’ professional competence in Education for Sustainable Development and determine the talent leadership strategy can enhance the professional competence of teachers in the 21st century sustainable development education, this study uses content analysis. The author systematically reviewed and analyzed related research work on sustainable development education, teachers’ professional abilities and talent leadership strategies. According to the comprehensive results of content analysis, the ideal way for K-12 teachers to achieve professional sustainability is as follows: content focuses on sustainability with 21st century skills, collaboration with peers, active learning, and application of learning sustainability in practice Model, peer guidance, feedback and evaluation, duration, and teacher professional development. In order to achieve the second research goal, the authors found that talent leadership strategies can enhance the sustainable development of K-12 teachers’ professional capabilities, including K-12 teacher professional development methods, K-12 teacher professional capabilities, student performance and focus on student performance.",signatures:"Xiaoyao Yue and Ruixuan Ji",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74195",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74195",authors:[{id:"322818",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaoyao",surname:"Yue",slug:"xiaoyao-yue",fullName:"Xiaoyao Yue"}],corrections:null},{id:"74231",title:"Driving a Sustainable University-Industry Partnership",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94990",slug:"driving-a-sustainable-university-industry-partnership",totalDownloads:395,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"There has been a lot of emphasis on the need for academia-industry collaboration. A successful and sustainable academia-industry partnership can result from a university’s efforts in driving values in its collaboration with industry. This chapter describes a model for mainstreaming a sustainable university partnership with industry through the university’s academic curriculum. The University-Industry Innovation eXchange (UNIX) internship program is a project-based industrial training scheme that is integrated with research projects to provide students with an engaging experience of working with industry for up to one year to solve practical industrial problems. Successful implementation of UNIX projects within the Universiti Teknologi Malaysia’s (UTM) work-based curriculum contributes toward nurturing life-ready and job-ready graduates, development of resilient and sustainable organisation through improved operations, and enhanced university-industry partnership.",signatures:"Zainuddin Abd Manan and Sharifah Rafidah Wan Alwi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74231",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74231",authors:[{id:"322176",title:"Prof.",name:"Zainuddin",surname:"Manan",slug:"zainuddin-manan",fullName:"Zainuddin Manan"},{id:"322179",title:"Prof.",name:"Sharifah Rafidah",surname:"Wan Alwi",slug:"sharifah-rafidah-wan-alwi",fullName:"Sharifah Rafidah Wan Alwi"}],corrections:null},{id:"73512",title:"Exploring a Culturally-Responsive Model and Theory for Sustainable Development in Education Based on Cebuano Context",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94035",slug:"exploring-a-culturally-responsive-model-and-theory-for-sustainable-development-in-education-based-on",totalDownloads:531,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This paper explores a culturally-responsive model and theory for sustainable development in education that intertwines a seamless juxtaposition of cultural knowledge, mastery, reflections and understanding, and innovations in the Cebuano context. A multiple case analysis of selected quintains of Cebuano culture in literature reviews, and past travel observations and experiences were used as the methodology of the study. Results revealed that studies on cultural knowledge reflected a Cebuano identity of indigenous worldviews and reverence to nature. Cultural knowledge served as a basis for cultural mastery in the formulation and implementation of government policies as exemplified in the Bayanihan to Heal Act, the creation of the Inter-Agency Task Force, and other decisions of government and non-government agencies to protect people’s welfare. Cultural reflections ignited how people responded to these policies, with contrasting views and ambivalence. To prevent the furtherance of these views that would heighten possible conflict and violence, cultural innovations through a KRSP Model offers vibrant opportunities to promote and realize ESD Goal No. 4 by 2030.",signatures:"Reynaldo B. 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Owing to their high specific strength, resistance to stress corrosion cracking, excellent fatigue resistance, workability and cost effectiveness [3], Aluminum alloys are one of the primary material choice for aerospace and automotive industries [2, 4]. In addition, Aluminum based composites were developed over the years to mitigate some of the limitations of Aluminum alloys and further facilitates their use for various engineering applications [5]. Apart from structural applications, Aluminum and its alloys are also employed for the electronics and electrical industries in abundance for their suitable combination of functional properties [6].
Pure Aluminum is characterized by low yield strength which is improved by many folds from different strengthening strategies e.g. by adding different alloying elements, thereby making the alloys suitable for structural applications. Depending upon the major alloying element/s, Aluminum alloys are classified in two important categories; some of the alloys can be strengthened by heat treatment (age hardening) while others by mechanical deformation (non-age hardenable) [7, 8]. Al-Cu alloys fall in the first category; they are strengthened by in situ precipitates introduced through appropriate thermal treatment (aging). In age hardening, these precipitates hinder the dislocation motion and increase the hardness or strength of the alloy [9].
Despite the beneficial attributes, age-hardening Aluminum alloys, especially Al-Cu alloys suffer from limited high temperature capability. At temperature above 200°C, the metastable strengthening precipitates (e.g. θ
In recent times, a new class of Al-Cu alloys is developed by suitable micro-alloying with Mn and Zr which possesses excellent stability for strengthening θ′ precipitates at and above 300°C. The Al-Cu-Mn-Zr, termed as ACMZ alloys, provide significant improvement in most of the elevated temperature mechanical properties including hardness, tensile strength, creep and fatigue resistance etc. The present chapter provides a detailed account of the development of Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys while highlighting the limitations of existing Al-Cu alloys in the first place. It alongside discusses about the underlying mechanisms responsible for their excellent high temperature stability and subsequently on various properties. The chapter finally access the possibility of industrial adaptation of this newly developed alloy system and expected industrial impacts in long run.
During age hardening of Al-Cu alloys, it is first heat-treated at temperatures where single-phase α-Al solid solution is formed; this process is known as solution treatment [7]. Afterwards, the alloy is rapidly quenched to room temperature which causes freezing of solute Cu atoms within the α-Al matrix, thus forming a super saturated solid solution (SSSS). The solute atoms afterwards can diffuse even at room temperature through this super-saturated α-Al matrix and form various Al-Cu precipitates; this process is known as natural aging. In this regard, Figure 1a represents the binary Al-Cu phase diagram along with the solvus lines for various metastable precipitate phases. However, in common engineering practice, the solutionized alloy is heat treated at certain elevated temperature, usually within the two-phase region to produce various metastable precipitates depending on the heat treatment time and temperature (artificial aging). At sufficiently low aging temperature or during natural aging, Cu solute cluster first form from the quenched-in vacancies within the supersaturated α-Al matrix. These solute clusters then arrange in a single layer of Cu atoms known as
Schematics showing (a) section of Al-Cu binary phase diagram, (b) crystal structure of parent α-Al matrix and various metastable (
When the aging process continues above the GP zone solvus line (Figure 1a),
In the
The equilibrium precipitate in the Al-Cu system is tetragonal
The entire precipitation process during aging of Al-Cu alloy therefore can be summed up as:
The operating strengthening mechanism/s in Al-Cu alloy system differs as a function of precipitate type, mainly with their size and coherency with α-Al matrix. When the precipitates are small and coherent with α-Al matrix (e.g.
When the precipitates (usually
Schematic showing (a) the mechanism of Orowan looping, (b) CRSS increment as a function of precipitate radius for particle shearing and Orowan looping mechanisms, and (c) isothermal aging curves (hardness vs. aging time) for various commercial Al alloys e.g. Al-Cu (206), Al-Si-Cu (319) and Al-Si (356, A356, A356 + 0.5Cu) [
where,
where,
The CRSS increment with respect to the precipitate radius due to either particle shearing or Orowan looping is schematically represented in Figure 2b [12]. It seems that a critical radius exists for the strengthening precipitate below which particle shearing is preferred. When the precipitate grows beyond this critical radius, the dislocations prefer to bow around the precipitate rather than shearing it.
Considering finely dispersed coherent
At the beginning of aging treatment, fine and uniform precipitation of
With increase in aging time, aspect ratio and number density of
The
Furthermore, the ductility (usually expressed in terms of elongation to fracture) of age-hardening Aluminum alloys also varies with aging time in accordance to the size, morphology and coherency of the strengthening precipitates [20, 21]. When the precipitates are small and coherent and their number density is low, dislocations can move past easily through them leading to maximum contribution from strain hardening that delays fracture. Correspondingly, under-aged alloy shows maximum ductility. On the other hand, semi-coherent and large strengthening precipitates at the peak aged condition renders maximum hindrance to the dislocation motion due to Orowan looping resulting in significant pile up at the precipitate sites. The ductility for the peak-aged alloy is also correspondingly minimum. With over-aging, some ductility is restored since the coarse, incoherent precipitates are generally not suitable to hinder dislocation motion and little pile up results around them. Overall, the ductility vs. aging time variation follows a reverse trend to the strength/hardness vs. aging time curves.
One of the major hindrances for widespread use of Al-Cu alloys, especially in the automobile and aerospace sectors, is their poor high temperature stability associated with rapid decrease in load bearing capacity above ∼250°C [22]. This strength degradation is because of the rapid coarsening of θ
At long thermal exposure,
Over the years, alloying pure Aluminum with various elements showed good promises for elevated temperature applications. Such elements included rare earths (e.g. Erbium, Ytterbium, Scandium etc.) as well as Zirconium, Silicon etc. [25, 26, 27]. For these alloys, formation of coherent precipitates with cubic L12 crystal structure and reduced interfacial energy is the key for their high temperature stability against precipitate coarsening upon thermal exposure [26]. The other unique exploration is the formation of core-shell structure for the strengthening precipitates which also provides excellent coarsening resistance through the minimization of interfacial energy. For example, addition of 0.06 at% Zr or 0.03 at% Er in Aluminum individually form ordered L12 Al3Zr or Al3Er precipitates and show moderate coarsening resistance at elevated temperature [25]. Simultaneous addition of Zr and Er in similar quantity however, leads to Al3(Er, Zr) precipitates with unique core shell structure, which made them coarsening resistant up to 400°C for 750 hours. The difference in diffusivity between Zr and Er was held responsible for formation of such core-shell structure; while Er having higher diffusivity forms the primary precipitate with Aluminum, slower diffusing Zr segregates later at the interfaces of these primary precipitates resulting in the core-shell structure. Similarly, addition of Sc to Al-Zr-Sc-Er alloy (concentrations of both Sc and Er are 0.06 at%) leads to a dual shell layer of Zr and Sc according to their respective diffusivity in Al matrix over the Al3Er core precipitate [26].
Furthermore, excellent creep resistance was observed for Al-0.1 at% Zr and Al-0.1 at% Zr-0.1 at% Ti alloy systems at 300°C, 350°C and 400°C, which is attributed to the high temperature stability of Al3Zr precipitates [28]. Out of the two alloys, ternary Al-Zr-Ti alloy showed comparatively lower creep resistance than binary Al-Zr alloy due to the lower lattice parameter mismatch between Al3(Zr1-xTix) core-shell precipitates with the parent α-Al matrix. The addition of Yb similarly resulted in excellent thermal stability for Al-0.9 at% Zr- 1.73 at% Yb alloys having Al3(Zr,Yb) precipitates up to 400–425°C [29].
For Al-Si system, Al-Si-Cu-Mg alloys are traditionally used for making high temperature pistons for automobile engines [30, 31]. These alloys show satisfactory microstructural stability as well as fatigue resistance at high temperatures which are essential requirements for automotive applications. A viable route for further improving their high temperature performance is by addition of transition metals that forms thermally stable intermetallic precipitates. For example, controlled Zr addition (up to 0.11 wt%) increases the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of Al-Si-Zr piston alloys by 3.8% at 350°C due to the alteration in the morphology of strengthening ZrAlSi precipitates from flake to block shape [32, 33]. However, increase in Zr content up to 0.46 wt% resulted in a decrease in UTS by 5%. Similarly, A356 alloy (Al-7Si-0.4 Mg) modified with 0.25 wt% Er and nominal amount of Zr (0 to 0.6 wt%) showed improved high temperature mechanical properties [34]. With increase in Zr content up to 0.59 wt%, both hardness and tensile strength increases at room and elevated temperatures due to the formation of Al3(Er,Zr) precipitates.
Hypoeutectic Al-7 wt%Si-1wt%Cu-0.5 wt% Mg alloys also shows excellent retention of hardness and tensile strength up to 240–260°C when micro-alloyed with 0.15 wt% Zr, 0.28 wt% V and 0.18 wt% Ti [35]. Further exposure to 475°C upto 128 hours led to additional improvement in hardness which can be attributed to the accelerated precipitation of Al3(Zr,V,Ti) and Q′ precipitates. Similarly, addition of minor Ti (0.22 wt%), Zr (0.39 and 0.19 wt%) and Ni (0.46–0.21 wt%) to commercial 354 alloy showed improvement in tensile properties up to 300°C compared to the base alloy [36]. In both cases, micro-alloying elements synergistically result in unique and complex precipitate formation which improved the high temperature stability of the corresponding alloys. For hypereutectic Al-Si alloys, Ni addition up to 1–4 wt% to Al-12 wt%Si-0.9 wt% Cu-0.8 wt% Mg alloy resulted in retention of room temperature mechanical properties, including creep resistance up to 250°C due to the formation of thermally stable Al3Ni precipitates [37]. In addition to primary and eutectic Si, incorporation of 1 wt% ZnO nanoparticles (particle size ∼40 nm) also enhance the high temperature tensile strength and elongation for Al-20 wt% Si alloys [38].
In case of age hardening Al-Cu system, several attempts were made in the past to increase their high temperature stability by adopting various strategies. Lin et al. [39] studied the effect of Ni addition (0.5–1.5 wt%) on the elevated temperature mechanical properties of squeeze cast Al-Cu-Mn-Fe alloys. At 300°C, the amount of thermally stable precipitates (e.g. Al9FeNi, Al3CuNi and Al20Cu2Mn3) increases with increasing Ni content which enhances the elevated temperature mechanical properties of the base alloy. Addition of La in Al-Cu alloy similarly results in the formation of Al11La3 precipitates leading to a better high temperature mechanical properties with 0.3 wt% La being the optimized concentration [40]. The addition of 1.6–2.0 wt% Li also shows excellent mechanical properties for AA2099 (Al-Cu-Li) alloys at high temperature, primarily due to the enhanced thermal stability of T1 (Al2CuLi) precipitates compared to other possible strengthening precipitates like θ′ and S (Al2CuMg) [41]. At higher temperature, T1 precipitates coarsen instead of dissolving unlike θ′ or S. In addition, AA2219 alloy possesses improved high temperature performance when micro-alloyed with 0.8 wt% Sc, 0.45 wt% Mg and 0.2 wt% Zr from grain refinement and simultaneous precipitation of Al3Sc, Al3Zr and Ω precipitates along with other common strengthening precipitates like θ′ and θ″ [42].
Another viable strategy of increasing the thermal stability of Al-Cu alloys is by micro-alloying with various secondary elements for stabilization of strengthening metastable
Overall, there have been numerous efforts in the past to design high temperature Aluminum alloys from different binary systems (Al-Cu, Al-Si etc.), primarily by micro-alloying with various elements. However, most of these attempts showed certain shortcomings. The working temperature of the resultant ternary or quternary alloys could not be increased above 300°C under prolonged exposure. Also, use of exotic elements like rare earth additions hindered their industrial acceptance and commercial viability. Hence, the demand of cost-effective Aluminum alloys for high temperature applications has only increased over the years without much of a success.
As mentioned before, age hardening Al-Cu alloys faces significant precipitate coarsening, which restricts their use for high temperature applications [48]. Numerous attempts have made over the years to increase the operational temperature for Al-Cu alloys; the most successful approach was by trace addition of various elements like Sc and Zr [49]. Micro-alloying improves the high temperature stability in two distinct ways:
Micro alloying elements can provide heterogeneous nucleation sites for primary strengthening precipitates (e.g. θ
Micro alloying elements can segregate at the high energy mobile semi-coherent precipitate/matrix interfaces and at times, at the less-mobile coherent interfaces [52]. Such segregation eventually results in the reduction of energy for these interfaces, making them difficult to grow. The semi-coherent interfaces is usually more effected by such segregation [53, 54]. In recent times, stabilization of semi-coherent and coherent interfaces of strengthening θ
The classical approach for developing any new alloy system relies on the age-old trial and error method which has serious drawbacks, primarily considering the resource constrains and added cost from industrial standpoints [55, 56]. A more state of the art strategy of alloy designing is by using integrated computational materials engineering (ICME) approach [57, 58]; a successful example of this is realized in the development of Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys. The key components of ICME approach for the development of this alloy system are: (a) thermodynamic and kinetic approximations for stability of precipitates against growth controlling mechanism/s, (b) appropriate modeling for assessment of thermo-physical and thermo-mechanical properties from existing phases, (c) simulation and model/s to predict defect formation during casting processes, (d) models for prediction of microstructure during casting and other thermo-mechanical processing operations, (e) models for property prediction from microstructure and defect structure evolution, and (f) models for manufacturing of components at in-service conditions [59, 60].
These above mentioned steps were followed in the development of Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys which was primarily aimed to replace traditional Al-Si and Al-Si-Cu alloys in automotive applications (e.g. cylinder heads in passenger vehicle engines) [59]. Firstly, thermo-physical and thermo-mechanical properties for casting process simulation were obtained from thermodynamic databases. The simulation of casting process was conducted to estimate the casting defects and as-cast microstructure. Afterwards, thermodynamic models were employed for optimization of heat treatment cycle in terms of desired precipitation sequence, precipitate growth etc. This helped to estimate the spatial variation of thermo-physical properties over the component scale as well. Finally, component level properties e.g. residual stress, fatigue performance etc. were evaluated in order to estimate the in-service performance of the alloys considering the above mentioned parameters [61].
The primary mechanism for high temperature stability of Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys is related to the segregation of micro-alloying solute atoms (Mn and Zr) at θ′ precipitate/α-Al matrix interfaces [48, 52]. Although it seems fairly straight forward in the first go, the interface stabilization process exhibits extreme intricacies throughout the entire precipitation sequence. As denoted earlier, the primary strengthening precipitate in Al-Cu system is θ′, which has a plate shaped morphology where the broad facets are coherent with parent α-Al matrix (Figure 1c) [12]. The rim of the precipitates, on the other hand, are semi-coherent and have a higher interfacial energy compared to their coherent counterparts which makes them highly mobile and prone to coarsening [48].
On exposure to high temperature for an extended duration, θ′ precipitates coarsen due to the enhanced diffusion of solute Cu atoms [8]. Segregation of Mn and Zr atoms at the θ′ precipitate/α-Al matrix interfaces prohibits Cu diffusion and further coarsening at elevated temperature [48]. The main driving force behind the solute segregation is the reduction of precipitate/matrix interfacial energy, especially for the semi-coherent interfaces. In addition, several other mechanisms like solute drag, ledge poisoning etc. also helps in the stabilization of θ′ precipitates [52, 62]. These mechanisms are explained individually below.
In the earliest report on Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys, Shyam et al. [48] compared two cast Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys having nominal compositions Al-5Cu-1.5Ni-0.2Mn-0.17Zr and Al-6.4Cu-0.19Mn-0.13Zr (in wt%) with conventional Al-Cu (206) and Al-Si-Cu (319) i.e. with non- Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys containing negligible concentration of Zr (Figure 3). At room temperature, base Al-Cu and Al-Si-Cu alloys exhibit superior mechanical response (higher yield strength and ductility) than Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys. However, the trend completely reverses after treating the alloys at higher temperature (300°C) for 200 hours; Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys now represent superordinate mechanical response than either Al-Cu or Al-Si-Cu alloys. Microstructural examinations reveal that θ′ precipitates significantly coarsen and transform to thermodynamically stable θ precipitates for base Al-Cu or Al-Si-Cu (i.e. non Al-Cu-Mn-Zr) alloys because of which their mechanical properties degraded after thermal treatment. On the other hand, θ′ precipitates retain their morphology and aspect ratio on high temperature heat treatment in case of Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys.
(a) and (b) showing the microstructures of Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloy in peak aged condition and post 300°C thermal exposure for 200 hours, respectively; (c) and (d) represents true-stress-true strain curves for these alloys from tensile tests carried out at room temperature and 300°C, respectively; (e) and (f) showing the microstructures for conventional Al-Si-Cu alloy under similar conditions [
Bahl et al. [52] further studied the aging kinetics and thermal stability of Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys and showed that they retained their room temperature mechanical properties even after exposure at 300°C for 5000 hours. During such prolonged thermal treatment, θ′ precipitates suffer limited decrease in number density up to 200 hours. No further significant decrease was observed, and the peak-aged microstructure remains fairly stable up to 5000 hours.
The stability of θ′ precipitates in Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloy was examined using atom probe tomography (APT) characterization which are shown in Figures 4a and b (side view and top view, respectively) [48, 62]. Figure 4c represents corresponding composition profile which indicates segregation of Cu, Mn, Zr and Si at the coherent and semi-coherent θ′ precipitate/α-Al matrix interfaces for Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys after prolonged (200 hours) thermal exposure at 300°C. As it appears, Mn tends to segregate both at the coherent and semi-coherent interfaces of θ′ precipitates with the segregation tendency being larger at the later interfaces. Zr, on the other hand, segregates more on the corner rim of the coherent/semi-coherent interfaces, although certain extent of Zr segregation also occurs on these interfaces. Silicon have similar segregation profile as Mn; it can in fact influences the solute segregation at these interfaces to a much greater extent as discussed later [63].
(a) and (b) APT compositional maps (iso-concentration surfaces) representing side and top views, respectively of APT needle for Al-Cu-Mn-Ni-Zr alloy pre-conditioned at 300°C for 200 hours, (c) and (d) showing 2D contour plots for Cu, Si, Zr and Mn atoms on the cross-sectional planes of
In order to understand the individual and synergistic effect of Mn and Zr micro-alloying on the thermal stability of Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloy, a consolidated study was carried out by Poplawsky et al. [62] on several model alloys (e.g. Al-Cu-Mn, ACM and Al-Cu-Zr, ACZ etc.) in addition to the base Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloy. The Al-Cu-Mn alloys retain their room temperature mechanical strength after exposure at 300°C for 200 hours whereas Al-Cu-Zr alloys could sustain their stability only up to 200°C. For comparison, Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys are stable up to 350°C. The trend in Mn segregation for Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloy in this case is similar to that observed earlier by Shyam et al. [48] up to 300°C. Larger Mn segregation occurs at semi-coherent interfaces while minor segregation at the coherent interfaces.
After thermal exposure at 350°C, Mn segregation at semi-coherent interfaces becomes insignificant, which aggravates the mechanical degradation of Al-Cu-Mn alloys at this temperature range [62]. At 350°C, Mn tends to diffuse within the bulk of θ′ precipitates, thereby causing even lesser segregation at the semi-coherent interfaces. Zr, on the other hand, retains their segregation profile at the coherent interfaces up to 200°C for Al-Cu-Zr alloys. The Zr segregation profile is also similar in nature to that observed previously for Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys by Shyam et al. [48].
Solid state diffusion is one of the key component for evolution of precipitate structure and morphology during the course of thermal exposure [64]. In the corresponding binary systems, self-diffusion coefficient of Cu is much higher than that for Mn so that diffusion of Cu atoms continue to coarsen
Due to this sequence of segregation (initial segregation of Mn followed by Zr segregation on prolonged thermal exposure),
The diffusion aided coarsening of θ′ precipitates can be best described using the classic Lifshitz-Slyozov-Wagner (LSW) theory [67] where the rate of coarsening depends on the corresponding mass transfer mechanism (lattice diffusion, interface atomic mobility, grain boundary diffusion, pipe diffusion through dislocation cores etc.). The governing equation in LSW theory is given as [68]:
where,
Since
Furthermore, the constant
As it seems, the microstructural requirement for better coarsening resistance and high temperature stability of Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloy is quite counterintuitive. At room temperature, a fine-scale microstructure with smaller precipitates and correspondingly, smaller inter precipitate spacing is preferred for high strength [8]. However, a larger precipitate with higher inter-precipitate spacing is desired for enhanced coarsening resistance at higher temperature. Together, Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys present low to moderate strength at room temperature but excellent retention of that strength at elevated temperature [48].
Other than the major micro-alloying elements (Mn & Zr), trace elements (e.g. Si and Ti) present in the composition may further influence the microstructural stability of Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloy at elevated temperature. Silicon decreases the coarsening resistance for
After solution treatment of Al-Cu alloys, quench-in vacancies can cluster together to form edge dislocations at room temperature [12, 69]. When these vacancies are in significant density, they can even form dislocation loops rather than individual dislocations, which can further climb and form dislocation helices [70, 71, 72, 73, 74]. These helices accommodate far more number of vacancies with their spacings being larger than individual dislocations. When Si atoms are present in significant quantity in the binary Al-Cu alloy, they can also cluster together during aging due to high diffusivity. The dislocations, dislocation helices and Si clusters can all potentially provide heterogeneous nucleation sites for θ′ precipitates when aged above θ″ solvus.
When the Si content is kept low (<0.05 wt%), Al-Cu alloys essentially act as a binary system and θ′ precipitates mostly nucleate at the dislocation loops, thereby promoting a fine scale microstructure on aging [63]. At higher Si content (0.11 wt%-0.24 wt%), θ′ precipitates nucleate at Si clusters, which again leads to a finer microstructure. However, at the intermediate Si content (0.05–0.1 wt%), nucleation of θ′ precipitates primarily occurs at the dislocation helices. As a result, the number density of θ′ precipitates decreases such that their inter-precipitate spacings become larger as well as the critical size for
Titanium when present in trace concentration can also influence the high temperature stability of Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys by forming stable Al3Ti precipitates having L12 crystal structure [75]. Titanium atoms show similar segregation profile as Zr at θ′ precipitate/α-Al matrix interfaces. Poplawsky et al. [62] in this regard observed unique L12 structured Al3(ZrxTi1-x) precipitates on the α-Al matrix/ θ′ precipitate interfaces from addition of Ti to Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys. The (001) interfaces of this Al3(ZrxTi1-x) precipitates are coherent with
Furthermore, self-diffusion coefficients of Mn, Zr and Ti in Al vary in the order
Schematics showing (a) segregation of Mn at the semi-coherent interface of
As discussed before, reduction in interfacial energy due to the segregation of solute atoms (Mn and Zr) at the mobile interfaces promotes thermal stabilization for metastable θ′ precipitates up to a prolonged duration [48]. In this regard, density functional theory (DFT) simulations were carried out to determine the interfacial energy for various θ′ precipitate/α-Al matrix interfaces with and without solute addition (Mn & Zr). In DFT calculations, segregation energy
where,
where,
Important to note that the coarsening of strengthening precipitates is
Introduction of a third element (Mn, Zr etc.) within the binary Al-Cu alloys can lead to one or a combination of thermodynamic and kinetic restrictions (mentioned above) to precipitate coarsening processes. Shower et al. [76] in this regard carried out a phase field modeling study to understand the synergistic effect of various mechanisms that offers precipitate coarsening resistance. The study suggests that a combination of interfacial energy reduction and solute drag due to the addition of Mn and Zr contributes to the coarsening resistance of θ′ precipitates up to 300°C. In the process, a continuous segregation profile forms for Mn atoms along the interfaces of θ′ precipitates with a larger weightage at the semi-coherent interface. Other solute atoms e.g. Zr, which introduce a positive misfit strain do not effectively interact with the mobile semi-coherent interfaces; rather they tend to segregate at the coherent interfaces. When the working temperature is raised to 400°C, resistance to precipitate coarsening requires simultaneous reduction in the mobility of Cu atoms through α-Al matrix and the interfacial energy of θ′ precipitates. This could not be achieved by micro-alloying with Mn and Zr alone, which is why the Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys losse their excellent thermal stability at 400°C and beyond. All the cumulative and inter-connected effects that contribute to the stabilization of θ\' precipitate at elevated temperature in Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloy are schematically shown in Figure 6.
Schematic flowchart showing the cumulative effect of various contributing factors and mechanisms involved in the stabilization of
Similar to other age hardening Al-Cu alloys, primary strengthening mechanism for peak-aged Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys is Orowan looping where matrix dislocations bow around the coarse θ′ precipitates [52]. Apart from this, solid solution and grain boundary strengthening (by Hall–Petch mechanism) also contributes to the overall strength of the Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys. Analytical calculations, however, suggest that Orowan looping plus other strengthening mechanisms together are inadequate to account for experimentally measured yield strength of Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys [52]. This calls for the consideration of additional strengthening mechanisms e.g. stress-free transformation strain (SFTS). The formation of θ′ precipitates in the α-Al matrix is usually associated with transformation strain fields which can interact and potentially restricts dislocation movement, thereby increasing the alloy strength further.
Figures 3c–d indicates that the room temperature tensile properties for peak aged Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloy is inferior compared to the conventional peak-aged Al-Cu alloy. For example, the ultimate tensile strength(UTS) of Al-5Cu alloy is ∼490 MPa whereas it is ∼300 MPa for Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloy at room temperature [48]. In addition, the yield strength of the later alloy is nearly half compared to the base Al-Cu alloy. However, after prolonged thermal exposure at 300°C, the trend reverses; Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloy possess nearly twice the UTS and yield strength compared to the base Al-Cu alloy. Similarly, Al-5Cu-Mg alloy possess higher hardness than Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys at room temperature (Figure 7). With increase in pre-conditioning temperatures (heat treatment for 200 hours), non- Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys show drastic decrease in hardness around 200°C, while Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys can sustain the room temperature hardness without any significant degradation until 350°C.
Room temperature hardness for various conventional Al-Cu and Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys as a function of pre-conditioning temperatures [
Bahl. et al. [52] further showed that the hardness and yield strength of peak-aged Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloy drop marginally during post-aging thermal exposure but remained almost constant during prolonged thermal treatment up to 5000 hours. This accounts for a stable microstructure with almost constant precipitate volume fraction, thickness, diameter, aspect ratio, equivalent diameter, number density and inter-precipitate spacing for Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys on extended thermal exposure. The ductility of Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys are further influenced from Cu content although it does not vary the yield strength and UTS much. For example, increasing the Cu content from 6 wt% to 9 wt% causes the fracture strain to reduce by 50% primarily due to the increased amount of brittle intermetallics at α-Al matrix grain boundaries [80].
Important to note that no comprehensive study is yet to report the results pertaining to full-scale tensile testing, especially the strain hardening response as well as the fracture characteristics of Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys whether at room or elevated temperatures. The earliest available work of Shyam et al. [48] showed certain true stress–strain curves for Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloy from tensile tests carried out at room temperature and 300°C in comparison to regular Al-Cu alloy (Figure 3). The purpose of the tensile tests was however, to establish the superiority for the former alloy at elevated temperature. Important to note that the alloys (Al-Cu and Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys) were used in peak-aged condition for room temperature tensile tests and after pre-conditioning at 300°C for 200 hours for elevated temperature tests.
The true stress–strain curves from room temperature tensile tests suggest that peak-aged Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloy possesses marginally higher strain hardening rate compared to the conventional Al-5Cu-Mg alloy at least in the initial part of the plastic regime. The hardening rates although do not vary much at the later part (below UTS) representing almost similar slopes for both alloys. During 300°C tensile tests, both Al-Cu-Mn-Zr and Al-5Cu-Mg alloys exhibit substantial strain softening, however at significantly differing rates; the rate of softening is greater for Al-Cu-Mn Zr alloy compared to the conventional Al-Cu-Mg alloy. The ductility for the former alloy is also always higher than the later alloy irrespective of the test temperature. The strain hardening response for precipitate hardened systems at room temperature is generally attributed to the isotropic hardening of α-Al matrix plus kinematic hardening due to dislocation pile up at the precipitate locations from continued Orowan looping [81, 82, 83]. The strain softening at elevated temperature can possibly be attributed to dynamic recovery of piled-up dislocations which reduces dislocation density at precipitate cites and increases ductility by delaying the final fracture.
The excellent high temperature stability of Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys enhances their creep properties as well. Miligan et al. [84] conducted creep tests under different stress levels for various Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys with varying grain sizes at 300°C and compared their creep resistance with base Al-Cu alloy as well as Al-Sc alloy which is known for its excellent creep resistance. Figure 8 represents the steady state creep strain rate as a function of applied stress for these alloys. At low stress level, stress exponents for Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys are close to unity signifying for diffusional creep being the dominant mechanism. On the other hand, dislocation creep is the mechanism for conventional Al-Cu alloy as identified from a higher stress exponent. The dislocation movement though α-Al grain interiors is difficult at low stress levels for Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys due to the enhanced thermal stability of θ′ precipitates; rather grain boundary diffusion dominates at high temperature making diffusional Coble creep as the rate controlling mechanism. At higher stress levels however, the controlling mechanism switches to dislocation creep even for Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys since the grain boundary precipitates effectively slow down the movement of vacancies. This in turn restricts grain boundary diffusion as well as grain boundary sliding.
Creep curves showing the steady state creep strain rate as a function of applied stress for various Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys (RR350, Al-7Cu SG and Al-7Cu LG where SG and LG refers to small and large grains, respectively) plus base Al-Cu and Al-Sc alloys [
One of the prime motivations for the development of Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloy is to replace conventional cast Aluminum alloys (e.g. Al-Si-Cu based 319 alloy) for making light weight components in automotive engines [48, 85]. The Al-Cu-Ni based RR350 alloy with 0.2 wt% Mn and 0.17 wt% Zr, which can be considered as a variant of Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys, is also used as light weight and high temperature resistant alloys for high end automobile engine applications over the years [86]. Shower et al. [87] has compared the effect of microstructural stability on the high temperature deformation response of RR350 alloy vis-à-vis 319 alloy in as-cast condition by conducting isothermal hot compression tests at different temperature-true strain rate combinations. At all strain rates, compressive flow stress of 319 alloy is greater than that for RR350 alloy up to 200°C (Figure 9a). However, within 250–300°C, RR350 alloy possesses higher flow stress which can be attributed to the stability of strengthening θ′ precipitates. In this temperature range, 319 alloy losses its flow stress by 40%. At lower strain rates (e.g. 10−4 s−1 & 10−3 s−1), primary deformation mechanism for both alloys is strain hardening at room temperature, which changes to dynamic recovery and cross slip of dislocation at 250°C. Afterwards, dynamic recrystallization becomes predominant at 300°C while grain boundary sliding is the primary deformation mechanism at 350°C. In addition, RR350 alloy shows formation of shear bands as well as bending of θ′ precipitates within α-Al grains having <100> direction nearly parallel to the compression axis in the microstructure of specimens deformed at 300°C (Figure 9b).
(a) Comparison of flow stress variations with test temperatures for 319 and RR350 alloys at different strain rates, and (b) post-compression (at 300°C and 1 s−1 strain rate) SEM micrograph of RR350 alloy showing shear band formation and bending of θ′ precipitates within α-Al grains having <100> direction nearly parallel to the compression axis [
The excellent high temperature stability of Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys also make them a prime candidate for fracture critical engineering applications where fatigue properties are crucial consideration. Bahl et al. [88] studied the effect of Cu concentration on the high temperature (250°C) low cycle fatigue (LCF) properties of Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys that led to a correlation between LCF life and monotonic tensile fracture strain. At low strain amplitude (0.1%), Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys with either 6 wt% or 9 wt% of Cu do not undergo failure even after 105 number of cycles. However, at higher strain amplitudes (0.2% and 0.3%), the alloys fail within these many cycles of testing. This suggests that the fatigue life of Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys decreases with increasing strain amplitude.
For the peak-aged Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys with varying Cu content that underwent a further thermal exposure at 250°C for 100 hours, initiation of fatigue cracks almost always occur from the surface pores rather than from coarse grain boundary precipitates [80]. The fracture surfaces correspondingly do not contain much of the traces of intermetallic precipitates. Finite element modeling (FEM) also indicates that stress concentration at the pores are higher compared to that at the grain boundary precipitates. The low strain amplitude in the fatigue testing possibly led to the pore assisted crack initiation since otherwise the cracking from grain boundary precipitates would require higher stress concentration and their decohesion from the matrix which is only possible at larger strains [88].
Furthermore, since the variation in Cu content only affects the volume fraction of grain boundary intermetallic precipitates, it does not influence the cracking and in turn, low cycle fatigue behavior of Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys [80]. The thermal stability of θ′ precipitates also does not influence the fatigue property of these alloys since both crack initiation and propagation occur at a larger microstructural scale (from surface pores). It therefore appears that controlling the casting defects (predominantly shrinkage pores) is the most crucial factor to enhance the LCF life for Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys. Overall, these alloys exhibited moderate to excellent high temperature low cycle fatigue life making them suitable for components meant for elevated temperature applications.
Industrial application of Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys require certain additional considerations on and above their excellent thermal stability and associated improvement in most of the high temperature mechanical properties as mentioned above. These include, but certainly not restricted to the ease of casting and defect formation, assessment of mechanical properties e.g. fatigue testing at larger component scale, possibility to adopt alternate component fabrication methodologies like additive manufacturing, wrought processing etc. [89]. Some of these aspects are mentioned below:
Hot tearing is a crucial casting defect that can affect the structural stability and properties of as-cast components [90, 91]. During solidification, molten metal usually remains in semi-solid state (mushy zone) for considerable duration. It also undergoes severe volume contraction and associated thermal stresses within the semi-solid metal regions. Under this condition, cracks form in the solidified component if there is an inadequate supply of molten mass to fill up the shrinkage volume. Controlling such defects in castings is difficult but extremely important for improving the fatigue life per se [91].
Sabau et al. [92] studied the hot tearing resistance of cast Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys with and without grain refiners in comparison to base Al-Cu and Al-Si alloys. The base Al-Cu alloy with >7 wt% Cu exhibits a grain refined microstructure in the casting. It also shows a decrease in the length of columnar to equiaxed transition zone that in turn improves the hot tearing resistance. In addition, simultaneous presence of Si and Fe (>0.2 wt%) increases the hot tearing resistance for this alloy. The low Cu containing alloys, on the other hand, possess coarse columnar grains within the cast microstructures which facilitates hot tearing for them. For the Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys, when Cu is added above 7 wt%, significant grain refinement occurs which further contributes to their excellent hot tearing resistance. In addition, when 0.1 wt% Ti is added as additional grain refiner, resultant Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloy exhibits the finest microstructure and correspondingly, the best hot tearing resistance [89]. Ti added Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloy was therefore speculated suitable for industrial applications [92].
In the measurement of hot tearing resistance, Sabau et al. [92] used an in-house multi-arm casting setup with varying arm length in a permanent mold. In this six-armed mold, the shortest arms were free from any visible cracks for all the alloys having varying amount of Cu and Ti, while the longest arm had severe cracking for these alloys. As per the visible inspection, a cracking index (
The length of the arms, however, also plays a crucial role in the formation of these cracks. The longer arms are more susceptible to cracking compared to the shorter ones so that the weighted average was preferred for the calculation of HTI. The weighted average
where,
Alloy | Ti content (wt%) | |
---|---|---|
Al-Cu-Mn-Zr with 8 wt% Cu | 0.02 | 2.6 |
0.1 | 2.01 | |
0.2 | 2.36 | |
Al-Cu-Mn-Zr with 6.2 wt% Cu | 0.1 | 2.6 |
0.2 | 3.21 | |
Al-Cu-Mn-Zr with 7.3 wt% Cu | 0.1 | 2.49 |
0.2 | 2.84 |
Hot tearing index (HTI) of different Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys with varying Ti content.
In recent times, additive manufacturing (AM) is proven to be an extremely useful and alternate technique for shaping intricate parts in industrially relevant scales with excellent property combinations compared to cast counterparts [93]. For Al alloys however, additive manufacturing is a rather complicated and challenging process due to several factors like poor powder flowability, high thermal conductivity, laser reflectivity etc. [94]. In this regard, Shyam et al. [95] successfully fabricated AM parts from Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys by selective laser melting (SLM) without any hot tearing using optimized processing parameters. The substrate temperature for SLM was kept 200°C which was sufficient for in-situ formation of strengthening θ′ precipitates.
Due to laser melting, AM Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys form typical “peacock tail” microstructure having overlapping melt pools. In addition, the AM microstructure consists of long columnar grains at the top and fine equiaxed grains at the bottom of the melt pools. Such refined AM microstructure yields comparatively higher strength up to 300°C compared to the cast Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys. The bimodal grain size distribution and refined grain boundary intermetallic precipitates further enhance the tensile elongation for AM Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys. However, creep properties for these AM alloys are somewhat compromised compared to the cast counterparts due to high proportion of grain boundaries in the refined AM microstructure. Overall, AM Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys are envisioned having potential in complex component manufacturing for high temperature applications owing to the simultaneous positive effects of refined microstructure and in situ formation of thermally stable strengthening θ′ precipitates [95].
In the current global scenario, any new alloy development must help in reducing environmental impact e.g. carbon footprint and green house emissions [96]. The primary target area for Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys is automotive industry, which also formed the early motivation of their inception and further development [97]. The aim was to develop Al alloys for engine components that experience high working temperature (∼300°C) e.g. cylinder heads in combustion engines. The use of Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys for making such components can effectively raise the working temperature and increase the fuel efficiency of next generation passenger vehicles, thereby proving environment friendly in terms of fuel consumption.
The present book chapter elucidates a comprehensive review about the development as well as the science and technology behind the new-age Al-Cu-Mn-Zr (ACMZ) alloys. The major observations are summarized below.
The new age Al-Cu-Mn-Zr (ACMZ) alloy developed in recent times by micro-alloying conventional Al-Cu alloys with Mn and Zr shows unprecedented microstructural stability up to ∼350°C.
The strengthening θ′ precipitates in Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys are stabilized primarily due to preferential solute segregation (Mn & Zr) at the θ′ precipitate/α-Al matrix interfaces which helps in reducing their interfacial energy. Mn atoms segregate at the mobile semi-coherent interfaces while Zr atoms primarily sits at the corner of coherent/semi-coherent interfaces.
The difference in the diffusivity of micro-alloying elements decides the sequence of their segregation at θ′ precipitate/α-Al matrix interfaces. This in turn plays a synergistic role in stabilizing θ′ precipitate at different temperature ranges. Faster diffusing Mn initially segregates at both coherent and semi-coherent interfaces and provides thermal stability at lower temperatures. Zr being relatively slower diffusing element segregates at a later stage but effectively restricts
Various other mechanisms e.g. solute drag, diffusion barrier formation, ledge poisoning by co-precipitation of thermally stable intermetallics etc. also contributes to the coarsening resistance of
Trace elements like Ti and Si further influence θ′ precipitate stability in Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys. Si above a critical content (>0.1 wt%) potentially substitutes Mn and Zr at the θ′ precipitate/α-Al matrix interfaces, thereby decreasing the stability of
DFT simulations confirm the reduction of interfacial energy from segregation of micro-alloying elements and provide the segregation profiles at various (coherent and semi-coherent) interfaces. Phase field simulations further suggest that the cumulative effect of interfacial energy reduction and solute drag led to the θ′ precipitate stabilization at 300°C. At 400°C, reduction in the mobility of Cu atoms is required in addition to reduced interfacial energy for efficient resistance towards θ′ precipitate coarsening.
As a result of the excellent thermal stability of strengthening
At high temperature (300–350°C), compressive flow stress of Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloy (RR350) is higher than conventional Al-Si-Cu (319) alloy. The high temperature deformation mechanisms for the former alloy vary from strain hardening at room temperature to cross slip and dynamic recovery as the test temperature increases at 250°C. Further higher test temperature promotes dynamic recrystallization of the matrix at 300°C and finally lead to grain boundary sliding to 350°C.
The Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloy shows excellent creep resistance compared to the base Al-Cu alloys. For the former alloy, diffusional Coble creep is the controlling mechanism at low stress levels which switches to dislocation creep at higher stress levels.
In high temperature low cycle fatigue testing, Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloy does not fail up to 105 cycles at low stress amplitudes whereas the fatigue life decreases with increasing stress amplitude. The casting defects (pores) are found to be more influential factor by means of stress concentration and crack initiation than either the stability of
The Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloy exhibits superior hot tearing resistance compared to the conventional Al-Cu alloys. Additive manufacturing of Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloy also shows promising property combinations owing to a refined microstructure and in-situ formation of strengthening
Overall, Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys offer huge potential for industrial applications where lightweight materials are sought after for excellent high temperature mechanical properties. These new-age alloys can in fact prove to be a game changer for the existing passenger vehicle engines and may bring a paradigm shift in the automobile sectors. Owing to low density and excellent high temperature stability, their future use is certainly leading to a safer and greener environment.
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Volosencu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7656.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5883",title:"Modern Fuzzy Control Systems and Its Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9939991547baa89659302f11765df7a3",slug:"modern-fuzzy-control-systems-and-its-applications",bookSignature:"S. Ramakrishnan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5883.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"116136",title:"Dr.",name:"Srinivasan",middleName:null,surname:"Ramakrishnan",slug:"srinivasan-ramakrishnan",fullName:"Srinivasan Ramakrishnan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:2,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"55361",doi:"10.5772/68051",title:"Fuzzy Interpolation Systems and Applications",slug:"fuzzy-interpolation-systems-and-applications",totalDownloads:1931,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Fuzzy inference systems provide a simple yet effective solution to complex non-linear problems, which have been applied to numerous real-world applications with great success. However, conventional fuzzy inference systems may suffer from either too sparse, too complex or imbalanced rule bases, given that the data may be unevenly distributed in the problem space regardless of its volume. Fuzzy interpolation addresses this. It enables fuzzy inferences with sparse rule bases when the sparse rule base does not cover a given input, and it simplifies very dense rule bases by approximating certain rules with their neighbouring ones. This chapter systematically reviews different types of fuzzy interpolation approaches and their variations, in terms of both the interpolation mechanism (inference engine) and sparse rule base generation. Representative applications of fuzzy interpolation in the field of control are also revisited in this chapter, which not only validate fuzzy interpolation approaches but also demonstrate its efficacy and potential for wider applications.",book:{id:"5883",slug:"modern-fuzzy-control-systems-and-its-applications",title:"Modern Fuzzy Control Systems and Its Applications",fullTitle:"Modern Fuzzy Control Systems and Its Applications"},signatures:"Longzhi Yang, Zheming Zuo, Fei Chao and Yanpeng Qu",authors:[{id:"167084",title:"Dr.",name:"Fei",middleName:null,surname:"Chao",slug:"fei-chao",fullName:"Fei Chao"},{id:"198988",title:"Dr.",name:"Longzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"longzhi-yang",fullName:"Longzhi Yang"},{id:"200974",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanpeng",middleName:null,surname:"Qu",slug:"yanpeng-qu",fullName:"Yanpeng Qu"},{id:"200975",title:"Mr.",name:"Zheming",middleName:null,surname:"Zuo",slug:"zheming-zuo",fullName:"Zheming Zuo"}]},{id:"54790",doi:"10.5772/67989",title:"A Model for Evaluating Soil Vulnerability to Erosion Using Remote Sensing Data and A Fuzzy Logic System",slug:"a-model-for-evaluating-soil-vulnerability-to-erosion-using-remote-sensing-data-and-a-fuzzy-logic-sys",totalDownloads:1860,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Soil vulnerability is the capacity of one or more of the ecological functions of the soil system to be harmed. It is a complex concept which requires the identification of multiple environmental factors and land management at different temporal and space scales. The employment of geospatial information with good update capabilities could be a satisfactory tool to assess potential soil vulnerability changes in large areas. This chapter presents the application of two land degradation case studies which is simple, synoptic, and suitable for continuous monitoring model based on the fuzzy logic. The model combines topography and vegetation status information to assess soil vulnerability to land degradation. Topographic parameters were obtained from digital elevation models (DEM), and vegetation status information was derived from the computation of the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) satellite images. This spectral index provides relevance and is updated for each scene, evidences about the biomass and soil productivity, and vegetation density cover or vegetation stress (e.g., forest fires, droughts). Modeled output maps are suitable for temporal change analysis, which allows the identification of the effect of land management practices, soil and vegetation regeneration, or climate effects.",book:{id:"5883",slug:"modern-fuzzy-control-systems-and-its-applications",title:"Modern Fuzzy Control Systems and Its Applications",fullTitle:"Modern Fuzzy Control Systems and Its Applications"},signatures:"Ignacio Meléndez-Pastor, Jose Navarro Pedreño, Ignacio Gómez\nLucas and Antonis A. Zorpas",authors:[{id:"109913",title:"Dr.",name:"Ignacio",middleName:null,surname:"Melendez-Pastor",slug:"ignacio-melendez-pastor",fullName:"Ignacio Melendez-Pastor"},{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",slug:"jose-navarro-pedreno",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño"},{id:"137041",title:"Prof.",name:"Ignacio",middleName:null,surname:"Gómez Lucas",slug:"ignacio-gomez-lucas",fullName:"Ignacio Gómez Lucas"},{id:"205104",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonis A.",middleName:null,surname:"Zorpas",slug:"antonis-a.-zorpas",fullName:"Antonis A. Zorpas"}]},{id:"56033",doi:"10.5772/68126",title:"A Fuzzy Logic Approach for Separation Assurance and Collision Avoidance for Unmanned Aerial Systems",slug:"a-fuzzy-logic-approach-for-separation-assurance-and-collision-avoidance-for-unmanned-aerial-systems",totalDownloads:1413,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"In the coming years, operations in low altitude airspace will vastly increase as the capabilities and applications of small unmanned aerial systems (sUAS) continue to multiply. Therefore, finding solutions to managing sUAS in highly congested airspace will facilitate sUAS operations. In this study, a fuzzy logic-based approach was used to help mitigate the risk of collisions between aircraft using separation assurance and collision avoidance techniques. The system was evaluated for its effectiveness at mitigating the risk of mid-air collisions between aircraft. This system utilizes only current state information and can resolve potential conflicts without knowledge of intruder intent. The avoidance logic was verified using formal methods and shown to select the correct action in all instances. Additionally, the fuzzy logic controllers were shown to always turn the vehicles in the correct direction. Numerical testing demonstrated that the avoidance system was able to prevent a mid-air collision between two sUAS in all tested cases. Simulations were also performed in a three-dimensional environment with a heterogeneous fleet of sUAS performing a variety of realistic missions. Simulations showed that the system was 99.98% effective at preventing mid-air collisions when separation assurance was disabled (unmitigated case) and 100% effective when enabled (mitigated case).",book:{id:"5883",slug:"modern-fuzzy-control-systems-and-its-applications",title:"Modern Fuzzy Control Systems and Its Applications",fullTitle:"Modern Fuzzy Control Systems and Its Applications"},signatures:"Brandon Cook, Tim Arnett and Kelly Cohen",authors:[{id:"200830",title:"Mr.",name:"Brandon",middleName:"Matthew",surname:"Cook",slug:"brandon-cook",fullName:"Brandon Cook"},{id:"200833",title:"Mr.",name:"Timothy",middleName:null,surname:"Arnett",slug:"timothy-arnett",fullName:"Timothy Arnett"},{id:"200834",title:"Dr.",name:"Kelly",middleName:null,surname:"Cohen",slug:"kelly-cohen",fullName:"Kelly Cohen"}]},{id:"54614",doi:"10.5772/67899",title:"A Fuzzy Belief-Desire-Intention Model for Agent-Based Image Analysis",slug:"a-fuzzy-belief-desire-intention-model-for-agent-based-image-analysis",totalDownloads:1369,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Recent methods of image analysis in remote sensing lack a sufficient grade of robustness and transferability. Methods such as object-based image analysis (OBIA) achieve satisfying results on single images. However, the underlying rule sets for OBIA are usually too complex to be directly applied on a variety of image data without any adaptations or human interactions. Thus, recent research projects investigate the potential for integrating the agent-based paradigm with OBIA. Agent-based systems are highly adaptive and therefore robust, even under varying environmental conditions. In the context of image analysis, this means that even if the image data to be analyzed varies slightly (e.g., due to seasonal effects, different locations, atmospheric conditions, or even a slightly different sensor), agent-based methods allow to autonomously adapt existing analysis rules or segmentation results according to changing imaging situations. The basis for individual software agents’ behavior is a so-called believe-desire-intention (BDI) model. Basically, the BDI describes for each individual agent its goal(s), its assumed current situation, and some action rules potentially supporting each agent to achieve its goals. The chapter introduces a believe-desire-intention (BDI) model based on fuzzy rules in the context of agent-based image analysis, which extends the classic OBIA paradigm by the agent-based paradigm.",book:{id:"5883",slug:"modern-fuzzy-control-systems-and-its-applications",title:"Modern Fuzzy Control Systems and Its Applications",fullTitle:"Modern Fuzzy Control Systems and Its Applications"},signatures:"Peter Hofmann",authors:[{id:"199778",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Hofmann",slug:"peter-hofmann",fullName:"Peter Hofmann"}]},{id:"54682",doi:"10.5772/68050",title:"Use of Fuzzy Logic for Design and Control of Nonlinear MIMO Systems",slug:"use-of-fuzzy-logic-for-design-and-control-of-nonlinear-mimo-systems",totalDownloads:1598,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Standard analytical methods are often ineffective or even useless for design of nonlinear control systems with imprecisely known parameters. The use of fuzzy logic principles presents one possible way to control such systems which can be used both for modeling and design of the control. The advantage of using this method consists in its simplicity and easy way of developing the algorithm, which in the phase of designing the controllers and also for modeling the features of the designed structures, allows the use of computer technology. Simplicity of the proposed structure (usually with the PI controllers) and determination of their parameters without any need for complex mathematical description present another considerable advantage of the used method. This chapter presents two typical examples of designing the control of nonlinear multi‐input multi‐output (MIMO) systems from the field of mechatronic systems based on fuzzy logic principles.",book:{id:"5883",slug:"modern-fuzzy-control-systems-and-its-applications",title:"Modern Fuzzy Control Systems and Its Applications",fullTitle:"Modern Fuzzy Control Systems and Its Applications"},signatures:"Pavol Fedor and Daniela Perduková",authors:[{id:"199777",title:"Prof.",name:"Daniela",middleName:null,surname:"Perdukova",slug:"daniela-perdukova",fullName:"Daniela Perdukova"},{id:"205024",title:"Prof.",name:"Pavol",middleName:null,surname:"Fedor",slug:"pavol-fedor",fullName:"Pavol Fedor"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"54537",title:"Fuzzy Logic Application, Control and Monitoring of Critical Machine Parameters in a Processing Company",slug:"fuzzy-logic-application-control-and-monitoring-of-critical-machine-parameters-in-a-processing-compan",totalDownloads:1873,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The processing company under study found out that the boiler was the key machine and needs artificial intelligence monitoring and control. It was simulated under Matlab software and oil level, and pressure and temperature were to be modelled and controlled using the programmable logic controller (PLC) with a fuzzy logic controller as the main brain of control. The company is for processing of fruits to produce juice.",book:{id:"5883",slug:"modern-fuzzy-control-systems-and-its-applications",title:"Modern Fuzzy Control Systems and Its Applications",fullTitle:"Modern Fuzzy Control Systems and Its Applications"},signatures:"Tawanda Mushiri",authors:[{id:"198749",title:"Dr.",name:"Tawanda",middleName:null,surname:"Mushiri",slug:"tawanda-mushiri",fullName:"Tawanda Mushiri"}]},{id:"65167",title:"Functional Safety of FPGA Fuzzy Logic Controller",slug:"functional-safety-of-fpga-fuzzy-logic-controller",totalDownloads:813,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"In this paper we describe a methodology to implement a fuzzy logic controller in FPGA. The implementation of fuzzy logic controller (FLC) in FPGA requires a qualitative and a quantitative analysis to define the system safety integrity level (SIL). This level can be defined by the quantification of the probability of failure on demand (PFDavg). We propose to analyze the implementation advance safety architecture of fuzzy logic controllers with 1-out-of-2 controllers (1oo2) in FPGA using the reliability block diagram (RBD) and the Markov model. We demonstrate how from hardware characteristics parameters, such as rate of dangerous detected failure and undetected failure, the diagnostic coverage, proof test interval and other parameters to evaluate the PFDavg.",book:{id:"7656",slug:"fuzzy-logic",title:"Fuzzy Logic",fullTitle:"Fuzzy Logic"},signatures:"Mohammed Bsiss and Amami Benaissa",authors:[{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss"},{id:"286059",title:"Prof.",name:"Benaissa",middleName:null,surname:"Amami",slug:"benaissa-amami",fullName:"Benaissa Amami"}]},{id:"67797",title:"The Fuzzy Logic Methodology for Evaluating the Causality of Factors in Organization Management",slug:"the-fuzzy-logic-methodology-for-evaluating-the-causality-of-factors-in-organization-management",totalDownloads:789,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The paper is concerned with solving the problem of factor causality using the tools of the fuzzy set theory. The paper formulates the problem of causal relations in a broad sense and analyzes the methods for its solution with an emphasis on the socioeconomic aspects. For this purpose, the system approach, comparative experiment, economic and mathematical modeling, and other general scientific methods are used. The authors suggest that the causality of factors be studied based on the theory of fuzzy binary relations using the mathematical tools of Goguen’s fuzzy implication. As an example, the paper describes the effect of organizational culture indicators under the Denison’s model on the key performance indicators of an organization.",book:{id:"7656",slug:"fuzzy-logic",title:"Fuzzy Logic",fullTitle:"Fuzzy Logic"},signatures:"Nazarov Dmitry Mikhailovich",authors:[{id:"278819",title:"Dr.",name:"Dmitrii",middleName:null,surname:"Nazarov",slug:"dmitrii-nazarov",fullName:"Dmitrii Nazarov"}]},{id:"55096",title:"EMG-Controlled Prosthetic Hand with Fuzzy Logic Classification Algorithm",slug:"emg-controlled-prosthetic-hand-with-fuzzy-logic-classification-algorithm",totalDownloads:1886,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"In recent years, researchers have conducted many studies on the design and control of prosthesis devices that take the place of a missing limb. Functional ability of prosthesis hands that mimic biological hand functions increases depending on the number of independent finger movements possible. From this perspective, in this study, six different finger movements were given to a prosthesis hand via bioelectrical signals, and the functionality of the prosthesis hand was increased. Bioelectrical signals were recorded by surface electromyography for four muscles with the help of surface electrodes. The recorded bioelectrical signals were subjected to a series of preprocessing and feature extraction processes. In order to create meaningful patterns of motion and an effective cognitive interaction network between the human and the prosthetic hand, fuzzy logic classification algorithms were developed. A five-fingered and 15-jointed prosthetic hand was designed via SolidWorks, and a prosthetic prototype was produced by a 3D printer. In addition, prosthetic hand simulator was designed in Matlab/SimMechanics. Pattern control of both the simulator and the prototype hand in real time was achieved. Position control of motors connected to each joint of the prosthetic hand was provided by a PID controller. 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The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. Osma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDv7QAG/Profile_Picture_1626602531691",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad de Los Andes",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Colombia"}}},{id:"69697",title:"Dr.",name:"Mani T.",middleName:null,surname:"Valarmathi",fullName:"Mani T. Valarmathi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/69697/images/system/69697.jpg",institutionString:"Religen Inc. | A Life Science Company, United States of America",institution:null},{id:"205081",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:"Vinícius",surname:"Chaud",fullName:"Marco Chaud",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDGeQAO/Profile_Picture_1622624307737",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Sorocaba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/14093",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"14093"},fullPath:"/chapters/14093",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()