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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6020",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Shape Memory Alloys - Fundamentals and Applications",title:"Shape Memory Alloys",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Applications",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book is a result of contributions of experts from international scientific community working in different aspects of shape memory alloys (SMAs) and reports on the state-of-the-art research and development findings on this topic through original and innovative research studies. Through its five chapters, the reader will have access to works related to ferromagnetic SMAs, while it introduces some specific applications like development of faster SMA actuators and application of nanostructural SMAs in medical devices. The book contains up-to-date publications of leading experts, and the edition is intended to furnish valuable recent information to the professionals involved in shape memory alloys analysis and applications. The text is addressed not only to researchers but also to professional engineers, students, and other experts in a variety of disciplines, both academic and industrial, seeking to gain a better understanding of what has been done in the field recently and what kind of open problems are in this area.",isbn:"978-953-51-3456-5",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3455-8",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4650-6",doi:"10.5772/66914",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"shape-memory-alloys-fundamentals-and-applications",numberOfPages:136,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"89ba319783170fefc256fcfa0613a6c0",bookSignature:"Farzad Ebrahim",publishedDate:"September 20th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6020.jpg",numberOfDownloads:7242,numberOfWosCitations:15,numberOfCrossrefCitations:14,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:27,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:56,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 16th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 7th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 5th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"June 3rd 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 2nd 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"20062",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzad",middleName:null,surname:"Ebrahimi",slug:"farzad-ebrahimi",fullName:"Farzad Ebrahimi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/20062/images/system/20062.jpg",biography:"Dr. Farzad Ebrahimi is an Associte Professor since 2010 in Mechanical Engineering at Imam Khomeini International University, Qazvin, Iran. He has several years of teaching and industrial experience. Since 2002, he has been working at the \\\\\\Smart Materials and Structures Lab\\\\\\ Research Center of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Tehran, where he is a researcher of smart functionally graded materials and structures. He is involved in several international journals as editor and reviewer. He serves on the editorial board for \\\\\\Advances in mechanical engineering\\\\\\. He is the author of the books “Smart functionally graded plates” and “Progress in analysis of functionally graded structures”, Nova Science Publishers, NY. He has authored several referred international journals and conferences. His research interests focus on areas of smart materials and structures, Mechanics of Nanostructures; functionally graded materials and structures, finite element analysis; Mechanics of composite materials and structures and modeling and mechanical analysis of smart and multifunctional nanostructures and he has published several researches in these fields. His research in these areas has been presented at international conferences and has appeared in academic journals such as Composite structures; Applied physics A; Journal of Intelligent materials and Structures; Smart Materials and Structures; European Journal of Mechanics; Archive of Applied Mechanics and journal of vibration and control.",institutionString:"Imam Khomeini International University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"7",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"944",title:"Metallurgy",slug:"metals-and-nonmetals-metallurgy"}],chapters:[{id:"56085",title:"Ferromagnetic Shape Memory Alloys: Foams and Microwires",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69702",slug:"ferromagnetic-shape-memory-alloys-foams-and-microwires",totalDownloads:1831,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Ferromagnetic shape memory alloys exhibit martensite transformation (MT) and magnetic transition and thus may be actuated by thermal and magnetic fields. The working frequency of these alloys may be higher than conventional shape memory alloys, such as Ni-Ti, because the magnetic field may operate at higher frequency. This chapter focuses on some fundamental topics of these multifunctional materials, including the composition-structure relationship, the synthesis of the foams and microwires, the martensite transformation and magnetic transition characters, the properties (magnetic-field-induced strain (MFIS), magnetocaloric effects (MCEs), shape memory effects, and superelastic effects), and applications. The improvement of the magnetic-field-induced strain due to the reduced constraint of twin boundary motion caused by grain boundaries in polycrystalline Ni-Mn-Ga foams and the size effects of the superelasticity and magnetocaloric properties in Ni-Mn-X (X = In, Sn, Sb) microwires are detailed and addressed.",signatures:"Xuexi Zhang and Mingfang Qian",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56085",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56085",authors:[{id:"199409",title:"Prof.",name:"Xuexi",surname:"Zhang",slug:"xuexi-zhang",fullName:"Xuexi Zhang"},{id:"203035",title:"Dr.",name:"Mingfang",surname:"Qian",slug:"mingfang-qian",fullName:"Mingfang Qian"}],corrections:null},{id:"55638",title:"Shape Memory Wires in R3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69175",slug:"shape-memory-wires-in-r3",totalDownloads:1044,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"We propose a new model describing the dynamics of wire made of shape memory alloys, by combining an elastic curve theory and the Ginzburg-Landau theory. The wire is assumed to be a closed curve and is not to be stretched with deformation. The derived system of nonlinear partial differential equations consists of a thermoelastic system and a geometric evolution equation under the inextensible condition. We also show that the system has dual variation structure as well as a straight material case. The structure implies stability of infinitesimally stable stationary state in the Lyapunov sense.",signatures:"Shinya Okabe, Takashi Suzuki and Shuji Yoshikawa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55638",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55638",authors:[{id:"187023",title:"Prof.",name:"Takashi",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"takashi-suzuki",fullName:"Takashi Suzuki"},{id:"204180",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuji",surname:"Yoshikawa",slug:"shuji-yoshikawa",fullName:"Shuji Yoshikawa"},{id:"204181",title:"Dr.",name:"Shinya",surname:"Okabe",slug:"shinya-okabe",fullName:"Shinya Okabe"}],corrections:null},{id:"55685",title:"Magnetocaloric Effects in Metamagnetic Shape Memory Alloys",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69116",slug:"magnetocaloric-effects-in-metamagnetic-shape-memory-alloys",totalDownloads:1313,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Recently, metamagnetic shape memory alloys have attracted much attention as candidates for the rare-earth free magnetic refrigerants. These materials undergo the martensitic transformation (MT) at around room temperature accompanied by a significant entropy change. The application of the magnetic field at the low-temperature martensitic phase realizes the magnetic field-induced martensitic transformation (MFIMT). Through the MFIMT, the materials show an unconventional magnetocaloric effect (MCE), which is called inverse magnetocaloric effect (IMCE). In this chapter, the direct measurement system of MCE in pulsed-high-magnetic fields is introduced. With taking the advantage of the fast field-sweep rate of pulsed field, adiabatic measurements of MCE are carried out at various temperatures. Using this technique, the IMCEs of the metamagnetic shape memory alloys NiCoMnIn and NiCoMnGa are directly measured as adiabatic temperature changes in pulsed fields. From the experimental data of MCE for NiCoMnIn, the entropy of spin system in the austenite phase is estimated through a simple mean-field model. By the combination of MCE, magnetization and specific heat measurements, the electronic, lattice and magnetic contributions to the IMCE are individually evaluated. The result for NiCoMnIn demonstrates that lattice entropy plays the dominant role for IMCE in this material.",signatures:"Takumi Kihara, Xiao Xu, Wataru Ito, Ryosuke Kainuma, Yoshiya\nAdachi, Takeshi Kanomata and Masashi Tokunaga",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55685",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55685",authors:[{id:"202151",title:"Dr.",name:"Takumi",surname:"Kihara",slug:"takumi-kihara",fullName:"Takumi Kihara"},{id:"205412",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiao",surname:"Xu",slug:"xiao-xu",fullName:"Xiao Xu"},{id:"205413",title:"Prof.",name:"Ryosuke",surname:"Kainuma",slug:"ryosuke-kainuma",fullName:"Ryosuke Kainuma"},{id:"205414",title:"Dr.",name:"Wataru",surname:"Ito",slug:"wataru-ito",fullName:"Wataru Ito"},{id:"205415",title:"Dr.",name:"Yoshiya",surname:"Adachi",slug:"yoshiya-adachi",fullName:"Yoshiya Adachi"},{id:"205416",title:"Prof.",name:"Takeshi",surname:"Kanomata",slug:"takeshi-kanomata",fullName:"Takeshi Kanomata"},{id:"205418",title:"Dr.",name:"Masashi",surname:"Tokunaga",slug:"masashi-tokunaga",fullName:"Masashi Tokunaga"}],corrections:null},{id:"56838",title:"Applications of Nanostructural NiTi Alloys for Medical Devices",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69238",slug:"applications-of-nanostructural-niti-alloys-for-medical-devices",totalDownloads:1524,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"New nanostructural shape memory alloy (55.91 wt% of Ni and 44.03 wt% of Ti) for the production of minimally invasive implantation medical devices (stents) was tested for corrosion resistance under static conditions by dipping it into solutions with various acidities (pH from 1.68 to 9.18) for 2 years, for static mechanical properties and for biocompatibility. The material for investigations was 280‐μm wires before and after thermal treatment at 450°C for 15 min in air and surface mechanical treatment. The characteristic image and size of grains were determined using the transmission electron microscope (TEM), and the phase composition; surface morphology; and the layer‐by‐layer composition were investigated using an X‐ray diffractometer; a scanning electron microscope (SEM); and an Auger spectrometer. The nickel release from the investigated nanostructural nitinol is less in comparison with data for microstructural nitinol in a solution of any acidity. Dissolution in the alkali medium is absent. A significant retardation of the nickel ion release (and insignificant concentration as a whole) and the absence of titanium ion release in the weakly acidic and neutral solutions with polished samples are observed. A simultaneous 7–11% increase in strength and plasticity in comparison with microstructural nitinol was attained. Toxicity of samples has not been revealed.",signatures:"Elena O. Nasakina, Mikhail A. Sevostyanov, Alexander S. Baikin,\nAlexey V. Seryogin, Sergey V. Konushkin, Konstantin V. Sergienko,\nAlexander V. Leonov and Alexey G. Kolmakov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56838",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56838",authors:[{id:"203532",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",surname:"Nasakina",slug:"elena-nasakina",fullName:"Elena Nasakina"},{id:"203533",title:"Dr.",name:"Sevostyanov",surname:"Michail",slug:"sevostyanov-michail",fullName:"Sevostyanov Michail"},{id:"206076",title:"Mr.",name:"Alexander S.",surname:"Baikin",slug:"alexander-s.-baikin",fullName:"Alexander S. Baikin"},{id:"206077",title:"Mr.",name:"Alexey V.",surname:"Seryogin",slug:"alexey-v.-seryogin",fullName:"Alexey V. Seryogin"},{id:"206078",title:"Mr.",name:"Sergey V.",surname:"Konushkin",slug:"sergey-v.-konushkin",fullName:"Sergey V. Konushkin"},{id:"206079",title:"Mr.",name:"Konstantin V.",surname:"Sergienko",slug:"konstantin-v.-sergienko",fullName:"Konstantin V. Sergienko"},{id:"206080",title:"Mr.",name:"Alexander V.",surname:"Leonov",slug:"alexander-v.-leonov",fullName:"Alexander V. Leonov"},{id:"206081",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexey G.",surname:"Kolmakov",slug:"alexey-g.-kolmakov",fullName:"Alexey G. Kolmakov"}],corrections:null},{id:"56256",title:"Development of Faster SMA Actuators",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69868",slug:"development-of-faster-sma-actuators",totalDownloads:1530,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Large cycle time, resulted from slow cooling, is the core hindrance to the wide spread applications of shape memory alloys (SMAs) as actuators. This chapter discusses a novel cooling technique to decrease the cycle time of SMAs. Under this technique, the SMA actuator of 0.15 mm diameter was run through a grease-filled Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) tube of 0.5 mm outside diameter. Later, same tests were repeated with oil filled PTFE tube. The test results conducted in ambient air were used as standard for comparison. The actuation current in ambient air was set at 210, 310 and 410 mA. While testing with heat sink, i.e. grease and oil, the SMA was heated with 210, 310, 410, 500, 615 and 720 mA currents for 1 and 2 seconds, whereas the SMA was heated for 1 second only with 810 mA current. It was found that the grease cooling reduced the cooling time up to 30% and oil cooling by 20%, as compared to the ambient air-cooling time. However, the grease-cooled actuators had shown less strain, and their response was non-linear at many instances. Heat loss to the sinks resulted to more power consumption than that in ambient air cooling for equivalent amount of strain.",signatures:"Atta Muhammad Nizamani, Jawaid Daudpoto and Muhammad Ali\nNizamani",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56256",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56256",authors:[{id:"203606",title:"Dr.",name:"Jawaid",surname:"Daudpoto",slug:"jawaid-daudpoto",fullName:"Jawaid Daudpoto"},{id:"203779",title:"Mr.",name:"Atta Muhammad",surname:"Nizamani",slug:"atta-muhammad-nizamani",fullName:"Atta Muhammad Nizamani"},{id:"207660",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Ali",surname:"Nizamani",slug:"muhammad-ali-nizamani",fullName:"Muhammad Ali Nizamani"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"111",title:"Advances in Vibration Analysis Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"37f0b30e647599448abb4a02ca595dde",slug:"advances-in-vibration-analysis-research",bookSignature:"Farzad Ebrahimi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/111.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"20062",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzad",surname:"Ebrahimi",slug:"farzad-ebrahimi",fullName:"Farzad Ebrahimi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5097",title:"Advances in Functionally Graded Materials and Structures",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3132c367d705b55e9a912527efef76ab",slug:"advances-in-functionally-graded-materials-and-structures",bookSignature:"Farzad Ebrahimi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5097.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"20062",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzad",surname:"Ebrahimi",slug:"farzad-ebrahimi",fullName:"Farzad Ebrahimi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6244",title:"Surface Waves",subtitle:"New Trends and Developments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"48a2c4d0d993b62e4fe46a77a7a6cc4c",slug:"surface-waves-new-trends-and-developments",bookSignature:"Farzad Ebrahimi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6244.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"20062",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzad",surname:"Ebrahimi",slug:"farzad-ebrahimi",fullName:"Farzad Ebrahimi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4753",title:"Graphene",subtitle:"New Trends and Developments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7a2a89285055016ae39942309f30c4b5",slug:"graphene-new-trends-and-developments",bookSignature:"Farzad Ebrahimi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4753.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"20062",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzad",surname:"Ebrahimi",slug:"farzad-ebrahimi",fullName:"Farzad Ebrahimi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3272",title:"Piezoelectric Materials and Devices",subtitle:"Practice and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a41c5bb092cc30980df760d6bec44c20",slug:"piezoelectric-materials-and-devices-practice-and-applications",bookSignature:"Farzad Ebrahimi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3272.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"20062",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzad",surname:"Ebrahimi",slug:"farzad-ebrahimi",fullName:"Farzad Ebrahimi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8844",title:"Mechanics of Functionally Graded Materials and Structures",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dcaee033a035bfe8daa8ffa06b37b25f",slug:"mechanics-of-functionally-graded-materials-and-structures",bookSignature:"Farzad Ebrahimi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8844.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"20062",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzad",surname:"Ebrahimi",slug:"farzad-ebrahimi",fullName:"Farzad Ebrahimi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3817",title:"Developments in Corrosion Protection",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8ff86fac7ac8bce142fdc3c0e5a79f30",slug:"developments-in-corrosion-protection",bookSignature:"M. 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\r\n\tHydrolases are enzymes that catalyze the cleavage of a covalent bond using water. Hydrolases include esterases that work on ester bonds, such as phosphatases and proteases or peptidases that act on amide bonds in peptides. Hydrolase-based methods are atom-efficient, cost-effective, scalable, and environmentally sustainable. We would like to collect the hydrolase-related data that has been listed in the keyword in the form of a reference book.
\r\n\r\n\tThe book will provide researchers with an overview of what has already worked, recent success, and how they can make decisions to solve their own research challenges using the principle of biocatalysis using hydrolases. The topics are very well organized. The book will address recent developments in the use of hydrolases, emphasizing the substantial progress taken in enzyme development and optimization.
\r\n\r\n\tThe book is a must-have for those involved in using hydrolases in their studies. This book will be an excellent reference for biochemists, as well as students and scholars interested in the0 bio and organic chemistry, and polymer recycling.
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and the Deployment of Data Mining Process to Make Decision for Leishmaniasis in Marrakech City",slug:"data-warehouse-and-the-deployment-of-data-mining-process-to-make-decision-for-leishmaniasis-in-marra",signatures:"Habiba Mejhed, Samia Boussaa and Nour el houda Mejhed",authors:[{id:"14576",title:"Prof.",name:"Habiba",middleName:null,surname:"Mejhed",fullName:"Habiba Mejhed",slug:"habiba-mejhed"},{id:"64466",title:"Dr.",name:"Samia",middleName:null,surname:"Boussaa",fullName:"Samia Boussaa",slug:"samia-boussaa"},{id:"64467",title:"Prof.",name:"Nour El Houda",middleName:null,surname:"Mejhed",fullName:"Nour El Houda Mejhed",slug:"nour-el-houda-mejhed"}]},{id:"13268",title:"Data Mining in Ubiquitous Healthcare",slug:"data-mining-in-ubiquitous-healthcare",signatures:"Viswanathan, Whangbo and Yang",authors:[{id:"17612",title:"Dr.",name:"Murlikrishna",middleName:null,surname:"Viswanathan",fullName:"Murlikrishna Viswanathan",slug:"murlikrishna-viswanathan"}]},{id:"13269",title:"Data Mining in 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The fuel cells and electrolyzers are emerging technologies with wonderful potential. In these technologies, an electrolyte is needed to separate two electrodes where electrochemical reactions occur. The separation must be physical and electrical, but the electrolyte allows the ionic conduction of ions in order to close the circuit (so the current goes through the external circuit and can be used) and to make possible the continuity of the reactions at the electrodes. Here is where benzimidazoles (in the form of polybenzimidazole, e.g.) play a key role, in the conformation of a solid polymer electrolyte membrane, alone or with other chemical materials.
\nBut, what is a fuel cell? What do we understand for membranes in this field? Fuel cells are electrochemical devices that convert directly the chemical energy of the reagents into electrical energy and side-products via an electrochemical reaction. This process allows theoretical efficiencies as high as 80% [1], which is a wonderful advantage compared to the thermal machines limited thermodynamically by the Carnot cycle. There are many types of fuel cells, the most relevant are alkaline fuel cells (AFCs), polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs), phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFCs), molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs), and solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs).
\nPolymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells have as principal characteristics the low operation temperature (<120°C), high power density, and easy scale-up, making them a promising technology for power generation. Their main application fields are backup power, portable power, distributed generation, and transportation [1]. It is relevant to note the role of transition energy technology, since they can play an important function in the near future in order to overcome the fossil fuel depletion and mitigate the climate change. The reason is that fuels like hydrogen or alcohols, which are produced by unsustainable ways, could be produced with renewable energies. An example of this is the actual production of hydrogen mainly from catalytic reforming of methane and just some from electrolysis [2]. The hydrogen can be produced from electrolysis powered with electricity coming from renewables. This should be done when production is higher than the demand, allowing to store chemically the energy and later use it when needed with a PEMFC; this is known as the “hydrogen economy system.” It is also possible to accumulate energy in short-chain alcohols like methanol or ethanol and use them to power PEMFCs [3, 4], mainly used in the portable applications. A great advantage of this technology is the low pollution associated with the process. For example, when hydrogen is used as fuel, the only products are electricity and water. The potential of PEMFCs is really promising but still drawbacks as high cost (mainly from the expensive catalysts based in Pt) and low durability have to be overcome for a general commercialization [1].
\nIn PEMFCs one of the most important components is the polymeric ion exchange membrane (IEM) that works as an electrolyte. It has to be an electrical insulator to force the produced electrons to go through the external circuit, it also has to avoid the mixture of the reagents supplied in anode and cathode, and it is responsible of the adequate ionic conductivity of the ions traveling through it. Depending on the ion movement, two types of IEMs can be distinguished: anion exchange membranes (AEMs), where the ionic charge carriers are the hydroxide ions (OH−) that travel from cathode to anode, and cation exchange membranes (CEMs) where generally the proton ion (H+) moves from anode to cathode in the fuel cell. For that reason, the last ones are also called proton exchange membranes (PEMs). The AEMs are used in alkaline media and the others in acid media. The proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) have been historically more used because of the discovery of the Nafion® membrane that has good ionic conductivity and durability and has been the standard so far [5]. The higher mobility of the H+ ion compared to OH− in aqueous media has also been a relevant factor [6]. The alkaline media in the other hand does not have a standard membrane and presents relevant advantages that have produced high interest in the last years. Some of them are the faster electrochemical kinetics in the alkaline media, possible absence of noble metals as catalysts, minimized corrosion problems, and cogeneration of electricity and valuable chemicals [7].
\nIndependently of the media, membranes are expected to have good ionic conductivity, long-term chemical and electrochemical stability, adequate mechanical strength, good moisture control, low fuel or oxygen crossover, and production costs compatible with intended application [5, 6].
\nIn the FCs, the active materials (fuel and oxidant) are continuously fed and extracted. The fuel cell, Figure 1, is made up of two electrodes: the anode, where the fuel is oxidized, and the cathode, where the oxidant (O2) is reduced. It also involves an electrolyte, which acts as an ionic conductor and electrical insulator. The electrons obtained in the anode are addressed directly to the cathode through the external circuit, generating an electric current directly usable. In addition, the protons produced in the anode go through the electrolyte, up to the cathode to reduce O2, generating water as the only product of the reaction. The reaction is exothermic and has a value of ∆H0r = −285.83 kJ/mol for H2O (l) and − 241.862 kJ/mol for H2O(v). Although this is a spontaneous reaction, it needs to be catalyzed to be operational, since the kinetics of the process is too slow otherwise.
\nPolymer exchange membrane fuel cell working with H2 and O2.
At atmospheric pressure, the maximum potential difference obtained by the fuel cell will be determined by the difference of energy between the initial and final state of the system. The Gibbs free energy variation of the process, ∆G, can be calculated from the operation temperature (T) and changes with both enthalpy (∆H) and entropy (∆S) of the reaction. Under standard conditions
\nand the maximum potential difference, obtained in the fuel cell, E0theoric, will be
\nwhere n is the number of electrons exchanged and F is Faraday’s constant. At 298 K and 1 atm, ∆G0 = −237.340 J/mol and therefore E0 = 1.23 V. For an operating temperature of 80°C, the values of ∆H and ∆S change, but slightly, and the decrease in ∆G will be mainly due to the temperature, resulting in a theoretical potential difference of 1.18 V approximately. However, in practice this potential, called the open circuit potential, is significantly lower than this potential value, usually less than 1 V. This suggests that some losses appear in the fuel cell even when no external current is generated. The potential difference of the fuel cell in operation, that is, when the current is passing through the system, Efuel cell (I), will be given by the sum of thermodynamic or reversible value (I = 0), minus the anode and cathode activation overvoltage and the ohmic losses or overvoltage. The electrode kinetics was represented by the Butler-Volmer equation, the mass transport process was described by the multicomponent Stefan-Maxwell equations and Fick’s law, and the ionic and electronic resistances are described by Ohm’s law. The E fuel cell (I) value could be obtained by
\nThe losses considered are in relation to the activation overvoltages, and they are dependent on the kinetics of the processes involved and therefore directly related to the goodness of catalyst used for the process. Thus,
being ioc, αc, iLc and ioa, αa, iLa the exchange current density, transfer coefficient, and limit current density of the cathodic and anodic processes, respectively [8]. The polarization curve of the device can be found in Figure 2, where the different losses mentioned above are indicated.
\nPolarization curves with voltage losses of a fuel cell.
It was previously stated that the ion exchange polymer membrane is electrically insulator and practically impermeable to reactant gases, but some small amount of mainly H2 will crossover from anode to cathode. Hydrogen that permeates through the membrane does not participate in the electrochemical reaction on the anode side. Each hydrogen molecule on the cathode side reacts with oxygen on the surface of the catalyst resulting in two fewer electrons in the generated current that travels through the external circuit and thus in a reduction of cathode and the overall fuel cell potential. These losses are not big in fuel cell operation, but when the fuel cell is at open circuit potential or at very low current densities, this situation may have a dramatic effect on fuel cell potential. At least, all these losses have to be taken into account when the device works and have a lot to do with good fuel cell performance.
\nPolybenzimidazoles are synthesized by the repetitive reaction of aromatic amino groups with carboxyl groups using a 1:2 molar ratio by the process of step-grow polymerization [9]. Usually the monomer reagents are a diacid and a tetra-amine, like the example in Figure 3. There are many polybenzimidazoles but the ones that have presented better application and have been more studied are poly(2,2′-(
Example synthesis of (top) poly(2,2′-(m-phenylene)-5,5′-bibenzimidazole), abbreviated as PBI, and (bottom) poly(2,5-benzimidazole) (ABPBI).
ABPBI is synthesized from a single monomer, (3,4-diaminobenzoic acid) (DABA), which as the advantages of being less expensive, commercially available, and non-carcinogenic. The scheme is shown in Figure 3. Different syntheses have been done by the homogeneous solution method in PPA or Eaton’s reagent, and inherent viscosity values as high as 7.33 have been reached, as reported by Li et al. by using recrystallized DABA [19]. This is essential for the direct casting of ABPBI membranes since it has been suggested by Asensio and Gómez-Romero that values of at least 2.3 dL g−1 are necessary to cast good membranes [13].
\nIn the case of ABPBI, since there is only a monomer, its purity is not as critical as in PBI; however, the use of high purity monomer produces polymers of high molecular weight [20]. Since polybenzimidazoles have to be doped in order to become ionic conductors, two methods are used to prepare the membranes: direct casting from the polymerization solution, as the work developed by Asensio et al. [21], or dissolving the previously synthesized polymer and then doing the casting of the membrane. The casting process consists in the formation of a thin film by the deposition of the polymer by evaporation of the solvent in the solution. To solubilize PBI or ABPBI, usually strong bases or acids are needed; only a few organic solvents can also do it; one of them is the N,N-dimethylacetamide (DMAc) [13, 22]. There is also an alternative way to cast ABPBI membranes from a mixture of NaOH and ethanol [23].
\nThe structure of polybenzimidazoles has a good degree of flexibility and chemical and thermal resistance compared to other polymers with more single bonds in their main chain between aromatic units. The presence of aromatic units in the main chain to have higher thermal stability than the aliphatic analogs is also important [9]. In order to characterize polybenzimidazoles, one of the most important parameters is the molecular weight of the polymer, which will be highly related to the final membranes properties. The common way to obtain the molecular weight is by measurement of the intrinsic viscosity of the polymer (ηIV) at a certain temperature (normally 25–30°C). From the plotting of the specific viscosity (ηsp) as function of the polymer concentration, the intrinsic viscosity is calculated extrapolating to zero concentration. A simpler measurement process was proposed to do the calculation with a single-point method using Eq. (6), where C is the polymer concentration in a concentrated acid like 96 wt% H2SO4:
\nThe protocol test is to calculate the ηsp of a polymer solution 5 g L−1 in concentrated sulfuric acid at 30°C using an Ubbelohde viscometer. From the ηIV value, the average molecular weight is calculated with the Mark-Houwink- Sakurada expression:
\nwhere the Mark-Houwink constants depend on the molecular weight range and distribution. Values often used for this constants are K = 1.94 × 10−4 dL g−1, and α = 0.791, obtained from Buckley et al. by light scattering measurements. Other solvents as formic acid or MSA can also be used to measure the viscosity of polybenzimidazoles [14].
\nThere are various techniques in order to investigate the structure of polybenzimidazoles. Nuclear magnetic resonance is very powerful for pure organic compounds or the repeating unit of a polymer. Solvents that can be used include deuterated dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO- d6) and deuterated sulfuric acid (D2SO4). The most commonly used to record 1H-NMR spectra is DMSO-d6 because with D2SO4, the fast exchange interaction with the proton in the imine of the imidazole rings (-NH-) causes the chemical shift of that hydrogen to be often indiscernible [24]. 1H-NMR PBI characteristic signals in DMSO-d6 are at 13.2 (2H), 9.1 (1H), 8.3 (2H), and 8.0–7.6 (7H) ppm, the first of them attributed to the imidazole protons and the others to the aromatic protons [25, 26]. IR and Raman spectroscopy are also used, mainly to identify different functional groups and obtain or corroborate the chemical structure of the polymers [24, 27, 28]. In PBI, the IR spectrum region from 2000 to 4000 cm−1 is interesting since N–H stretching modes occur in this range, showing three typical bands at 3415, 3145, and 3063 cm−1. The broad band around 3145 cm−1 has been attributed to the stretching vibrations of N–H groups self-associated by hydrogen bonds, and the peak at 3145 cm−1 is assigned to the N–H groups stretching vibration. In the region from 1630 to 1500 cm−1, the peaks observed come from the vibration of C=C and C=N bonds [27]. In the Raman spectra of PBI, the most significant absorption band comes from the benzene ring vibration and is located around 1000 cm−1 [28]. For the measurement of the Raman spectra, it is relevant to use an excitation wavelength of 785 nm (red laser) since it gives much less fluorescence than the 532 nm (green laser) [29]. Because the structure and functional groups are the same, ABPBI presents the same IR peaks than PBI, as reported by Asensio et al. [30]. They also investigated the bands appearing when the polymer membrane is doped with phosphoric acid: in the N–H stretching zone, they found the evolution of nitrogen protonation by the acid, and in the medium and high doped samples, the broad band of N+–H vibration becomes stronger, while the nonassociated imidazole protons decreases. In polybenzimidazoles doped with alkaline media for anion conductivity purposes, the structure changes are also clearly identified. Aili et al. [31] investigated PBI with different degrees of KOH doping and found that in the IR spectra, at KOH concentrations higher than 15 wt.%, the N–H stretching band at 3415 cm−1 disappear as well as the broad band around 3100 cm−1 of shelf-associated hydrogen bonded N–H groups. They concluded that the IR data indicated the predominance of the deprotonated form of PBI with KOH concentrations of the bulk solution around 15–20 wt.%. In the 1H-NMR spectrum the signal at 13.3 ppm of the N–H proton disappeared at high bulk KOH concentration, and most signals from the aromatic protons showed upfield shift compared to pristine PBI, indicating complete ionization. This full ionization of the polymer releases the extensive intermolecular hydrogen bonding allowing for high swelling behavior and water and KOH uptake and therefore enhanced ion conductivity. This study corroborates the knowledge that the introduction of species that interact with imidazole groups by hydrogen bonding decreases the intermolecular polybenzimidazole cohesion, causing a strong plasticizing effect observed in the great decay of the tensile strength and enhanced elongation at break when the doping level increases, especially when full ionization of the polymer is reached. Using an even higher concentration doping solution, they found that a higher crystallinity structure was obtained, as observed by XRD, mechanical test, and swelling behavior measurements. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) is also a helpful technique for the characterization of polybenzimidazoles, concretely for the capacity to distinguish the oxidation states of the elements present and allow their quantification in the surface of the membrane [29]. Other fundamental measurements usually performed on the synthesized membranes are the determination of the ionic conductivity, the swelling behavior with water and in acidic/alkaline media, or the thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). In conclusion, a full set of characterization analysis have been studied and are used to identify and test the properties of the synthesized polybenzimidazoles and the membranes prepared with them.
\nThere have been different companies relevant in the fuel cell membrane field, probably the most known one is DuPont for developing the Nafion® membrane made of a sulfonated tetrafluoroethylene-based fluoropolymer-copolymer with excellent thermal and mechanical stability as well as high proton conductivity in low-temperature fuel cells. Companies like Solvay, Gore, and others have also commercialized membranes with this chemistry. This membrane has been the standard for fuel cells used in low-temperature and acidic media, but at temperatures higher than 100°C, Nafion® performance drops dramatically due to the lower hydration level. It is in these conditions where membranes made of polybenzimidazoles have shown good performance and promising applicability, and production for commercialization has occurred. BASF Fuel Cell (formerly PEMEAS Fuel Cell), a part of one of the larger chemistry industries, has developed a product line about a membrane electrode assembly (MEA) based in a PBI membrane, Celtec® [32, 33]. These MEAs optimal operation conditions are between 120 and 180°C, doped in phosphoric acid. They have shown relevant advantages working as high temperature PMFCs, like high tolerance to fuel gas impurities such as CO (up to 3%), H2S (up to 10 ppm), NH3, or methanol, no humidification required, far simpler system due to elimination of water, and a less complex reformer technology. In addition, several advantages can be obtained for the electrocatalysis, but it is necessary to be especially careful at the high stability toward corrosion needed to ensure long fuel cell lifetimes, apart from high activity for the oxidation of the fuels and the oxygen reduction reaction. Other companies that commercialize PBI- and PBI-based membranes are “PBI Performance Products” with their Celazole® PBI PEM [22, 34] and Danish Power Systems with their Dapozol® membranes and MEAs [35]. Membranes based on PBI are of high applicability as it can be observed, both for the fuel cell technology in development and also for other applications as carbon capture, pervaporation dehydration processes, or electrochemical hydrogen separation, among others.
\nPolybenzimidazole (PBI) as ionic exchange membrane can be used as proton exchange if the material is doped with phosphoric acid (H3PO4), sulfuric acid (H2SO4), and nitric acid (HNO3) solvent media. The PBI has benzimidazole units in the polymer chain and bears the pKa = 5.5 that is responsible for the weak acid character, and they have excellent oxidative and thermal stability [36]. The acid molecules penetrate the membranes during doping process, due to the acid-base interaction between them and gradually swelling of PBI membrane. Therefore, PBI can be easily doped with different types of strong acids, which act as predominant protonation through the PBI membranes.
\nIn these circumstances, the material can work as solid electrolyte in a fuel cell in temperature range between 100 and 200°C, overcoming the dehydration problem that the Nafion® membrane has in operation condition at around 100°C and in consequence the dramatically reduction of its proton conductivity, presenting a near zero electro-osmotic drag [37]. High temperature makes HT-PEMFC more tolerant to impurities in feed gases (CO, e.g.) and simplifies elimination of waste heat with a simpler cooling system. If the fuel cell is working with reformed natural gas as a power source, the device does not require humidification of reactants due to the simple water management; that is why all these features greatly simplify design of HT-PEMFC stack [38].
\nIn the PBI/H3PO4 system, the polybenzimidazole acts not only as a matrix polymer but also as proton acceptor [39]. For HT-PEMFCs, PBI/H3PO4 is considered a reasonably successful solid electrolyte because the excellent conductivity and thermochemical stability. Phosphoric acid has been widely employed as an anhydrous proton conductor because of its high proton conductivity, low cost, and thermal stability. At temperatures above 150°C, the dehydration of the acid occurs and yields pyrophosphoric acid or higher oligomers, which exhibit worse proton conductivity. On the other hand, the long-running operation leads to the release and dilution of H3PO4 from the membranes, which results in a loss of the acid into the fuel cell gas/vapor exhaust streams, the decrease of membrane ionic conductivity, and thus a lower fuel cell performance occurs. The high proton conductivity of the membranes was proved only when the polymer holds a large excess of phosphoric acid [40]. The optimum doping level was around 5 moles H3PO4 per PBI repeat unit, where a compromise between conductivity and mechanical properties was achieved.
\nA thick membrane is not usually advantageous because it is mainly responsible for the large ohmic polarization and modest power performance of HT-MEA. However, approx. 100 μm has been implemented with the intention of improving their mechanical properties [41]. The acid doping is an essential process, but it softens the PBI membrane, causing membrane ripping in MEA fabrication. The mechanical stability of the doped PBI membrane can be improved by lowering the H3PO4 doping level; however, the proton conductivity is reduced [42].
\nThe problems of HT-PEMFCs operating at temperatures up to 100°C are not solved yet and demonstrate the necessity of research on new and more satisfactory alternatives. In this context, the ionic liquids (ILs) have been used as nonaqueous and low-volatility proton carriers in replacement of aqueous electrolytes. The protic ILs for example are able to transport protons due to their acid-base character and their capability to form complex or intermolecular hydrogen bonds [43] even in nonaqueous conditions. This type of materials tries to overcome the formation of unstable materials in the operating conditions and then to improve the performance of the PEMFC at high temperatures. The first research team working in this subject was Watanabe and colleagues, who identified the potential electroactive use of ILs in fuel cell reactions [44]. Sometimes, polymer phase substrate and the IL result in nonhomogeneous and unmanageable membranes when both components are integrated together. In general, ILs and polymers dissolved in a common solvent and later are casted as a film. In this way hybrid membranes are obtained, and the materials may be studied once the solvent has been removed. PBI-based hybrid membranes holding ILs are examples of this methodology. Greenbaum et al. [45] demonstrated that the composite gel-type membranes obtained from H3PO4 and aprotic hydrophilic IL, namely, 1-propyl-3-methylimidazolium dihydrogen phosphate [PMI][H2PO4] and PBI, can be operated as ion exchange membrane up to 150°C in a PEMFC. The composite membranes were homogeneous and both chemically and thermally stable with wide temperature range. Nevertheless, phase separation occurred when mixing the 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium triflate [EMI][Tf] or 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide [EMI][TFSI] ILs with H3PO4 and PBI, resulting in homogeneous membranes. Schauer et al. [46] investigated the use of aprotic ionic liquid 1-butyl-3-methylimidazoliumtrifluoromethanesulfonate [BMIM][TfO] and protic ionic liquid 1-ethylimidazoliumtrifluoromethanesulfonate [EIM][TfO] to prepare membranes with several different polymers: a polybenzimidazole derivative with benzofuranone (PBI-O-Ph), Udel®-type polysulfone (Udel® PSU), and poly(vinylidene fluoride-co-hexafluoropropene) fluoroelastomer. The proton conductivity of the membranes was a function of the temperature and the ionic liquid amount in the membrane and the polymeric matrix itself. For PBI-O-Ph-based membranes, the conductivity was very low up to 90°C. Wang et al. [47] studied the PBI/IL composite membranes where the IL was 1-hexyl-3-methylimidazolium trifluoromethanesulfonate [HMI][Tf], an organosoluble fluorine ionic liquid. The ionic conductivity reached a value as high as 1.6 × 10−2 S cm−1 at 250°C under anhydrous conditions, and the results depended on temperature and IL content. The IL [HMI][Tf] works simultaneously as plasticizer and ion carrier. On the other hand, the major drawback related to the IL addition is a loss of membranes’ mechanical properties, resulting in a good solid electrolyte to carry out the functions of HT-PEMFC at temperature > 200°C.
\nIn many cases imidazolium salts are the most investigated as ILs in these applications; composite membranes with good specific conductivity have been found for their application as electrolytes in PEMFCs; however low performances (maximum power densities of around 1 mW cm−2 [48]) have been obtained.
\nAnother example of composite hybrid membranes is the use of PBI as matrix and the diethlyaminebisulfate/sulfate IL, [DE][SH], in different compositional ratios, PBI/[DE][SHx], as was published by Ocón et al. [49]. In this case, the composite membranes were obtained using a solution casting method. The interaction between the IL and the PBI was analyzed by FTIR spectroscopy. The imine group from the imidazole ring of PBI composite membranes showed no evidence of protonation, and consequently, the interaction between the IL and PBI was weak, remaining free inside of the PBI structure and allowing for the ionic conduction. The mechanical properties and tensile stress of pristine PBI was deteriorated dramatically on increasing the IL content, despite the fact that the conductivity values were very acceptable for the described application. For demanding fuel cell operation conditions, such as 200°C, and low humidity conditions, the PBI/[DE][SHx] membranes exhibited acceptable ionic conductivity values, higher than 0.01 S cm−1. In addition to high proton conductivity in anhydrous environment, which is an indispensable condition for potential HT-PEMFC membrane candidates, other requisites must also be fulfilled: barrier to the reagent gases, thermal and dimensional stability under operating conditions, electrochemical stability under reducing and oxidizing potentials, and compatibility with the electrocatalyst. In this particular case, low open-circuit voltage (OCV) of the cell, 0.8 V, was obtained. This suggests a mixed potential, although no crossover was detected in the experiments. The authors suggested that kinetic complication could show up like additional oxidation and reduction reactions simultaneously with the corresponding oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) and hydrogen oxidation reaction (HOR), respectively; furthermore, the poisoning effect of the H2S generated at the anode should not be ignored.
\nOn the other side, the beneficial effect on the decrease of the IL viscosity was observed in the performance of the fuel cell. The optimum performance was obtained with no limiting current, being the maximum current density ca. 70 mA cm−2 and 13.5 mW cm−2, using 100% relative humidity at 80°C. At temperature higher than 80°C, the system starts to dehydrate, whereas the IL viscosity increases and the proton diffusion was hindered. The performance at 150°C wasn’t good showing clear evidences of the system dehydration at temperatures beyond 80°C. The migration of the IL from anode to cathode was demonstrated in
It is necessary to keep in mind that the requirements of cell lifetime vary for different applications, that is, 5000 h for cars, 20,000 h for buses, and 40,000 h for stationary application with continuous operation [43]. This means that the development of ionic exchange membranes with a long operating life is a challenge to develop.
\nMany electrochemical systems use ion exchange membranes, such as fuel cells, electrolyzers, or redox flow batteries. Traditionally cation exchange membranes have been used in these systems due to the idea that anion exchange membranes had too low conductivity and stability. However, in the last years, many advances have been made, and anion exchange membranes (AEMs) are demonstrating to have performances comparable to acid ones, showing promising application in several technologies [2]. These membranes conduct negatively charged ions like OH− or Cl− and usually have positive-charged groups in the polymer structure, which could be directly present in the polymer backbone or more commonly fixed to it by extended side chains of varying lengths and chemistries. Varcoe et al. [2] investigated a deep review about the different chemistries of polymer backbones and head groups and their current state of research. The use of alkaline media, compared to acid media, has some advantages like the better electrochemical kinetics of the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR). This allows the possibility of using non-noble metals in the electrocatalysts reducing the fuel cell system cost. Other advantages are the minimized corrosion problems and the cogeneration of electricity and valuable chemicals [7, 50]. Compared to classical alkaline fuel cells (AFCs) where the electrolyte is in aqueous phase, the use of AEMs solves the carbonation problems and the difficulties of the liquid electrolyte management. The fuels commonly used in anion exchange membrane fuel cells (AEMFCs) are hydrogen and alcohols. Hydrogen is the common fuel in commercialization and research and gives the higher power densities. On the other hand, alcohols like methanol or ethanol have the advantages of easier handle, store, and transport and can be acquired from abundant biomass, which is environmentally friendly considering the process is carbon-neutral.
\nAmong all the polymers available and tested for AEMFCs, polybenzimidazoles have demonstrated good applicability, and the most commonly used and studied are PBI and ABPBI. Some of their advantages remain in the properties previously described, as excellent thermal stability, which allows to use them at higher temperatures, superior mechanical properties that can withstand the performance conditions, and the presence of amine and imine groups which form strong hydrogen bonding interactions and can be further functionalized. The great stability properties have also encouraged many studies combining polybenzimidazoles with other polymers, creating blend or crosslinked membranes with excellent performances. Membranes based on polybenzimidazoles alone or with other polymers have also demonstrated low alcohols crossover, making them adequate electrolytes in alcohol fuel cells. In the alkaline media, the pristine form of PBI can be equilibrated in aqueous solutions of alkali metal hydroxides forming homogeneous systems with the hydroxide salt and water dissolved in the polymer matrix. These materials have shown high ion conductivity and great chemical stability at low alkali concentrations and have been tested as anion-conducting electrolytes in fuel cells with hydrogen or alcohol and in water electrolyzers. In order to understand the physical and chemical properties of polybenzimidazoles in alkaline media, Aili et al. have made a study with thin films of PBI in aqueous KOH solution with concentrations from 0 to 50 wt.% [31]. They observed by the EDS cross-sectional maps that the dissolved KOH is evenly distributed in the electrolyte membrane. The polymer has strong water affinity through hydrogen bonding with the imidazole groups, absorbing around the water molecules per repeating unit (r.u.), and KOH forms various hydrated complexes when dissolved in water. The degree of ionization of the polymer is determined by the position of the acid-base equilibrium presented in Figure 4. They observed that it depends on the KOH concentration as was expected, increasing the KOH content per PBI r.u. with the higher concentration of the bulk solution, reaching 2.6 KOH molecules/r.u. at bulk concentration of 25 wt.%.
\nScheme showing the amphoteric nature of PBI in acidic (left) and alkaline (right) environments.
A similar trend was observed for the water molecules, reaching more than 20 H2O molecules/r.u. at KOH concentration around 20–25 wt.% in the bulk solution. In the polymer phase, the number of water molecules per KOH decreased while increasing the bulk solution concentration, showing a concentrating effect of KOH in the polymer. They did the measurements by titration and gravimetrically, getting consistent results that corroborate previous knowledge. They also observed the anisotropic swelling behavior of the polymer at different KOH concentrations that had been previously reported and performed X-ray diffraction (XRD) measurements to explain it. The explanation they found was that the increasing of surface area and thickness up to 15 wt.% concentration was due to the uptake of water and KOH, but further increasing the concentration leads to full ionization of the polymer, breaking many of the hydrogen bonds and separating the layered structure. This separation is easier in the interlayer dimension than in the intra-layer one, causing high thickness increase and area decrease. When KOH bulk solution concentration reached 50 wt.%, sharp peaks appeared in the XRD and were attributed to a crystalline phase of a poly(potassiumbenzimidazolide) hydrate with a symmetric and highly regular structure with crystallite size in the range of 70–120 nm. These crystalline peaks were vanished after washing in water until neutral pH. They also observed that the previously described effect of the introduction of water and KOH that disturbs the polymer hydrogen bonding of imidazole groups affected the mechanical properties, causing great decay in the tensile strength and enhanced elongation at break. When full ionization of the polymer was reached, at 20–25 wt.%, more than 200% elongation at break and 0.3 GPa elastic modulus were obtained, which compared with the 80% elongation at break and 3.0 GPa in pure water, showing the great differences. The IR measurements showed clearly that the chemical environment of the benzimidazole moieties changed greatly from the dissociation of the acidic proton. The result was that the deprotonated form of PBI predominates when the KOH concentration of the bulk solution is around 15–20%.
\nIn order to discuss the different membranes based on polybenzimidazoles, the classification of anion exchange membranes made by Merle et al. will be useful [6]. Membranes are classified in three main groups: heterogeneous membranes, interpenetrating polymer networks, and homogeneous membranes. The heterogeneous membranes are composed by an anion exchange material embedded in an inert compound and can be divided in ion-solvating polymers if the inert compound is a salt or hybrid membranes in it is an inorganic segment. Polybenzimidazoles alone or blended with other polymers would fall into the category of ion-solvating polymers. The interpenetrating polymer network is a combination of two polymers in which one or both are synthesized or crosslinked in the presence of the other without any covalent bonds between them. The homogeneous membranes are composed only by the anion exchange material, forming a one-phase system, where the cationic charges are covalently bonded to the polymer backbone. Mobile counter ions are associated with the ionic sites to preserve the electroneutrality of the polymer. Examples of the cationic sites are the quaternary ammonium (QA) groups commonly used in AEMs. Depending on the production method and the starting materials, homogeneous membranes are divided into three types: (co)polymerization of monomers, modification into a polymer, and modification on a preformed film.
\nAlkali-doped PBI was investigated by Xing et al. for use in AEMFCs [51]. They obtained very interesting results, like conductivity as high as 9 × 10−2 S cm−1 at 25°C, higher than 2 × 10−2 S cm−1 of a H2SO4-doped PBI membrane, or the similar performance in hydrogen/oxygen fuel cells with alkali-doped PBI membrane and Nafion®117 membrane. Since that pioneering work, extensive attention has been paid to the alkali-doped PBI membranes, and thus great progress has been made. However, relevant issues are still remaining such as alkali leakage, fuel permeability, and mechanical stability. The single-cell performance of alkali-doped PBIs has been extensively studied with various fuels [52], such as hydrogen, methanol, ethanol, ethylene glycol, glycerol, formate, and borohydrides.
\nUsing hydrogen as fuel, Zarrin et al. [53] have developed a stable and highly ion-conductive porous membrane doped with KOH. They found enhanced ionic conductivity by introducing the porosity in the membrane and obtained around twice better cell performance and conductivity compared with a commercial Fumapem® FAA membrane. Moreover, the KOH-doped PBI membrane maintained the ionic conductivity after 14 days of stability test, far more than the 3 h of the commercial one. The peak power density obtained with the porous PBI membrane of porosity 0.7 was 72 mW cm−2, better than the 41 and 45 mW cm−2 obtained with a dense PBI membrane and the commercial FAA membrane, respectively. This better performance was demonstrated to be ascribed to the fact that the porous structure offered a higher ion transport rate through the membrane. One of the previously mentioned issues is the gradual alkali leakage during the cell operation. To solve it Zeng et al. [54] synthesized a sandwiched porous PBI membrane doped with KOH. The pore-forming method rendered numerous sponge-like walls and interconnected macropores, improving the interaction between the PBI and the doping alkali, indicating that both anionic conductivity and alkali retention could be enhanced by this method. Using this sandwiched porous PBI membrane doped with KOH in an AEMFC, they obtained an open-circuit voltage (OCV) of 1.0 V and a peak power density of 544 mW cm−2 at 90°C, which was higher than using the conventional membrane structure. They also investigated the durability of the fuel cell at a constant current density of 700 mW cm−2 and found that the conventional fuel cell had a dramatic voltage drop after short operation time, which was ascribed to the progressive release of the alkali solution. On the other hand, the sandwiched porous membranes performed with improved stability; the voltages reduced gradually to 0.1 V and remained there for another 25 h approximately. They explained that the performance enhancement was attributed to the retarding in the release of the alkali solution from the sponge-shaped wall, maintaining the high conductivity of the membrane. However, finally the leakage occurred, but as the authors indicated, the membrane could be reused after doping with KOH solution again.
\nAnother approach was that used by Lu et al. [55]. They used PBI to react with poly(vinylbenzyl chloride) (PVBC), a polymer commonly used by other groups as for example Varcoe et al. in their grafted PTFE membranes [56, 57]. PVBC has the advantage of reacting with the imidazole rings of PBI creating a crosslinking connection with remaining -CH2Cl groups unreacted that can be later functionalized as desired. For the functionalization of these groups, they decided to use the diamine 1,4-diazabicyclo (2.2.2) octane (DABCO), a very stable amine in alkaline media especially when only one of the two nitrogen is quaternized as previously reported [2, 6]. This method had the advantage that quaternization is done in the already casted membrane so it can be ensured that only one of the nitrogens react with PVBC obtaining the stability desired. Thanks to the good mechanical properties of PBI, they obtained membranes with good flexibility and strength both in dry conditions and saturated in water as well as high hydroxide conductivity (>25 mS cm−1 at room temperature) and superior chemical stability in alkaline environment. They tested the membrane in the H2/O2 fuel cell obtaining a peak power density of 230 mW cm−2 at 50°C and performed stability test, which showed high durability both in the constant current and continuous open-circuit voltage.
\nIn addition to being used as an anion exchange membrane, alkali-doped PBI can work as ionomer, serving as ion-conductive pathway in the catalyst layer as well as a binder. Matsumoto et al. [58] developed a well-structured electrocatalyst for AEMFCs composed of carbon nanotubes (CNT), KOH-doped PBI ionomer, and platinum nanoparticles. This allowed them to obtain highly effective diffusivity and improved electrochemical activity, and they obtained a peak power density of 256 mW cm−2 at 50°C when tested in a H2/O2 fuel cell.
\nFor fuel cells running on methanol, Hou et al. [59] tested a direct methanol fuel cell with a KOH-doped PBI membrane and observed that when a mixed solution of 2.0 M methanol and 2.0 M KOH was used as fuel, the OCV was around 1.0 V, and the peak power density was 31 mW cm−2 at 90°C. Wu et al. [60] prepared a membrane of KOH-doped PBI with CNT nanocomposites and obtained maximum power densities of 67 mW cm−2 and 104 mW cm−2 at 60 and 90°C, respectively, with a fuel composition of 2.0 M methanol + 6.0 M KOH and humidified oxygen. Li et al. [61] worked with pristine PBI membrane synthesized by solution casting method and treated it separately with 2.0 M H3PO4 and 6.0 M KOH to prepare a PEM and an AEM, respectively. They also studied several parameters of the structure design and operating parameters. They found that the conductivity of the KOH-doped PBI membrane was higher than the phosphoric acid membrane, 21.6 and 7.9 mS cm−1, respectively. They also obtained a higher peak power density with the KOH-doped PBI membrane, 117.9 mW cm−2 at 90°C, than with the acid one, 46.5 mW cm−2. They even reached a peak power density of 158.9 mW cm−2 at 90°C when using free-microporous layer electrodes and tripled the fuel flow rate.
\nIn fuel cells running on ethanol, Hou et al. [62] developed a KOH-doped PBI membrane and found that with fuel composition of 2.0 M ethanol +2.0 M KOH, they obtained OCV of 0.92 V and maximum power density of 42.9 mW cm−2 at 75°C and 0.97 V and 60.9 mW cm−2 at 90°C. Modestov et al. [63] fabricated a membrane electrode assembly (MEA) employing non-platinum electrocatalysts and a KOH-doped membrane. In the anode they used a mixed solution of 3.0 M KOH +2.0 M ethanol as fuel, while in the cathode they used air flow. With these conditions and at temperature of 80°C, a peak power density of 100 mW cm−2 was obtained at a voltage of 0.4 V. It was also found that by operating the fuel cell with pure oxygen, the current density was improved by 10%. Also using ethanol as fuel, recently Herranz et al. [29] tested the fuel cell performance of membranes synthesized with PBI and poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) with different weight ratios. PVA alcohol groups interacted with PBI by hydrogen bonding as well as allowing enhanced conductivity of the hydroxyl anion through the membranes. The increasing content in the PVA blend membrane leads to higher conductivities but if excessive could bring structural problems since PBI demonstrated to be essential for the membrane integrity. PVA:PBI 4:1 membrane obtained the best performance with a peak power density of 76 mW cm−2 at 90°C, 50% higher than a pristine KOH-doped PBI tested in the same conditions.
\nABPBI has also been widely investigated for AEMs synthesis and application. Luo et al. [64] synthesized ABPBI and prepared the pristine membranes by the solution casting method. They studied the conductivity of the membranes at various alkali doping levels. They found high conductivity values for the membranes as 2.3 × 10−2 S cm−1 at 25°C and 7.3 × 10−2 S cm−1 at 100°C in the ABPBI membrane with alkali doping level of 0.37. They also founded the membranes have great thermal stability and excellent chemical stability, demonstrated by maintaining the conductivity values in alkaline media at 100°C for more than 1000 h.
\nOther alcohols and fuels have also been tested in AEMFCs using polybenzimidazoles in the membrane structure, showing promising results [65, 66]. Overall, the applicability and interest of benzimidazoles as AEMs are actual and will continue to increase due to their excellent properties.
\nPolybenzimidazoles have been deeply studied in the last decades, and great advancements have been done in their synthesis, making them economical materials with excellent thermal and mechanical properties as well as high chemical resistance in acidic and alkaline media. Their special structure with imidazole moieties and high intermolecular hydrogen bonding make them excellent materials to be used and ion exchange membranes for fuel cells. They can be used alone or in combination with other polymers or compounds, like the ionic liquids, as has been demonstrated many times. With them, it is possible to reach performances similar to other fuel cells and allow the application at higher temperatures, with all the benefits that implies. In the acidic media temperatures in the range of 120–200°C are used with good performances and easier water management, but still issues like structural stability with high doping level have to be solved. In order to help with the conductivity, ionic liquids have been investigated because of their nonaqueous and low-volatility properties as proton carriers. Interesting developments have been done but further research is necessary. In the alkaline media, their application has also attracted great interest. The ionization of the structure has been clearly identified at certain doping levels and the plasticizing effects it has. Pristine polybenzimidazole membranes have been directly doped with alkali solutions obtaining very good conductivity values, and other strategies like crosslinking with other polymers or synthesis of blend membranes have reported also promising results. The fuel cell performance is not yet as good as in the acidic media, but good results around 100 mW cm−2 have been obtained. Commercialization of membranes and MEAs based on PBI shows the potential they have, and research continues nowadays to develop them even more and better understand the possibilities of these wonderful materials in the fuel cell technology and the energy applications.
\nThe authors want to acknowledge the Spanish Ministry of Economy Industry and Competitiveness (MINECO) project ENE2016-77055-C3-1-R and to Madrid Regional Research Council (CAM) project P2018/EMT-4344 (BIOTRES-CM).
\nThe authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Poly[2,2′-(
Poly(2,5-benzimidazole)
\nProton exchange membrane fuel cells. Also used for general polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells
\nAnion exchange membrane fuel cells
\nIon exchange membrane
\nAnion/cation exchange membranes
\nOxygen reduction reaction
\nInherent viscosity
\nPolyphosphoric acid
\nMembrane electrode assembly
\nIonic liquids
\nOpen-circuit voltage
\nQuaternary ammonium
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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. 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