\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5876",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Glacier Evolution in a Changing World",title:"Glacier Evolution in a Changing World",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'Glaciers have always played an important role in human history, and currently, they are carefully observed as climate change sentinels. Glacier melt rate is increasing, and its mass balance is continuously negative. This issue deserves accurate and in-depth studies in order to, adequately, monitor its state. This circumstance in fact endangers the water supply, affecting human settlements but also creating new environments allowing the colonization by pioneer communities and the formation of new landscapes. This book is subdivided into two main sections in order to deal with the two topics of worldwide research on glaciers and ecology in glacial environments. In the first one "Glaciers in the World," several reviews and studies are collected. It is an overview of glaciers, their state, and research carried out in different continents and contexts. The second section "Glacial Ecosystems" focuses, on the other hand, on glacier environments and ecological researches.',isbn:"978-953-51-3544-9",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3543-2",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4637-7",doi:"10.5772/65820",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"glacier-evolution-in-a-changing-world",numberOfPages:186,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"807ab415fef80eae5053189b154da8aa",bookSignature:"Danilo Godone",publishedDate:"October 4th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5876.jpg",numberOfDownloads:9898,numberOfWosCitations:16,numberOfCrossrefCitations:16,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:29,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:61,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"December 7th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 21st 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 20th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 20th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 20th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"313983",title:"Dr.",name:"Danilo",middleName:null,surname:"Godone",slug:"danilo-godone",fullName:"Danilo Godone",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53849/images/system/53849.jpg",biography:"Dr. Danilo Godone holds a Ph.D. in 'Agriculture, Forest and Food Sciences”, with his doctorate’s topic being the cryosphere’s phenomena monitoring by innovative geomatic methodologies. Currently he is a Research Scientist in the Geohazard Monitoring Group (CNR IRPI), studying geomatic contribution in natural hazard monitoring and analysis. His main research interests are landslides, glaciers and, more generally, natural disasters. During his activities, he has developed skills in GIS, R programming, and land surveying with UAVs, GNSS, and LiDAR. He was also involved in several scientific expeditions in the Alps, Nepal, Chilean Andes, and Patagonia. He is a member of NATRISK - Research Centre on Natural Risks in Mountain and Hilly Environments, in Turin University.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:null,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"National Research Council",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"632",title:"Paleoclimatology",slug:"paleoclimatology"}],chapters:[{id:"56291",title:"Glaciers as an Important Element of the World Glacier Monitoring Implemented in Svalbard",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69237",slug:"glaciers-as-an-important-element-of-the-world-glacier-monitoring-implemented-in-svalbard",totalDownloads:1430,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Glaciers are not only contributors to the sea level rise but also important players in the circulation of pollutants. Over a billion people apply glacial waters for domestic purposes; hence, both the quality and quantity of this water should be monitored. In this chapter, we concentrate on the archipelago Svalbard in the Arctic, a typical target area for xenobiotics from long range atmospheric transport (LRAT), holding an important share of the Arctic glacial ice cover. Literature review has been conducted over both the cryospheric metrics and the achievements of analytical chemistry in the environmental monitoring. Svalbard is a relatively well‐monitored part of the Arctic, with 17 glaciers regularly monitored for mass balance. In the chemical records of glaciers, a variety of substances have been determined, e.g., ions, heavy metals, or persistent organic pollutants (POPs), with the use of precise analytical techniques. However, knowledge gaps persist, preventing a formation of a reliable chemical inventory of Svalbard glaciers. Moreover, detailed studies on the deposition and transport of pollutants, rather than focusing on their presence only, are crucial future research recommendations.",signatures:"Sara Lehmann‐Konera, Marek Ruman, Krystyna Kozioł, Grzegorz\nGajek and Żaneta Polkowska",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56291",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56291",authors:[{id:"187026",title:"Dr.",name:"Marek",surname:"Ruman",slug:"marek-ruman",fullName:"Marek Ruman"},{id:"194473",title:"Prof.",name:"Żaneta",surname:"Polkowska",slug:"zaneta-polkowska",fullName:"Żaneta Polkowska"},{id:"204396",title:"MSc.",name:"Sara",surname:"Lehmann-Koneraa",slug:"sara-lehmann-koneraa",fullName:"Sara Lehmann-Koneraa"},{id:"204397",title:"Dr.",name:"Grzegorz",surname:"Gajek",slug:"grzegorz-gajek",fullName:"Grzegorz Gajek"},{id:"209139",title:"Dr.",name:"Krystyna",surname:"Kozioła",slug:"krystyna-koziola",fullName:"Krystyna Kozioła"}],corrections:null},{id:"56692",title:"A Review on the Little Ice Age and Factors to Glacier Changes in the Tian Shan, Central Asia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70044",slug:"a-review-on-the-little-ice-age-and-factors-to-glacier-changes-in-the-tian-shan-central-asia",totalDownloads:1403,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Mountain glaciers are a reliable and unequivocal indicator of climate change due to their sensitive response to changes in temperature and precipitation. The importance of mountain glaciers is best reflected in regions with limited precipitation, such as arid and semi-arid central Asia. High concentration of glaciers and meltwater from the Tian Shan contribute considerably to the freshwater resource in Xinjiang (China), Kyrgyzstan and nearby countries. Documenting glacier distribution and research on glacier changes can provide insights and scientific support for water management in central Asia. As the most recent glacial event, the Little Ice Age (LIA, approximately AD 1300–1850) signifies the cold periods prior to the warming trend in the twentieth century. Here we present an overview of topics recently studied on the modern and LIA glaciers in the Tian Shan of the central Asia. With data sets of the Glacier Inventory of China and the presumed LIA glacial extents, we applied statistical models in a case study of the eastern Tian Shan to examine the impact of local topographic and geometric factors on glacier area changes. The findings of glacier size and elevation as key local factors are representative and consistent with other studies.",signatures:"Yanan Li, Xiaoyu Lu and Yingkui Li",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56692",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56692",authors:[{id:"200852",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanan",surname:"Li",slug:"yanan-li",fullName:"Yanan Li"},{id:"209280",title:"Dr.",name:"Yingkui",surname:"Li",slug:"yingkui-li",fullName:"Yingkui Li"},{id:"209281",title:"MSc.",name:"Xiaoyu",surname:"Lu",slug:"xiaoyu-lu",fullName:"Xiaoyu Lu"}],corrections:null},{id:"56963",title:"The Amazon Glaciers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70490",slug:"the-amazon-glaciers",totalDownloads:1221,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, we will examine the relationship between the Andean tropical glaciers and the Amazon rainforest, presenting a comprehensive overview on those ice masses that are the headwaters of the Amazon River and examining changes in environmental processes that may affect their mass balance and how they may feedback into the Amazon lowlands environmental processes. The first part of this chapter describes the present glaciological knowledge on these Andean ice masses that flow towards the Amazon drainage basin, about 1666 km2 (of which 68% are in Peru, 24% in Bolivia and the remaining 8% in Ecuador). The mass balance of these glaciers is strongly dependent on the Amazon hydrological cycle, as water coming from the Atlantic Ocean and recycled though the rainforest is the main source of their precipitation. A second part of the chapter explores how two environmental systems are interconnected and interacted. The third part of chapter examines the present (last 50 years) human-made changes in the Amazon basin and how they may affect the Andean ice masses. These glaciers also hold the best proxy for the Amazon Holocene changes, the record left in the snow and ice chemistry. So, as a complement to this chapter, we review the information on the paleoenvironmental changes found in ice cores in Bolivia and Peru and what they may point about the future of the Andean tropical glaciers.",signatures:"Rafael da Rocha Ribeiro, Jefferson Cardia Simões and Edson\nRamirez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56963",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56963",authors:[{id:"200720",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafael",surname:"Ribeiro",slug:"rafael-ribeiro",fullName:"Rafael Ribeiro"},{id:"200786",title:"Prof.",name:"Edson",surname:"Ramirez",slug:"edson-ramirez",fullName:"Edson Ramirez"},{id:"200787",title:"Prof.",name:"Jefferson",surname:"Cardia Simões",slug:"jefferson-cardia-simoes",fullName:"Jefferson Cardia Simões"}],corrections:null},{id:"55514",title:"The Unknown Southernmost Glaciers of Europe",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68899",slug:"the-unknown-southernmost-glaciers-of-europe",totalDownloads:1762,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This chapter presents the perennial firn/ice patches in the mountains of the Balkan Peninsula. The detailed study of these features in the last decades has proved that many of them are, in fact, small glaciers. They have survived without complete melting since the end of the Little Ice Age, and thus the time of their formation must have not later than in 14–15th century AD. At present, the existence of 16 small glaciers is suggested (and proved for some of them) in three mountains throughout the peninsula: Prokletije (mainly in Albania), Durmitor (in Montenegro) and Pirin (in Bulgaria), the biggest number being found in Prokletije. The two small glaciers (glacierets) in Pirin mountain are at present the southernmost glacial masses in Europe (the only located south of 42°N). Despite the registered warming of high mountain climate, small glaciers on the Balkan Peninsula have shown no trends towards shrinkage for the last 23 years.",signatures:"Emil Gachev",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55514",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55514",authors:[{id:"204052",title:"Dr.",name:"Emil",surname:"Gachev",slug:"emil-gachev",fullName:"Emil Gachev"}],corrections:null},{id:"56134",title:"The Role of Microbial Ecology in Glacier Retreat",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69097",slug:"the-role-of-microbial-ecology-in-glacier-retreat",totalDownloads:1622,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Glaciers have been considered too hostile to harbor life for a long time. However, they are now recognized as unique biomes dominated by microbial communities which maintain active biochemical routes. Microbial communities inhabiting glaciers are diverse depending on the type of glacier and the area studied. Some glaciers have a marine margin and finish in a calving front, with partly or completely temperate tidewater tongues, this establishes important differences with respect to glaciers with a land margin. Depending on the glacier area studied, microorganisms are also characteristic as they establish a vertical food chain, from the surface photosynthesizers in upper illuminated layers to heterotrophs confined in the inner part. Glaciers are retreating in many areas of the world due to global warming. Microorganisms are their most abundant and unknown occupants. They play a main role, carrying out key processes in the development of soil and facilitating plant colonization when glaciers have ultimately retired. These microorganisms are perfectly adapted to their harsh environment and are very susceptible to environmental changes. This chapter summarizes the role of microbial ecology as indicator of the conservation status of glaciers.",signatures:"Eva Garcia-Lopez and Cristina Cid",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56134",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56134",authors:[{id:"113044",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristina",surname:"Cid",slug:"cristina-cid",fullName:"Cristina Cid"},{id:"207752",title:"Dr.",name:"Eva",surname:"Garcia-Lopez",slug:"eva-garcia-lopez",fullName:"Eva Garcia-Lopez"}],corrections:null},{id:"55846",title:"Glacier Forelands – Unique Field Laboratories for the Study of Primary Succession of Plants",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69479",slug:"glacier-forelands-unique-field-laboratories-for-the-study-of-primary-succession-of-plants",totalDownloads:1397,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"While receding glaciers in several respects are related to negative consequences for resident people down river (e.g., water security, glacial lake outburst floods, etc.), from an ecological point of view, they are unique field laboratories to study vegetation development and dynamics from the very beginning. As the bare ground exposed by the receding glaciers generally does not provide a seed bank, the colonization of formerly ice-covered ground represents a true primary succession. There are two different approaches to study vegetation dynamics in glacier forelands: permanent plots and chronosequences (“space for time substitution”). As both procedures have their respective pros and cons, they should not be regarded to be mutually exclusive; rather, they should complement each other for a comprehensive understanding of the vegetation dynamics in glacier forelands. This chapter gives a general overview on patterns and processes of vegetation development in glacier forelands based on vegetation sampling in two glacier forelands of the Eastern Alps employing both abovementioned approaches. Sampling records groundcover of all vascular plants, structural features such as life form composition and dispersal biology types of the species as well as site characteristics. The two different approaches give evidence for both the early vegetation dynamics after deglaciation by the permanent plot studies and for potential future developments by the chronosequences.",signatures:"Thomas Fickert",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55846",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55846",authors:[{id:"204356",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",surname:"Fickert",slug:"thomas-fickert",fullName:"Thomas Fickert"}],corrections:null},{id:"55038",title:"Animal Successional Pathways for about 200 Years Near a Melting Glacier: A Norwegian Case Study",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68192",slug:"animal-successional-pathways-for-about-200-years-near-a-melting-glacier-a-norwegian-case-study",totalDownloads:1063,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Here, we explore 200 years of arthropod succession by using dated moraines in a Norwegian glacier foreland. Surface active beetles (Coleoptera) and spiders (Aranea) were sampled by pitfall trapping, and springtails (Collembola) and mites (Acari) were extracted from soil samples. Newly deglaciated ground was rapidly colonised by a mixture of generalists and specialists, with various life strategies. Interestingly, the pioneer community was fed by three ‘invisible’ food sources: biofilm with terrestrial diatom algae, tiny pioneer mosses and chironomid midges whose larvae were pond-living and used ancient carbon that was released by the melting glacier as an energy source. The true ‘super-pioneers’ were biofilm-eating springtails, which tracked the melting ice edge closely. Most species of beetles and springtails colonised within 80 years, while spiders and oribatid mites needed a longer time span to colonise. Topography influenced the succession pattern. Among both surface-living macroarthropods and soil-living microarthropods, we distinguished between a ‘dry’ and a ‘wet’ successional pathway with different community structure. Most arthropod species persisted after colonisation, but certain species preferring open space or low temperature were gradually excluded. Comparisons are made with botanical succession. Sampling methods, material size, and taxonomic resolution were considered critical factors when studying arthropod succession.",signatures:"Sigmund Hågvar, Mikael Ohlson and Daniel Flø",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55038",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55038",authors:[{id:"198836",title:"Prof.",name:"Sigmund",surname:"Hågvar",slug:"sigmund-hagvar",fullName:"Sigmund Hågvar"},{id:"204828",title:"Prof.",name:"Mikael",surname:"Ohlson",slug:"mikael-ohlson",fullName:"Mikael Ohlson"},{id:"204830",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Flø",slug:"daniel-flo",fullName:"Daniel Flø"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"410",title:"Soil Erosion Issues in Agriculture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ab3ad713d24941e8ce0649ae94643ec3",slug:"soil-erosion-issues-in-agriculture",bookSignature:"Danilo Godone and Silvia Stanchi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/410.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"313983",title:"Dr.",name:"Danilo",surname:"Godone",slug:"danilo-godone",fullName:"Danilo Godone"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1354",title:"Soil Erosion",subtitle:"Studies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54b680a6a971eb10ae500071207ab86d",slug:"soil-erosion-studies",bookSignature:"Danilo Godone and Silvia Stanchi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1354.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"313983",title:"Dr.",name:"Danilo",surname:"Godone",slug:"danilo-godone",fullName:"Danilo Godone"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3101",title:"Research on Soil Erosion",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"51090e50c44c29c86ddab2f001203205",slug:"research-on-soil-erosion",bookSignature:"Danilo Godone, Silvia Stanchi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3101.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"313983",title:"Dr.",name:"Danilo",surname:"Godone",slug:"danilo-godone",fullName:"Danilo Godone"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"621",title:"Earth Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e28800f7c4356bf473051aacc0213f41",slug:"earth-sciences",bookSignature:"Imran Ahmad Dar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/621.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64247",title:"Dr.",name:"Imran Ahmad",surname:"Dar",slug:"imran-ahmad-dar",fullName:"Imran Ahmad Dar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and 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Aflatoxins were reported to be potent liver carcinogens for laboratory animals since the 1960s [1]. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has identified aflatoxins as one of the most harmful human carcinogens [2]. There are four main kinds of aflatoxins, B1, B2, G1, and G2, which are classified based on UV-induced fluorescence color and chromatography retention time [3].
\nAmong these aflatoxins, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), which is synthesized by
Some studies reported that the detection of urinary AFB1-N7-guanine adduct, a good biomarker for AFB1 exposures and dietary AFB1 intake, has a significant association with HCC [13, 14]. The AFB1-DNA adduct is formed by the reactive intermediate of AFB1, AFB1-8,9-epoxide (AFB1-E), and binds to the DNA of hepatocytes. On the one hand, AFB1 is supposed to cause tumorigenesis by promoting the formation of DNA adducts, resulting in aberrant gene expression and genetic mutations, such as tumor suppressor gene p53, in targeted liver cells [15]. On the other hand, AFB1-developed HCC rat model presents various epigenetic (DNA methylation, histone modification, and noncoding RNA) alterations in hepatocytes [16, 17]. Therefore, this chapter focuses on the potential mechanisms of AFB1-induced development of HCC, including DNA damage checkpoint response and epigenetic alteration.
\nAFB1 is mainly absorbed in the small intestine after ingestion and transported from blood to the liver [18]. It passes through hepatocytes by nonionic diffusion, which is not dependent on metabolic energy status [19]. Although AFB1 cannot directly bind to DNA, it is metabolized into reactive epoxide named AFB1-E by cytochrome P450 (CYP450) in the liver [7]. AFB1-E can rapidly conjugate with N7 of guanine residues, resulting in the formation of highly mutagenic AFB1-E-deoxyguanosine or AFB1-formamidopyrimidine (AFB1-FaPy-dG) adducts [20]. In fact, AFB1-E can spontaneously and irreversibly conjugate with guanine residues to form 8,9-dihydro-8-(N7-guanyl)-9-hydroxyaflatoxin B1 (AFB1-E-N7-dG) adducts, leading to the occurrence of DNA damage and mutations [21, 22]. AFB1-E-N7-dG adduct may undergo imidazole ring opening or depurination spontaneously to yield AFB1-FaPy-dG, which has been found in many hepatocellular carcinoma cases [23]. Although both AFB1-FaPy and AFB1-E-N7-dG adducts have similar structures, they bind DNA in a different manner, which results in the differences in the lethality, mutagenicity, and repair capacity of these metabolites. In fact, enzymes involved in DNA repair pathways have higher affinity with AFB1-E-N7-dG than AFB1-FaPy analog. AFB1-FaPy-dG adduct block the replication more effectively than AFB1-E-N7-dG adduct, e.g., AFB1-FaPy-dG adducts induce at least six times more G-to-T transversion than AFB1-E-N7-dG [20]. Therefore, AFB1-FaPy-dG is recognized as the major adduct and the most lethal aflatoxin-induced replication block in vivo.
\nAFB1 is bioactivated by the predominant enzyme cytochrome P450 in human liver microsomes. Specifically, CYP1A2 is the major enzyme for AFB1-E-dG formation and DNA damage at the low dietary intake of AFB1, while CYP3A4 is the major enzyme at higher doses of exposure [24, 25]. In general, CYP1A2 contributes to 95% of AFB1-DNA adduct formation [26]. AFB1 exposure significantly affected the expression of almost 200 genes and exhibited a fivefold decrease in histone transcripts, which is revealed by microarray studies [27].
\nIn addition, the formation of urinary AFB1-E-N7-guanine excretion and levels of AFB1-serum albumin adducts are highly associated to AFB1 intake [28]. Accordingly, AFB1-E-N7-dG adduct is closely related with the incidence of liver tumors [29, 30]. Then, AFB1-E-N7-dG adduct is rapidly removed from DNA and excreted solely in urine [30]. Actually, people who excreted AFB1-E-N7-dG adduct has 9.1 times more risk of developing HCC than the ones with no adducts [31]. These findings indicate that AFB1-DNA adducts have strong effects on HCC development [26, 27].
\nBesides the generation of AFB1-DNA adducts, AFB1-induced DNA damage is also caused by the production of excessive ROS, leading to the oxidation of DNA bases [32]. On the one hand, AFB1 increases ROS generation, superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), catalase (CAT), and glutathione reductase (GR); on the other hand, AFB1 decreases glutathione (GSH) while increasing nitric oxide, fragmented DNA-conjugated dienes, caspase-3, superoxide anion radicals, lipid hydroperoxides, and malondialdehyde (MDA) [11, 33]. It suggests that AFB1-induced hepatocarcinogenesis is partially due to the increase of oxidative stress biomarkers and DNA damage [34].
\nIn addition, the lipid peroxidation contributes to the progression of hepatocarcinogenesis by enhancing the susceptibility to mutation and provokes aldehyde-DNA adducts at p53 mutational hotspot codon 249 [35]. To prevent the further formation of ROS/RNS, p53 modulates the transcription of antioxidant genes; however, the extensive DNA damage promotes apoptosis by activating the prooxidant genes. The elevated oxidative stress is well correlated with the induction of AFB1-induced apoptosis of splenic lymphocytes [36]. Therefore, TP53 mutation is considered as a reliable biomarker for evaluating the extent of AFB1 exposure [37]. Vital antioxidant enzymes alleviate oxidative damage through removing free radicals, e.g., selenium, as a cofactor, and promote cell survival by activating the antioxidant system in response to AFB1-induced mitochondrial damage [38]. The dietary intake of AFB1 is associated with the amount of pathological lesions and apoptosis rate of hepatocytes [39]. Therefore, AFB1 causes instability between antioxidant system activity and ROS production, resulting in excessive reactive species that lead to the apoptosis of hepatocytes [11]. It has been reported that AFB1-treatment increases 8-hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), which was enormously found in tissues exposed to AFB1 [32]. The 8-OHdG adduct, which is generated from the binding between the hydroxyl radicals and guanine residues of DNA, is considered as a valuable biomarker for the measurement of oxidative DNA damage [40].
\nIn polluted food and water, especially in the regions that are warm and have high humidity, AFB1 coexists with microcystin-LR (MC-LR), a hepatotoxic toxin produced by
DNA damage checkpoint response is critical for the genomic integrity and the survival of the organism in response to AFB1-induced genotoxicity, especially in the DNA that is actively replicating [42]. Mechanically, AFB1 activates critical proteins in response to DNA damage, such as ataxia telangiectasia and Rad3-related (ATR), ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM), Chk2 (serine/threonine protein kinase Chk2 or checkpoint kinase 2), DNA repair enzymes, and p53 [43]. In this context, AFB1-induced DNA double-strand breaks trigger the activation of ATM, which is one of the earliest activated kinases in response to double-strand breaks [44, 45]. Notably, the ATR/Chk1 pathway is not activated in response to AFB1-induced DNA double-strand breaks [26].
\nCell cycle-dependent regulation plays an important role in the modulation of DNA repair, such as checkpoint activation, which slows down the cell cycle progression to facilitate DNA repair [46]. In this way, temporary DNA lesions are restrained to become inheritable mutations [47]. AFB1 induces the mutation of ATM kinase, which results in the defectiveness of cell cycle checkpoints [48]. On the one hand, the damaged cells with activated checkpoints can be eliminated by apoptosis if the DNA lesions are severe; on the other hand, damaged cell can continue the cell cycle progression upon checkpoint termination if the DNA lesions have been repaired [49]. Actually, AFB1 decreased the rate of DNA double-strand break repair and apoptosis, resulting in elevated risk of cancer [50].
\nSince ATM plays a critical role in the activation of cell cycle checkpoints [51], the damaged DNA activates ATM kinase to trigger the DNA repair signaling pathways. One of the substrates of ATM kinase is the structural maintenance of chromosome 1 (SMC1) protein, which plays key roles in regulating DNA replication forks and DNA repair in response to the damage [52, 53]. The ATM signaling inhibits the cell cycle progression from G1 to S (the G1/S checkpoint) or G2 to mitosis (the G2/M checkpoint) by activating p53 and inhibiting cyclin-dependent kinases [45, 54]. Ultimately, ATM is involved in the regulation of G2/M checkpoint, which has a crucial role in the maintenance of genomic integrity [50, 55]. In addition, ATM activates Chk2 by promoting its phosphorylation in response to DNA damage [56]. Subsequently, phosphorylated Chk2 (pChk2) induces G2/M cell cycle checkpoint by activating p53 signal pathway [57, 58]. Indeed, AFB1 activates ATM-Chk2-p53 axis, leading to G2/M phase arrest via cdc25-cyclin B/cdc2 route [59]. In this signaling pathway, Mdm2 is an E3 ubiquitin ligase that facilitates the ubiquitination of p53 and proteasome-mediated degradation [60, 61]. Thus, ATM-Chk2-p53 axis plays a critical role in AFB1-induced DNA damage response.
\nMore than 50% of HCC patients are from the regions where the daily food is contaminated by excess amount of AFB1 [62]. In these cases, the AFB1 exposure is associated partly with the genetic mutations [20]. For example, high frequent mutation of p53 gene at codon 249 with G-to-T transversion has been found in HCC patients who are exposed to excess dietary aflatoxin [30].
\nAFB1 preferentially induces G-to-T transversion in exon 7 of p53 tumor suppressor gene, so as to the frequency of G-to-T transversion of p53 significantly associated with AFB1-DNA adducts [63]. Thus, HCC patients who have AFB1-DNA adducts also have AGG-to-AGT mutation at codon 249 of p53 gene [64]. In addition, AFB1 also promotes G-to-T transversion of ras genes, which can enhance the malignant transformation of normal cells. AFB1-FaPy-dG adduct that is a highly persistent DNA lesion in the liver is associated with the lethality and mutagenicity potential [65]. Indeed, the metabolically activated AFB1-E and its cationic metabolite, AFB1-E-N7-dG, are highly related with the genotoxicity of AFB1 [66]. Additionally, there are at least 80% of HCC patients who have chronic infection with hepatitis B virus (HBV) or hepatitis C virus (HCV) [67]. Although AFB1 exposure slows down the replication of HBV, AFB1-mediated DNA damage and p53 induction are not associated with virus infection [68].
\nEpigenetic alterations are heritable phenotype changes that do not include alteration of the DNA sequences [17]. AFB1 exposure induces various kinds of epigenetic alterations, such as DNA methylation and histone modifications, leading to the development of HCC.
\nDNA methylation is an enzymatic process that a methyl group is conjugated into the CpG site of DNA, where a cytosine (C) is found next to a guanine (G) separated by a single phosphate (p) [69]. AFB1-induced change of DNA methylation is considered as one of the major mechanisms that are associated with AFB1-induced hepatocarcinogenesis [70]. The global hypomethylation of DNA has been identified as one of the most common biomarkers in human cancer [71]. It can lead to the silencing of critical tumor suppressor genes, such as p53 [72]. AFB1 exposure interferes DNA methylation patterns, resulting in an interruption of the methylation machinery associated with HCC development.
\nA nucleosome is composed of a segment of DNA, which is wrapped around an octamer of histone protein cores composed of two copies of each of the protein histones H2A, H2B, H3, and H4 [73, 74]. Thousands of nucleosome units highly compact into a structure called chromatin [17, 75]. Several translational modifications occur at the N-terminal domains of the histones, e.g., acetylation, methylation, phosphorylation, and ubiquitination, which regulate important cellular processes, including DNA repair, chromatin structure, gene expression, and DNA replication [74]. AFB1 exposure can alter the pattern of modifications in histones, resulting in an increase or repression of genes, facilitating the development of cancer, such as HCC [76].
\nThe most common modifications in histones regulated by AFB1 are methylation and acetylation [74]. Methylation is catalyzed by enzymes called histone methyltransferases, which add the methyl group into the lysine of the histones H3 and H4, occurring as three different forms, including mono-, di-, or trimethylation. Additionally, histone demethylase can remove the methyl group. AFB1-induced histone methylation causes conformational changes of chromatin, leading to gene silencing [77, 78]. In contrast to methylation, acetylation leads to a relaxation of chromatin, resulting in the activation of the gene transcription. Histone acetyltransferases, which catalyze the addition of the acetyl group, and the histone deacetylase (HDAC) enzymes, which remove the acetyl group, are the major enzymes involved in this dynamic process [73, 79]. The increased expression of HDACs causes the hypoacetylation of histone H3, leading to the repression of the silencing of specific tumor suppressor genes, such as p21, inducing the differentiation and proliferation of liver tumor cells [74, 80, 81].
\nAflatoxin B1 (AFB1), which is synthesized by
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The CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
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\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-08
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original Works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how Authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish, and distribute publications.
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\n\nHOW COPYRIGHT WORKS WITH OPEN ACCESS LICENSES?
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\n\nAuthor - in order to be identified as an Author, three criteria must be met: (i) Substantial contribution to the conception or design of the Work, or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the Work; (ii) Participation in drafting or revising the Work; (iii) Approval of the final version of the Work to be published.
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\n\nIntechOpen - Registered publisher with office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ - UNITED KINGDOM
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\n\nVideo Lecture – an audiovisual recording of a lecture or a speech given by a Lecturer, recorded, edited, owned and published by IntechOpen.
\n\nTERMS
\n\nAll Works published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported and Creative Commons 4.0 International License, a license which allows for the broadest possible reuse of published material.
\n\nCopyright on the individual Works belongs to the specific Author, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen. The Creative Common license is granted to all others to:
\n\nAnd for any purpose, provided the following conditions are met:
\n\nAll Works are published under the CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license. However, please note that book Chapters may fall under a different CC license, depending on their publication date as indicated in the table below:
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LICENSE | \n\t\t\tUSED FROM - | \n\t\t\tUP TO - | \n\t\t
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The CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
\n\nContent reuse:
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\n\nRepublishing – More about Attribution Policy can be found here.
\n\nThe same principles apply to Works published under the CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license, with the caveats that (1) the content may not be used for commercial purposes, and (2) derivative works building on this content must be distributed under the same license. The restrictions contained in these license terms may, however, be waived by the copyright holder(s). Users wishing to circumvent any of the license terms are required to obtain explicit permission to do so from the copyright holder(s).
\n\nDISCLAIMER: Neither the CC BY 3.0 license, CC BY 4.0, nor any other license IntechOpen currently uses or has used before, applies to figures and tables reproduced from other works, as they may be subject to different terms of reuse. In such cases, if the copyright holder is not noted in the source of a figure or table, it is the responsibility of the User to investigate and determine the exact copyright status of any information utilised. Users requiring assistance in that regard are welcome to send an inquiry to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nAll rights to Books and Journals and all other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen.
\n\nThe copyright to Books, Journals and other compilations is subject to separate copyright from those that exist in the included Works.
\n\nAll Long Form Monographs/Compacts are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others.
\n\nCopyright to the individual Works (Chapters) belongs to their specific Authors, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen and the Creative Common license granted to all others to:
\n\nUnder the following terms:
\n\nThere must be an Attribution, giving appropriate credit, provision of a link to the license, and indication if any changes were made.
\n\nNonCommercial - The use of the material for commercial purposes is prohibited. Commercial rights are reserved to IntechOpen or its licensees.
\n\nNo additional restrictions that apply legal terms or technological measures that restrict others from doing anything the license permits are allowed.
\n\nThe CC BY-NC 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as it is not used for commercial purposes. The source Work must be cited and its Authors acknowledged in the following manner:
\n\nContent reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
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\n\nReposting & sharing:
\n\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nAll Book cover design elements, as well as Video image graphics are subject to copyright by IntechOpen.
\n\nEvery reproduction of a front cover image must be accompanied by an appropriate Copyright Notice displayed adjacent to the image. The exact Copyright Notice depends on who the Author of a particular cover image is. Users wishing to reproduce cover images should contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nAll Video Lectures under IntechOpen's production are subject to copyright and are property of IntechOpen, unless defined otherwise, and are licensed under the Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) license. This grants all others the right to:
\n\nShare — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
\n\nUnder the following terms:
\n\nUsers wishing to repost and share the Video Lectures are welcome to do so as long as they acknowledge the source in the following manner:
\n\n© {year} IntechOpen. Published under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nUsers wishing to reuse, modify, or adapt the Video Lectures in a way not permitted by the license are welcome to contact us at permissions@intechopen.com to discuss waiving particular license terms.
\n\nAll software used on the IntechOpen platform, any used during the publishing process, and the copyright in the code constituting such software, is the property of IntechOpen or its software suppliers. As such, it may not be downloaded or copied without permission.
\n\nUnless otherwise indicated, all IntechOpen websites are the property of IntechOpen.
\n\nAll content included on IntechOpen Websites not forming part of contributed materials (such as text, images, logos, graphics, design elements, videos, sounds, pictures, trademarks, etc.), are subject to copyright and are property of, or licensed to, IntechOpen. Any other use, including the reproduction, modification, distribution, transmission, republication, display, or performance of the content on this site is strictly prohibited.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-08
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). 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Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. 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