Daily dietary intake of Cd (mg kg−1 day−1) through consumption of Cd contaminated vegetables.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9916",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Zero-Energy Buildings - New Approaches and Technologies",title:"Zero-Energy Buildings",subtitle:"New Approaches and Technologies",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The building industry is one of the largest energy consumers and countries all over the world are striving to design buildings that satisfy the user’s expectations while containing their energy consumption. In this context, zero-energy buildings have emerged as a technological paradigm that can solve this global issue, but its implementation in different contexts has brought a profound debate about its technical, social, and environmental limitations. Thanks to contributions from a variety of scholars from different countries, this book explores different aspects of the zero-energy buildings and gives the reader a broad view of the feasibility of implementation in different contexts.",isbn:"978-1-78985-246-2",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-245-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-355-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87727",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"zero-energy-buildings-new-approaches-and-technologies",numberOfPages:146,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"03b533ca4c0a7f4f0307e4e4ec474594",bookSignature:"Jesús Alberto Pulido Arcas, Carlos Rubio-Bellido, Alexis Pérez-Fargallo and Ivan Oropeza-Perez",publishedDate:"December 16th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9916.jpg",numberOfDownloads:7171,numberOfWosCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitations:14,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:17,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:34,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 20th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 12th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 12th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 1st 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 30th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"172801",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Pulido Arcas",slug:"jesus-alberto-pulido-arcas",fullName:"Jesus Alberto Pulido Arcas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172801/images/system/172801.jpg",biography:"Jesús Alberto Pulido Arcas graduated in architecture from the University of Sevilla (Spain), where he also obtained his M.Sc. (2009) and his Ph.D. (2013). He has extensive work experience as a professor and researcher in Spain (University of Sevilla), Chile (The University of The Bio-Bio), and now he works as a Project Assistant Professor at The University of Tokyo (Japan). His area of expertise covers heat transfer in buildings, CFD, energy efficiency, adaptive comfort, BIM technologies, and climate change in the building industry. He is the author of more than 30 research outputs in international peer-reviewed journals and a recent book on energy efficiency in buildings.",institutionString:"The University of Tokyo",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Tokyo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"242554",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Rubio-Bellido",slug:"carlos-rubio-bellido",fullName:"Carlos Rubio-Bellido",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242554/images/system/242554.png",biography:"Prof. Carlos Rubio-Bellido is a Professor in the Department of Building Construction II at the University of Seville. His research is focused on energy efficiency in the building sector as well as building performance simulation. He is a Visiting Professor at Bío-Bío University (Chile). He is a member of the International Scientific Committee of various international conferences. He is the author of more than 50 research papers. He is a recognized reviewer of various international indexed journals and international research projects.",institutionString:"University of Seville",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Seville",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"242238",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alexis",middleName:null,surname:"Pérez-Fargallo",slug:"alexis-perez-fargallo",fullName:"Alexis Pérez-Fargallo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242238/images/15223_n.jpg",biography:"Ph.D. Alexis Pérez Fargallo Graduated in architecture from the University of Sevilla (Spain). He obtained his MSc (2012) and his PhD (2013) from the University of Seville, Spain. He won a postdoctoral fellowship from the Conicyt (Chile) and carried out his postdoctoral research at the University of Bío-Bío. He later started working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Building Science at the University of Bio-Bio, Chile. His area of expertise covers energy renovation, energy costs, energy efficiency, thermal comfort, and fuel poverty. He is an author of more than 30 research outputs in international peer-reviewed journals and recently authored a book on energy efficiency, and has directed and participated in several research projects. He has carried out an advisory, direction, design, production, and construction roles in architectural projects. He has given lectures on energy renovation and fuel poverty in several countries.",institutionString:"The University of The Bio-Bio",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorThree:{id:"282172",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Oropeza-Perez",slug:"ivan-oropeza-perez",fullName:"Ivan Oropeza-Perez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282172/images/system/282172.jpg",biography:"Ivan Oropeza-Perez has his expertise in thermal comfort, passive cooling systems, and sustainable architecture. The main purpose of his research is to achieve a proper indoor environment while saving energy and water. He has written a book regarding natural ventilation within buildings and several research articles with similar topics. He has participated in dozens of international conferences around the world presenting works on the aforementioned subjects. Currently, he is an Associate Professor Senior in the Architecture Department of the Universidad de las Americas Puebla in Mexico. He is also the President of the International Building Performance Simulation Association section Mexico, a fellow of the Mexican National Solar Energy Association, and a fellow of the Mexican National Researchers System of the Mexican National Council of Science and Technology.",institutionString:"Universidad de las Américas Puebla",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Universidad de las Américas Puebla",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"852",title:"Sustainability",slug:"environmental-design-sustainability"}],chapters:[{id:"70732",title:"Net Zero Energy Buildings and Low Carbon Emission, a Case of Study of Madagascar Island",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90854",slug:"net-zero-energy-buildings-and-low-carbon-emission-a-case-of-study-of-madagascar-island",totalDownloads:662,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The buildings respecting the concept “Net Zero energy” are becoming more and more flowering in the world these last years. The main goal of this research is to evaluate the different possibilities of implementation of buildings with Net zero energy and low environmental impacts in Sub-Saharan Africa. The proposed building is 80% made of local materials with low carbon emissions and especially at lower cost. The optimization and modeling of the building is carried out by the Design Builder software, which is a world-renowned software in the field of optimization of comfort, cost, carbon reduction, etc. By fixing the insulation thickness up to 11 cm, cooling and heating energy are found equal to zero during the different operating seasons in this residential building. The results show that the optimal solution to consider a net zero energy building in Antananarivo city requires an additional expense estimated at 40% of the cost of buildings more conventional encountered in the island. This will save $475 each year starting in 2030, with 99% reduction in the CO2 release. The choice of local materials with low conductivity, low emissions, and low cost, has a significant impact on the implementation of a sustainable building, and more adapted to climate change concept.",signatures:"Modeste Kameni Nematchoua and Sigrid Reiter",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70732",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70732",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"72174",title:"Exploring the Factors Hindering the Use of Green Architecture in Nigeria",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92403",slug:"exploring-the-factors-hindering-the-use-of-green-architecture-in-nigeria",totalDownloads:726,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The construction industry in Nigeria has continuously witnessed rapid development as a result of massive investments in infrastructural projects such as housing. The continuous growth of this industry and the conventional approach to construction practices in Nigeria have negatively affected the environment and the wellbeing of the populace. Therefore, the concept of green architecture, also known as sustainable architecture, is a new approach in Nigeria’s construction industry that strives to achieve environmental sustainability. However, various factors have hindered its adoption and utilisation. This study, therefore, examined the various factors hindering the use of green architecture through various literature reviewed and administered questionnaires to built environment professionals in Nigeria to ascertain their perception of those identified factors. Data gathered from the questionnaires were analysed using descriptive statistical tools and ranked according to each factor’s mean index score and relative importance index. The results of the study revealed the most prominent factors hindering the utilisation of green architecture in Nigeria. Hence, findings from this study suggest that more efforts such as public enlightenment and the provisions of incentives are needed to be done by the government, built environment professionals, and other stakeholders in Nigeria’s construction industry for the promotion of green architecture.",signatures:"Auwalu Faisal Koko and Muhammed Bello",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72174",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72174",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"71849",title:"Road-Mapping for a Zero-Carbon Building Stock in Developed and Developing Countries",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92106",slug:"road-mapping-for-a-zero-carbon-building-stock-in-developed-and-developing-countries",totalDownloads:638,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Given the global climate crises, the enormous construction activity and the rising demand for comfortable living spaces around the world, it is not only the task for today to explore the feasibility of zero-energy buildings based on advanced technology concepts, but also the task for a zero-carbon future to transform the entire building stock. This chapter explores an integrated road-mapping approach to guide the various relevant levels of global, regional and national governance, on sector level as well as on the level of individual buildings. It will explore how key technologies, individual building configurations, infrastructure and the governance framework can be strategically developed in specific market contexts to achieve ambitious performance goals in the given time frame. It also introduces the concept of individual building renovation roadmaps and design features to be prepared in new and existing buildings to enable the retrofit of key technologies when they become economically and technically feasible in the given market. The roadmap approach with a clear performance target and a mid- and long-term vision is paramount since market conditions do not exist yet to implement such buildings in all market situations today. The text presents the concept of transformation roadmaps on the various levels of implementation and introduces examples.",signatures:"Dirk Schwede",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71849",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71849",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"71982",title:"Net-Zero Energy Buildings: Principles and Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92285",slug:"net-zero-energy-buildings-principles-and-applications",totalDownloads:2248,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Global warming and climate change are rising issues during the last couple of decades. With residential and commercial buildings being the largest energy consumers, sources are being depleted at a much faster pace in the recent decades. Recent statistics shows that 14% of humans are active participant to protect the environment with an additional 48% sympathetic but not active. In this chapter, net-zero energy buildings design tools and applications are presented that can help designers in the commercial and residential sectors design their buildings to be net-zero energy buildings. Case studies with benefits and challenges will be presented to illustrate the different designs to achieve a net-zero energy building (NZEB).",signatures:"Maher Shehadi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71982",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71982",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"73729",title:"Solar Energy and Its Purpose in Net-Zero Energy Building",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93500",slug:"solar-energy-and-its-purpose-in-net-zero-energy-building",totalDownloads:604,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The Net Zero Energy Building is generally described as an extremely energy-efficient building in which the residual electricity demand is provided by renewable energy. Solar power is also regarded to be the most readily available and usable form of renewable electricity produced at the building site. In contrast, energy conservation is viewed as an influential national for achieving a building’s net zero energy status. This chapter aims to show the value of the synergy between energy conservation and solar energy transfer to NZEBs at the global and regional levels. To achieve these goals, both energy demand building and the potential supply of solar energy in buildings have been forecasted in various regions, climatic conditions, and types of buildings. Building energy consumption was evaluated based on a bottom-up energy model developed by 3CSEP and data inputs from the Bottom-Up Energy Analysis System (BUENAS) model under two scenarios of differing degrees of energy efficiency intention. The study results indicate that the acquisition of sustainable energy consumption is critical for solar-powered net zero energy buildings in various building styles and environments. The chapter calls for the value of government measures that incorporate energy conservation and renewable energy.",signatures:"Mostafa Esmaeili Shayan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73729",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73729",authors:[{id:"317852",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mostafa",surname:"Esmaeili Shayan",slug:"mostafa-esmaeili-shayan",fullName:"Mostafa Esmaeili Shayan"}],corrections:null},{id:"72850",title:"Computational Analysis of a Lecture Room Ventilation System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92725",slug:"computational-analysis-of-a-lecture-room-ventilation-system",totalDownloads:852,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The level of Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) has become a big topic of research, and improving it using passive ventilation methods is imperative due to the cost saving potentials. Designing lecture buildings to use less energy or Zero Energy (ZE) has become more important, and analysing buildings before construction can save money in design changes. This research analyses the performance (thermal comfort [TC]) of a lecture room, investigate the use of passive ventilation methods and determine the energy-saving potential of the proposed passive ventilation method using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). Results obtained showed that air change per hour at a wind velocity of 0.05 m/s was 3.10, which was below standards. Therefore, the lecture hall needs external passive ventilation systems (Solar Chimney [SC]) for improved indoor air quality at minimum cost. Also, it was observed that the proposed passive ventilation (SC) system with the size between 1 and 100 m3, made an improvement upon the natural ventilation in the room. There was a 66.69% increase after 10 years in the saving of energy and cost using Solar Chimney as compared to Fans, which depicts that truly energy and cost were saved using passive ventilation systems rather than mechanical ventilation systems.",signatures:"Abayomi Layeni, Collins Nwaokocha, Olalekan Olamide, Solomon Giwa, Samuel Tongo, Olawale Onabanjo, Taiwo Samuel, Olabode Olanipekun, Oluwasegun Alabi, Kasali Adedeji, Olusegun Samuel, Jagun Zaid Oluwadurotimi, Olaolu Folorunsho, Jacob Adebayo and Folashade Oniyide",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72850",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72850",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"71492",title:"Fly Ash as a Cementitious Material for Concrete",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90466",slug:"fly-ash-as-a-cementitious-material-for-concrete",totalDownloads:841,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This paper presents a review on fly ash as prime materials used for geopolymer. Due to its advantages of abundant resources, less in cost, great workability and high physical properties, fly ash leads to achieving high mechanical properties. Fly ash is considered as one of the largest generated industrial solid wastes or so-called industrial by-products, around the world particularly in China, India, and USA. The characteristics of fly ash allow it to be a geotechnical material to produce geopolymer cement or concrete as an alternative of ordinary Portland cement. Many efforts are made in this direction to formulate a suitable mix design of fly ash-based geopolymer by focusing on fly ash as the main prime material. The physical properties, chemical compositions, and chemical activation of fly ash are analyzed and evaluated in this review paper. Reference has been made to different ASTM, ACI standards, and other researches work in geopolymer area.",signatures:"Aissa Bouaissi, Long Yuan Li, Mohd Mustafa Al Bakri Abdullah, Romisuhani Ahmad, Rafiza Abdul Razak and Zarina Yahya",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71492",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71492",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"71536",title:"Improvement of the Thermal Properties of Sorel Cements",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91774",slug:"improvement-of-the-thermal-properties-of-sorel-cements",totalDownloads:600,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Sorel cements is a promising building material for insulation applications. Indeed, the effect of polyvinyl acetate polymer on cements has been investigated. The polyvinyl acetate polymer was added to the cement matrix with a percentage of 0, 5, 10, 15 and 20% by weight of Sorel cement. The thermal properties of Sorel cement were determined by photothermal deflection technique. 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Martínez Niconoff, G. Díaz González, P. Martínez Vara, J. Silva\nBarranco and J. Munoz-Lopez",authors:[{id:"29025",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",middleName:null,surname:"Martinez-Niconoff",fullName:"Gabriel Martinez-Niconoff",slug:"gabriel-martinez-niconoff"}]},{id:"44980",title:"Holography at the Nano Level With Visible Light Wavelengths",slug:"holography-at-the-nano-level-with-visible-light-wavelengths",signatures:"Cesar A. Sciammarella, Luciano Lamberti and Federico M.\nSciammarella",authors:[{id:"17956",title:"Dr.",name:"Luciano",middleName:null,surname:"Lamberti",fullName:"Luciano Lamberti",slug:"luciano-lamberti"},{id:"20677",title:"Dr.",name:"Federico",middleName:null,surname:"Sciammarella",fullName:"Federico Sciammarella",slug:"federico-sciammarella"},{id:"166241",title:"Prof.",name:"Cesar A.",middleName:null,surname:"Sciammarella",fullName:"Cesar A. Sciammarella",slug:"cesar-a.-sciammarella"}]},{id:"44911",title:"Digital Hologram Coding",slug:"digital-hologram-coding",signatures:"Young-Ho Seo, Hyun-Jun Choi and Dong-Wook Kim",authors:[{id:"158677",title:"Prof.",name:"Young-Ho",middleName:null,surname:"Seo",fullName:"Young-Ho Seo",slug:"young-ho-seo"},{id:"165568",title:"Prof.",name:"Dong-Wook",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",fullName:"Dong-Wook Kim",slug:"dong-wook-kim"},{id:"165569",title:"Prof.",name:"Hyun-Jun",middleName:null,surname:"Choi",fullName:"Hyun-Jun Choi",slug:"hyun-jun-choi"}]},{id:"44913",title:"Applications of Holographic Microscopy in Life Sciences",slug:"applications-of-holographic-microscopy-in-life-sciences",signatures:"Iliyan Peruhov and Emilia Mihaylova",authors:[{id:"151277",title:"Dr.",name:"Emilia",middleName:null,surname:"Mihaylova",fullName:"Emilia Mihaylova",slug:"emilia-mihaylova"}]},{id:"44917",title:"Cells and Holograms – Holograms and Digital Holographic Microscopy as a Tool to Study the Morphology of Living Cells",slug:"cells-and-holograms-holograms-and-digital-holographic-microscopy-as-a-tool-to-study-the-morphology-o",signatures:"Kersti Alm, Zahra El-Schich, Maria Falck Miniotis, Anette Gjörloff\nWingren, Birgit Janicke and Stina Oredsson",authors:[{id:"20513",title:"Dr.",name:"Anette",middleName:null,surname:"Gjörloff Wingren",fullName:"Anette Gjörloff Wingren",slug:"anette-gjorloff-wingren"}]},{id:"44919",title:"Phase and Polarization Contrast Methods by Use of Digital Holographic Microscopy: Applications to Different Types of Biological Samples",slug:"phase-and-polarization-contrast-methods-by-use-of-digital-holographic-microscopy-applications-to-dif",signatures:"Francisco Palacios, Oneida Font, Guillermo Palacios, Jorge Ricardo,\nMiriela Escobedo, Ligia Ferreira Gomes, Isis Vasconcelos, Mikiya\nMuramatsu, Diogo Soga, Aline Prado and Valin José",authors:[{id:"28728",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Palacios",fullName:"Francisco 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Rosen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"73767",title:"Toxicity of Cadmium in Soil-Plant-Human Continuum and Its Bioremediation Techniques",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94307",slug:"toxicity-of-cadmium-in-soil-plant-human-continuum-and-its-bioremediation-techniques",body:'Cadmium (Cd) is an element which is extremely toxic to humans and can cause adverse effects even in small doses. Cadmium is a non-essential trace metal, which plays no recognized role in human, plant and animal development and growth. Various Environmental Protection Agency classified Cd as one of the pollutant element and include it in the list of 126 priority pollutants [1]. Lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere take part in the exchange of Cd in its bio-geo-chemical cycle [2]. The aggregate industrial emission of Cd is vast and significantly contributed to bio-geo-chemical cycles, resulting Cd deposition in many ecosystems and hastening buildup of Cd both in nature and human food chain. Therefore, a variety of detrimental health effects of Cd have been identified in various parts of the world and these symptoms are increases progressively [3]. Cadmium (Cd), a hazardous heavy metal, falls into Group IIB of the periodic table and, its amounts ranging from 0.1 to 1 mg kg−1 in environment [4]. According to recent data collected in 2011, 7500, 2500 and 2000 t of Cd was emitted by China, Republic of Korea and Japan whereas globally it was 21,500 t yr.−1. After the industrial revolution, man-made activities have greatly intensified the CD level in environment. The produce and use of Cd containing batteries, dyes, electroplating, combustion of crude oil, paints (Cd use as stabilizer), phosphate fertilizer processing and waste water applications have added 3–10 folds higher Cd than natural methods to the ecology. The release of Cd into to the soil environment is responsible for some natural disasters, such as volcanic eruption, sea salt spray, wild fires, weathering of Cd containing minerals and rock, transportation and accumulation of Cd-polluted soil by water and wind [5]. Cadmium, resulting from occupational and non-occupational contact, has detrimental impact on human health through build-up of Cd in human body. Occupational contamination is primarily observed by the extraction and smelting of non-ferrous metals, the manufacturing and handling of composite-containing CDs, and e-waste recycling activities. Non-occupational Cd contamination is mainly done by smoking, feeding behavior and atmospheric Cd particles [5]. Cadmium is ingested into multiple organs within the human body
Country | Adults N 19 | Children | Adolescent 14–18 years | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
MAL/RDAa | 5.0E−02b | — | — | [11] |
RfD (oral reference dose) | 1.0E−03 | 1.0E−03 | — | [12] |
Netherland | 2.01E−02 | 4.10E−02 | 1.60E−02 | [13] |
USA | 1.08E−05 | 2.21E−05 | 8.63E−06 | [14] |
Bangladesh | 5.17E−05 | 1.06E−04 | 4.13E−05 | [15] |
Italy | 1.54E−05 to 5.48E−05 | 3.16E−05 to 1.12E−04 | 1.23E−05 4.38E−05 | [16] |
Ethiopia | 1.16E−04 | 2.37E−04 | 9.24E−05 | [17] |
Zimbabwe | 8.87E−04 | 1.81E−03 | 7.09E−04 | [18] |
China | 2.05E−04 to 2.805E−03 | 4.18E−04 to 5.72E−03 | 1.63E−04 2.23E−03 | [19] |
Sweden | 6.95E−05 | 1.42E−04 | 5.55E−05 | [14] |
Uganda | 8.22E−05 | 1.68E−04 | 6.56E−05 | [11] |
India | 8.03E−04 to 4.92E−03 | 1.64E−03 to 1.00E−02 | 6.41E−04 3.93E−03 | [13] |
Pakistan | 3.67E−05 to 8.10E−04 | 7.49E−05 to 1.66E−03 | 2.93E−05to 6.47E−04 | [17] |
France | 5.78E−03 | 1.18E−02 | 4.62E−03 | [12] |
Daily dietary intake of Cd (mg kg−1 day−1) through consumption of Cd contaminated vegetables.
MAL/RDA maximum allowable limit/recommended dietary allowance.
E−02 represents 1 × 10−2.
Cadmium (Cd) is a hazardous trace element disseminated extensively in the environment and causes implacable impact on human health even in very minute content [21]. Cadmium in lithosphere, sedimentary rocks and soil content 0.2, 0.3 and 0.53 mg kg−1 however in soil water and groundwater 5.0 and 1 μg L−1, respectively [22, 23]. Cadmium contamination in soils and groundwater arises due to both natural and anthropogenic activities and cause harmful impact as its goes into human body through drinking water and foods [24]. Cadmium is mostly geogenic by origin whereas, majority comes from natural weathering and other sources are mining, casting and smelting, irrigation with sewage water, factories and vehicular discharges, and agrochemicals are major man-made causes of Cd pollution [25, 26]. Moreover, unmonitored and unsafe garbage dumping activities have intensely raised Cd levels in soil and water bodies. At end of 1980’s it was reported that geogenic and anthropogenic sources mobilizes Cd to the biosphere 24,000 and 4.5 t yr.−1, respectively which depicted the supremacy of man-made activity [27].
Among the natural sources windblown soil particles are the main reason for atmospheric Cd contamination followed by wildfires, sea spray, volcanic emissions, and meteoric dust. In California, Burke et al. [28] estimated that forest fire enhanced the average Cd level in water bodies by 2 folds. Pacyna and Pacyna [29] and Richardson et al. [30] reported that the Global average annual emission of natural Cd is about 1400 t however, from anthropogenic sources it was 2983 t. In nature, Cd is present ubiquitously in all areas and interestingly it’s presence can be seen in remote places like ice peak of the Himalaya and North and South poles [31]. In southern Germany mainly relies on agricultural activities has Cd concentration in soil deposition was upto 0.25 g (ha*a)−1 however, in industrial western Germany the Cd deposition was quite high upto 1.4 g (ha*a)−1 [32]. Thus, indicates that anthropogenic activities have greater potential in Cd pollution.
Cadmium content in the soil is positively correlated with the weathering of parent material but, unscientific practices have worsen the input, output balance
Rock type | Average Cd content (%) | Mineral | Composition | Average Cd content (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Carbonate stone | 0.1 | Apatite | Ca5(F,Cl)(PO4)3 | 1.4–1.5 |
Ultramafic rocks | 0.2 | Sphalerite | (Zn,Cd)S | 2 |
Schists | 0.2 | Smithonite | ZnCO3 | < 2.35 |
Sandstone | 0.3 | Magnetite | Fe3O4 | < 3.1 |
Red shales | 0.3 | Silicates | — | 0.3–58 |
Gneisses | 0.4 | Arsenopyrite | FeAsS | < 50 |
Mafic rocks | 1.1 | Scorodite | FeAsO4. 2H2O | < 10–58 |
Granitic rocks | 1.2 | Otavite | CdCO3 | 65.2 |
Basalt | 2.2 | Greenockite | CdS | 77.8 |
Obsidian | 2.5 | Pyromorphite | Pb5Cl(PO4)3 | < 10–80 |
Organic sediment | 5.0 | Calcite | CaCO3 | < 10–230 |
Red clay | 5.6 | Marcasite | FeS2 | < 500 |
Bituminous shale | 8.0 | Chalcopyrite | CuFeS2 | < 1100 |
Limestone | 10 | Bindheimite | Pb2Sb2O6(O,OH) | 1000–10,000 |
Shale and claystone | 10 | Tetrahedrite | (Cu,Fe,Zn,Ag)12SbAs4S13 | 800–20,000 |
Bentonite | 14 | Anglesite | PbSO4 | 1200 to >10,000 |
Marlstone | 26 | Mn-oxides | MnO. nH2O | < 10,000 |
Oceanic manganese oxides | 80 | Limonite | FeO(OH). nH2O | < 10,000 |
Phosphorites | 250 | Galena | PbS | < 30,000 |
Cadmium contents in different rocks and minerals.
Geogenic sources input only 10 percent Cd in the environment however, man-made emission input 90 percent Cd in the environment. Among the various man-made sources major contribution is from manufacturing and application of P fertilizers, petroleum oil burning, smelting and casting industries, effluents from cement factories, vehicular emission, sewage sludge, landfills, municipality solid wastes, and mining activities [43, 44]. The Table 3 explained various anthropogenic activities and their impact on Cd build-up in soil and groundwater. Cadmium is mainly used in stabilization of plastics, pigments manufacturing, solar panels, nickel-cadmium batteries, and rust resistant steel production, agri-chemicals, solders, engine oil, and rubber and fabric industries [78, 79]. Brown et al. [80] reported that in 2015, globally Cd manufacture was ~24,900 metric tons and it was increases in the coming years. Among the anthropogenic sources mining and metal industries are the main reason for environmental Cd pollution followed by textiles industries, nonmetallic mineral products, fertilizers and agro-chemicals production, and leathers industries [81]. Landfills and municipal solid waste deposition are the major causes of soil pollution with Cd and in European countries municipal solid waste contain Cd level up to 3 to 12% [62]. Leachates from various sources are the main cause of Cd pollution in groundwater and Belon et al. [35] estimated that leachate form FYM, atmospheric deposition, inorganic fertilizers and municipal solid waste ranges from 10 to 25, 15–50, 30–55 and 2–5%, respectively. Another important source of Cd pollution in soil through the use of P fertilizers and P fertilizer used in various countries like Eastern Mediterranean countries, European countries and Germany the Cd content is as high as 770, 360 and 600%, respectively [37, 82]. Cadmium discharge and emitted from multiple sources gradually enters into the soil and then eventually bio-accumulates in food grains which ultimately leads to human health hazard.
Source | Type of pollution | Country/Area | Maximum Cd level | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Pb mining and refinery | Atmospheric deposition | Příbram, Czech Republic | Soil: 48 mg kg−1 | [45] |
Cu mining | Waste water | Canchaque, Peru | Soil: 499 mg kg−1 | [28] |
Pb–Zn mining/refinery | Waste water | Coeur d’Alene basin, Idaho, USA | Groundwater: 77 μg L−1 | [46] |
Fe–Ni–Co mining | Waste material | Several sites in Albania | Soil: 14 mg kg−1 | [47] |
Au–Ag–Pb–Zn mining | Waste water | Chloride, Arizona USA | Groundwater: 19 μg L−1 | [48] |
As refinery | Waste material | Reppel, Belgium | Soil: 79 mg kg−1 | [49] |
Phosphorite mining | Mining waste, transport | Kpogamé, Hahotoé, Togo | Soil: 43 mg kg−1 | [50] |
Zn smelter | Atmospheric deposition | Hezhang County, China | Soil: 74 mg kg−1 | [51] |
Zn smelter | Waste material | Celje, Slovenia | Soil: 344 mg kg−1 | [52] |
Pb–Zn mining/refinery | Atmospheric deposition and waste water | Jinding, China | Soil: 531 mg kg−1 | [53] |
Mining activities | Waste water | BacKan province, North Vietnam | Soil: 4.26 mg kg−1 Irrigation water: 2.51 μg L−1 | [54] |
Au–Cu mining | Waste water | Bolnisi, Georgia | Soil: 121.5 mg kg−1 | [55] |
Coal mining | Mining waste and deposition | Anhui province, eastern China | Soil: 0.05–0.87 mg kg−1 | [56] |
Cu, Mo and Ni mining | Mining waste and deposition | Yangjiazhangzh and Dexing, China | Soil: 22.8 mg kg−1 Sediment: 66.1 mg kg−1 | [57] |
Coal mines | Atmospheric deposition and waste water | Singrauli, India | Groundwater: 108 ppb | [58] |
Cement factory | Atmospheric deposition | Qadissiya, Jordan | Soil: 13 mg kg−1 | [59] |
Various ( | Waste water | Coimbatore, India | Soil: 12.8 mg kg−1 | [42] |
Ceramic industry | Sewage sludge | Castellon, Spain | Soil: 72 mg kg−1 | [60] |
Pigment manufacture | Atmospheric deposition | Staffordshire, UK | Soil: 16 mg kg−1 | [61] |
Textile industry | Waste water | Haridwar, India | Soil: 83.6 mg kg−1 Groundwater: 40 μg L−1 | [62] |
Metal industry | Atmospheric deposition | Unnao, India | Groundwater: 74 μg L−1 | [63] |
Ceramic industry | Atmospheric deposition | Yixing, China | Soil: 5.9 mg kg−1 | [64] |
Paper mill | Waste water | Morigaon, India | Soil: 31.01 mg kg−1 | [65] |
Power industry and industrial plants | Atmospheric deposition and waste water | Malopolska province, southern Poland | Soil: 16.9 mg kg−1 | [66] |
Zinc-smelter plant | Irrigation through industrial effluents | Rajasthan, India | Soil: 96.8 mg kg−1 | [67] |
Atlas Cycle factory | Irrigation through industrial effluents | Haryana, India | Soil: 9.81 mg kg−1 | [67] |
Disposal facilities | Leachate | Great lakes region, USA | Soil: 32 mg kg−1 | [40] |
Household wastes | Waste water | Ikare, Nigeria | Groundwater: 580 μg L−1 | [6] |
Landfill | Leachate | Taoyuan, Taiwan Alexandria, Egypt | Soil: 378 mg kg−1 Groundwater: 51 μg L−1 | [68] |
Sewage and waste disposal | Waste water | Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolis, Ghana | Groundwater: 90 μg L−1 | [69] |
Sewage disposal | Waste water and physical mixing | Sundarban, India | Soil: 1.70 mg kg−1 | [70] |
Brownfield | Waste water | Xiangjiang River, China | Groundwater: 474 μg L−1 | [71] |
Oil spill accident | Waste deposition and physical mixing | Sundarban, Bangladesh | Sediment: 0.82 mg kg−1 | [38] |
Electronical waste recycling | Waste water | Krishna Vihar, India | Soil: 47.7 mg kg−1 Groundwater: 280 μg L−1 | [72] |
Sewage sludge application | Irrigation | Several sites in Spain | Soil: 90 mg kg−1 | [73] |
P fertilizer production | Atmospheric deposition | Rio Grande, Brazil | Soil: 9.3 mg kg−1 Groundwater: 3 μg L−1 | [32] |
P fertilizer application | Infiltration | Cauvery River basin, India | Groundwater: 60 μg L−1 | [74] |
Urban agriculture | Atmospheric pollution and soil contamination | Belo Horizonte, Brazil | Soil: 0.20 mg kg−1 | [75] |
Sewage sludge application | Soil application | Jiangsu Province, China | Leachate: 0.14 mg kg−1 | [76] |
Sewerage | Leakage | Rastatt, Germany | Groundwater: 5 μg L−1 | [1] |
Road traffic | Infiltration | Celle, Germany | Groundwater: 2.34 μg L−1 | [9] |
Over populated, E-wastes and industrialized | Infiltration and physical mixing | Western Uttar Pradesh, India | Groundwater: 0.07 mg L−1 | [77] |
Various types of cadmium contamination in soil and waterbodies.
Cadmium (Cd) is a potent pestilential metal which enters primarily via plant roots, get distributed and accumulated in plant parts in different proportions and concentrations, hampering crop yield and deteriorating the quality of produce. It ultimately makes it way to enter food chain thereby possessing serious threat to human and animal health. Cadmium ranks 7 among the top 20 toxins and it enter to arable land through various industrial processes and farming practices [83].
Accumulation of Cd in plant is facilitated by its mobilization, uptake and transport/distribution in various plant parts. Unscientific agricultural practices and industrial effluents are the major contributor of Cd in soil [84]. Phosphaic fertilizer and sewage-sludge contribute to Cd pollution in agricultural soil. Concentration of Cd in plants is also an indicative of its concentration in soil; however various other factors including soil pH, organic matter content, interaction with other ions and plant species govern its availability in plants [85, 86, 87]. Meta data analysis of 162 wheat and 215 barley grain samples by Adams and associates, [88] showed grain Cd concentration is positively correlated with soil total cd content and soil reaction (pH). They also highlighted the fact that higher microbial activity, nitrification and application of sewage sludge increased the chance of Cd toxicity but, reclaiming the soil with liming may abate the chance of toxicity. Sauvé et al. [89] found that organic matter had almost 30 times more sorption affinity for Cd when compared with mineral soil in Canada which indicates the importance of quality of organic matter in binding and accumulating Cd. It is assumed that lowering of pH will facilitate Cd availability to plants, but it might not hold true for soils with lower pH and high organic matter.
Before apprehending the mechanism of Cd accumulation in plants, one has to understand uptake and translocation of Cd inside plants. Ability of plants to take up Cd depends upon numerous factors like total Cd content in soil solution, soil reaction (pH), redox potential (Eh) and moisture content, soil organic carbon content, soil temperature, and last but not the least interaction among different elements. Primarily Cd enters plant through roots. Once in roots, Cd can get stored or exported to shoots through xylem. Cadmium is both xylem and phloem mobile [54, 74]. There are two possible mechanisms of Cd translocation into the plants and subsequently to the grains. These are: (i) Xylem mediated translocation to the sink i.e. grains (ii) Active transportation to various plant parts culm, rachis, flag leaves, external parts of the panicles and followed by phloem mediated mobilization to grains [90] and Schematic representation of Cd uptake and subsequent translocation in rice was shown in Figure 1. Root cell membrane located transporters take key role in Cd uptake in plants [91].
Schematic model of Cd uptake process from soil to grains in rice.
Cadmium uptake and accumulation in plants must undoubtedly be under control of multiple genes which contribute quantitatively in stage-specific, tissue-specific, environment-specific to Cd transport, accumulation and sequestration in plants [92]. In a study conducted by Hédiji et al. [72] on long term exposure of Cd on tomato (
The impact of Cd toxicity in plants is still a closed book thing but, recent advances in plant physiological studies helped the researchers to answer the questions. Clemens [54] reported that the major influence on Cd toxicity in plants is nutrient imbalance by regulating the normal work of transporters peculiarly in fruit plants. For instance, the concentration of K, Zn, and Fe in developing fruits falls off drastically at the expense of Ca and Mg. The antagonistic relationship between Cd and K is well documented like sub-optimal K concentration in the pericarp which disrupts the normal bio-chemical cycles like bio-synthesis of protein, enzymatic activity and membrane bound activities such as sustaining cellular turgidity [54].
According to International Agency for Research on Cancer, Cd is highly inimical and labeled as class-I carcinogenic compound to mammalian health. Cadmium may not be toxic to the plants that accumulate it, yet are toxic to animals and humans feeding upon it. Cadmium makes it entry to human body either from food, water or breath and a little amount enters through skin. Majority of Cd entering to human body is either breathed out or excreted in feces, whereas only one-quarter of it gets into human body through breath and one-twentieth from food. People working in industries that release Cd are more prone to get affected by Cd toxicity because they might breath, eat or drink Cd in air, food or water. Cadmium with biological half-life of 10–30 years, generally gets accumulated in kidneys and liver and slowly leaves human body through urine or feces [93, 94]. Researches around the world indicate that daily cadmium intake from all sources is very low in case of general population which range between 10 and 25 μgday−1, however the tolerable daily intake established by WHO is 60 and 70 10–25 μg day−1 respectively, for adult women and men.
Human health due to Cd is an emerging issue and needs urgent attentions [52]. During the process, 10–50% of the cadmium dust is consumed according to the particle size. Digestion is higher for people that have an iron, calcium or zinc deficiency. The main source of human cadmium toxicity is considered to be tobacco smoking other than industrial exposures and food habit [95, 96, 97, 98]. Cd toxicity is developing gradually in the human body and eventually causes different negative health effects, particularly bone loss and nephron toxicity.
Cd is passed across the body after assimilation, usually linked with a bunch of sulfhydryl containing protein such as metalllothionine. Typically 30% stores in liver and kidney; the remaining spread across the body, with an independence half-life about a quarter of a century [99]. Blood, hair and urine Cd levels are indicator of potential toxicity but, to get the actual toxicity level urine stimulation test with the subjects body weight is highly important [100].
As previously mentioned, Cd induced epigenetic changes in DNA articulation by oxidative pressure, impediments or guidance for transport pathways particularly in the kidney [98] (Figure 2). Extreme impedance to the physiological function of Zn or Mg is introduced by other pathological mechanisms [99]. Restriction of the heme and the weakening of mitochondrial work which is likely to cause apoptosis [47]. Glutathione explosion has been found alongside the auxiliary protein contortion attributable to the official Cd in sulfhydryl bunches [100]. Cooperation with other hazardous metals, such as lead (Pb) and arsenis (As) hastens these impacts [101, 102].
Mechanisms of cadmium toxicity in humans.
The major site of Cd toxicity is kidney where a fragment S1 of the proximal tubule is a majorly targeted and disruption in mitochondrial protein synthesis due reabsorption of glucose, bicarbonate and phosphate clinically known as Fanconi disorder [76, 103]. Cadmium can also inhibit the digestion of vitamin D in the kidneys with progressively rises of issues like osteomalacia, osteoporosis, renal-around broking and calcium malabsorption [103, 104, 105]. Cadmium has multiple deleterious effects on the cardiovascular framework like adverse impact on vascular endothelium consistency [95, 106]. Cd links to sudden coronary death marginal blood vessel dysfunction, increased intima media thickness and scattered myocardial necrosis [64, 107]. In comparison, low-recurrence listening was substantially decreased by people with elevated urinary Cd levels [108]. In comparison, high-urinary Cd rates have decreased cognitive power. Cadmium is assumed to be the carcinogenic agent Class B1 by the United States Environmental Protection Agency [46]. Conflicting research links Cd adoption and denies bosom malignant development [88, 94, 109]. Cd was associated to pancreas and lymphoma cell disturbance [88]. Vegetables developed in Cd-defiled soils can possibly cause toxicological issues in people particularly in developing women [110]. A few different components like low admission of Ca, vitamin D, and minor components, for example, Cu and Zn can build this sum. Thus, daily entry of Cd by Cd is exceptional due to the fusion of Cd in diets and the human dietary propensities. The mean daily use of Cd (DICd) uses the following formula as a general basis:
DICd symbolizes daily intake of Cd, CCdCofactor, intake of Dfood and Waverage weight are Cd fixations in vegetables, transition factor (new weight to dry weight), and human consumption of vegetables every day and regular body weight respectively. Table 2 describes the DICd figures given in different countries by the use of Cd-sullied vegetables. The number of inhabitants in the Netherlands unmistakably ingests the most notable Cd from the available information through defiled vegetables, followed by France and USA. The introduced data shows that the use of Cd contaminated nourishments is a significant implementation course. In these lines, in order to avoid harmful health consequences, the intake of infected vegetables should be reduced to the fullest degree possible. Different remediation steps can also be introduced in infected soil to carry the Cd concentration to a reasonable amount. In contrast, DICd’s principles are based on a few experiments worldwide. To describe incidents and potential dangers more thoroughly, further studies are needed. Furthermore, day-to-day vegetable intake, eating patterns, general status and the overall body weight of a person should be taken into account. Cadmium (Cd) is a toxicity ia result of long term exposure and “
According to EPA, bioremediation can be defined as “technique which uses naturally occurring microorganisms to break down hazardous substances into less toxic or non-toxic substances [111].”
Microbe’s works in both active and passive mode and microbial species like bacteria, fungi and alage can be used as a potential option for eco-friendly remediation techniques [93]. Bacteria’s are very effective for cleaning contaminated site due to its unique metabolic characters and tolerance to harsh conditions [120]. Several heavy metals have been tested using bacteria species like
This present chapter summarizes the various sources of Cd in environment and its toxic effects on plant and human being as well as suggested some approaches of bioremediation to mitigate the Cd pollution from environment. Anthropogenic activities are the key pathway to contaminate the environment with Cd which ultimately accumulated in various leafy vegetables and food grains. Consumption of this high Cd containing food causes several toxic symptoms in human being and leads to malfunctioning of multiple human organs. To reduce the Cd accumulation in food grain various amelioration strategies has been adopted among them use of microbes to decrease Cd uptake by plants seems to have great prospective. Moreover, some microbes may increase amounts of Cd due to their biochemical processes, and their implementation may also worsen problems with soil pollution. Use It is also suggested to characterize the microbes and tested them in laboratory and field condition prior to their use in agricultural soils, thus maintaining soil quality and food safety.
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All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
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\n\n\n\nIntechOpen is committed to disseminating high-quality scientific research in a manner that exemplifies the best practice in scholarly publishing. IntechOpen is an official member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), which advocates the maintenance of the highest ethical standards for all parties involved in the act of publishing, including Authors, Academic Editors of the book, Peer Reviewers, the publisher and Societies, where applicable.
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\n\nAll scientific works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing. IntechOpen is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and all participating referees and Academic Editors are expected to review submitted scientific works in line with the COPE Ethical Guidelines for Peer Reviewers where applicable.
\n\n\n\nThe Internet has changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing which is why we find it necessary to clearly indicate our stance on what we consider to be a published scientific work. A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar works in progress are shared openly online between members of the scientific community. It has become common practice for researchers to announce their work on a personal website or a blog in order to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are ‘published’ in the sense that they are made publicly available, but this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. 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