Species list of known pollinators for global crop.
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5420",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Terahertz Spectroscopy - A Cutting Edge Technology",title:"Terahertz Spectroscopy",subtitle:"A Cutting Edge Technology",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The terahertz regime of the electromagnetic spectrum was largely unexplored due to the lack of technology needed to generate and detect the radiation. However, in the last couple of decades, there has been a dramatic increase in tools needed to harness the radiation. This remarkable progress made in the development of terahertz sources, components, and detectors has resulted in an ever-increasing inquisitiveness of the applications of terahertz technology in a wide range of fields including medicine, pharmaceuticals, security, sensing, and quality assurance. This book, Terahertz Spectroscopy - A Cutting Edge Technology, presents an overview of the recent advances in terahertz technology and their application in a vast array of fields. The scientists and students are encouraged to read and share the content of this volume. The book also provides a good starting point for researchers who are new to the terahertz regime. The various chapters of the book have been written by renowned scientists in different parts of the world who are at the forefront of terahertz research fields. It is our (InTech publisher, editor, and authors) hope that this book will enhance knowledge and stimulate more interest and future research in terahertz technology.",isbn:"978-953-51-3032-1",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3031-4",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6699-3",doi:"10.5772/62805",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"terahertz-spectroscopy-a-cutting-edge-technology",numberOfPages:318,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"cd948b49de5a1ffd8178dc68346d49a7",bookSignature:"Jamal Uddin",publishedDate:"March 13th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5420.jpg",numberOfDownloads:31602,numberOfWosCitations:32,numberOfCrossrefCitations:26,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:3,numberOfDimensionsCitations:53,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:7,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:111,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 4th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 25th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 30th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 28th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 27th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"126741",title:"Dr.",name:"Jamal",middleName:null,surname:"Uddin",slug:"jamal-uddin",fullName:"Jamal Uddin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126741/images/5251_n.png",biography:"Dr. Jamal Uddin is a Professor of Coppin State University, Department of Natural Sciences, Baltimore, Maryland. He is the founder and director of the Center for Nanotechnology, CSU. He has been teaching chemistry, physical science, environmental science and nanotechnology since 2005 in the Department of Natural Science. He is also working as a Visiting Scientist, Center for Fluorescence Spectroscopy, University of Maryland, School of Medicine, Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Baltimore. Dr. Uddin’s research interest is in the areas of Solar energy, Laser Photochemistry, Nanomaterials, Quantum dots, Carbon Nanotube, Graphene, Dendrimer, Fluorescence spectroscopy and Metal enhance fluorescence. Some of his significant publications focused on Electron Transfer Chemistry in Donor-Acceptor complexes. He is a member of the American Chemical Society (ACS) and corresponding secretary of the American Association of University Professors (AAUP) Coppin State University, Maryland chapter. Dr. Uddin was the recipient of the 2012and 2016 Daily Record Innovator of the Year for Maryland individuals who have had a positive effect and tremendous impact in Maryland, USA.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Coppin State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"762",title:"Wireless Communication System",slug:"electrical-and-electronic-engineering-wireless-communication-system"}],chapters:[{id:"54052",title:"Terahertz (THz) Spectroscopy: A Cutting‐Edge Technology",doi:"10.5772/67031",slug:"terahertz-thz-spectroscopy-a-cutting-edge-technology",totalDownloads:4272,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:22,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"William Ghann and Jamal Uddin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54052",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54052",authors:[{id:"126741",title:"Dr.",name:"Jamal",surname:"Uddin",slug:"jamal-uddin",fullName:"Jamal Uddin"}],corrections:null},{id:"53269",title:"Terahertz Nanoantennas for Enhanced Spectroscopy",doi:"10.5772/66349",slug:"terahertz-nanoantennas-for-enhanced-spectroscopy",totalDownloads:1956,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Terahertz spectroscopy has great potential for sensing a wide range of elementary excitations. However, terahertz studies are practically limited to macroscopic ensembles of compounds (e.g., thick pellets of crystallized molecules or highly concentrated solutions of nanomaterials) due to the long radiation wavelength (about 300 μm at 1 THz). In this chapter, we show how terahertz nanoantennas can overcome the current limitations of terahertz spectroscopy such as low sensitivity and low spatial resolution. We briefly discuss how to design the resonance characteristics of a dipole nanoantenna through a Fabry-Pérot model, and then we present the experimental characterization of the spectral response of ordered arrays of such devices. Furthermore, we demonstrate how nanoantenna arrays enable the possibility of retrieving the spectroscopic signature of a monolayer of quantum dots and, in principle, of many other organic or inorganic compounds. This technique, based on the idea of increasing the sensitivity through local field enhancement, is named nanoantenna-enhanced terahertz spectroscopy (NETS). A Fano-like interference between the fundamental mode of the nanoantennas and the phonon resonance of the quantum dots is observed, together with an enhancement of the absorption of the dots up to more than a million. Finally, we show how to extract the main spectroscopic information of the quantum dots through a simple coupled harmonic oscillator model. This novel technique can be widely applied in terahertz spectroscopic studies of nanocrystals and molecules, where extremely low concentrations are of concern.",signatures:"Riccardo Piccoli, Andrea Rovere, Andrea Toma, Roberto Morandotti\nand Luca Razzari",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53269",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53269",authors:[{id:"95838",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",surname:"Toma",slug:"andrea-toma",fullName:"Andrea Toma"},{id:"190099",title:"Dr.",name:"Riccardo",surname:"Piccoli",slug:"riccardo-piccoli",fullName:"Riccardo Piccoli"},{id:"191118",title:"MSc.",name:"Andrea",surname:"Rovere",slug:"andrea-rovere",fullName:"Andrea Rovere"},{id:"191120",title:"Prof.",name:"Roberto",surname:"Morandotti",slug:"roberto-morandotti",fullName:"Roberto Morandotti"},{id:"191121",title:"Prof.",name:"Luca",surname:"Razzari",slug:"luca-razzari",fullName:"Luca Razzari"}],corrections:null},{id:"54367",title:"Research on Hydrogen-Bonded Materials Using Terahertz Technology",doi:"10.5772/67640",slug:"research-on-hydrogen-bonded-materials-using-terahertz-technology",totalDownloads:1444,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"We measured terahertz (THz) characterization of hydrogen-bonded materials using THz time domain spectroscopy (TDS) with a gas-cooling cryostat. The temperature and frequency dependencies of the complex dielectric constants of icy materials were measured over a wide temperature range. We checked the dielectric parameters of ices and gas hydrates using a mathematical model. Ice exhibits increasing absorption with frequency in the THz range because of the low-frequency tail of the infrared-absorption band. This behavior is also observed in gas hydrates. The parameters describing the frequency dependence of ε″ are treated as functions of temperature. From the THz spectroscopy on gas hydrates, we showed that the dielectric constants of the gas hydrates in the THz range can be analyzed using methods for ice. The complex dielectric constants in the THz range contribute to the infrared polarization and phonon absorption of the water molecules on the hydrogen-bonding matrices, so we suggest that THz-TDS is useful for physical and chemical studies of gas hydrates.",signatures:"Kei Takeya and Kodo Kawase",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54367",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54367",authors:[{id:"188250",title:"Dr.",name:"Kei",surname:"Takeya",slug:"kei-takeya",fullName:"Kei Takeya"},{id:"194965",title:"Prof.",name:"Kodo",surname:"Kawase",slug:"kodo-kawase",fullName:"Kodo Kawase"}],corrections:null},{id:"53360",title:"Terahertz Fiber Sensing",doi:"10.5772/66345",slug:"terahertz-fiber-sensing",totalDownloads:1391,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Terahertz fibers used for optical-sensing applications are introduced in this chapter, including the dielectric wires, ribbons and pipes. Different analyte conformations of the liquid, solid particle, thin film and vapor gas are successfully integrated with suitable fibers to perform high sensitivities. Based on the optimal sensitivities, analyte recognitions limited in traditional terahertz spectroscopy are experimentally demonstrated by the terahertz fiber sensors. Using the cladding index-dependent waveguide dispersion and high fractional cladding power of terahertz wire fiber, 20 ppm concentration between polyethylene and melamine particles can be distinguished. When the evanescent mode field of a terahertz ribbon fiber is controlled by a diffraction metal grating, subwavelength-confined surface terahertz waves potentially enable the near-field recognition for nano-thin films. Resonance waveguide field surrounding the terahertz pipe fiber is able to identify the macromolecule deposition in subwavelength-scaled thickness, approximately λ/225. For inner core-confined resonance waveguide field inside the terahertz pipe fiber, low physical density of the vaporized molecules around 1.6 nano-mole/mm3 can also be discriminated.",signatures:"Borwen You and Ja-Yu Lu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53360",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53360",authors:[{id:"189825",title:"Dr.",name:"Ja-Yu",surname:"Lu",slug:"ja-yu-lu",fullName:"Ja-Yu Lu"},{id:"191131",title:"Dr.",name:"Borwen",surname:"You",slug:"borwen-you",fullName:"Borwen You"}],corrections:null},{id:"54152",title:"Terahertz Detectors (THzDs): Bridging the Gap for Energy Harvesting",doi:"10.5772/66347",slug:"terahertz-detectors-thzds-bridging-the-gap-for-energy-harvesting",totalDownloads:3325,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"It is indispensable to integrate electronics with environment for better lives. Huge amount of solar energy, dark energy, and unused microwave energy is untapped till now due to insufficient availability of high frequency THz detectors. The difference between THz wave detection and THz electric field detection must be clear. THz wave detection connects the detection of explosives, drugs, astronomy, metals, and imaging applications, etc. On the other hand, THz electric field detection involves the conversion of electromagnetic (EM) radiations to usable DC power. The optimum choice of detectors for energy harvesting is a highly diverse area. The latter part is concentrated on the nonlinear behavior of the incoming radiations and has been highlighted also. In this chapter, metal‐insulator‐metal (MIM) diode detectors have been explored to become a best choice for high frequency detectors.",signatures:"Kapil Bhatt, Shilpi Shriwastava, Sandeep Kumar, Sandeep and\nChandra Charu Tripathi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54152",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54152",authors:[{id:"188065",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Kapil",surname:"Bhatt",slug:"kapil-bhatt",fullName:"Kapil Bhatt"},{id:"192529",title:"Prof.",name:"C.C.",surname:"Tripathi",slug:"c.c.-tripathi",fullName:"C.C. Tripathi"},{id:"193982",title:"Mr.",name:"Sandeep",surname:"Kumar",slug:"sandeep-kumar",fullName:"Sandeep Kumar"},{id:"194358",title:"Mr.",name:"Sandeep",surname:".",slug:"sandeep-.",fullName:"Sandeep ."},{id:"198432",title:"Ms.",name:"Shilpi",surname:"Shriwastava",slug:"shilpi-shriwastava",fullName:"Shilpi Shriwastava"}],corrections:null},{id:"54097",title:"THz Metamaterial Characterization Using THz-TDS",doi:"10.5772/67088",slug:"thz-metamaterial-characterization-using-thz-tds",totalDownloads:2019,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The purpose of this chapter is to familiarize the reader with metamaterials and describe terahertz (THz) spectroscopy within metamaterials research. The introduction provides key background information on metamaterials, describes their history and their unique properties. These properties include negative refraction, backwards phase propagation, and the reversed Doppler Effect. The history and theory of metamaterials are discussed, starting with Veselago’s negative index materials work and Pendry’s publications on physical realization of metamaterials. The next sections cover measurement and analyses of THz metamaterials. THz Time-domain spectroscopy (THz-TDS) will be the key measurement tool used to describe the THz metamaterial measurement process. Sample transmission data from a metamaterial THz-TDS measurement is analyzed to give a better understanding of the different frequency characteristics of metamaterials. The measurement and analysis sections are followed by a section on the fabrication process of metamaterials. After familiarizing the reader with THz metamaterial measurement and fabrication techniques, the final section will provide a review of various methods by which metamaterials are made active and/or tunable. Several novel concepts were demonstrated in recent years to achieve such metamaterials, including photoconductivity, high electron mobility transistor (HEMT), microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), and phase change material (PCM)-based metamaterial structures.",signatures:"Christopher H. Kodama and Ronald A. Coutu, Jr.",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54097",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54097",authors:[{id:"29446",title:"Dr",name:"Ronald",surname:"Coutu",slug:"ronald-coutu",fullName:"Ronald Coutu"}],corrections:null},{id:"53988",title:"Determining the Complex Refractive Index of Materials in the Far-Infrared from Terahertz Time-Domain Data",doi:"10.5772/66348",slug:"determining-the-complex-refractive-index-of-materials-in-the-far-infrared-from-terahertz-time-domain",totalDownloads:2356,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Terahertz time‐domain spectroscopy is a well‐established technique to study the far‐infrared electromagnetic response of materials. Measurements are broadband, fast, and performed at room temperature. Moreover, compact systems are nowadays commercially available, which can be operated by nonspecialist staff. Thanks to the determination of the amplitude and phase of the recorded signals, both refractive index and absorption coefficient of the sample material can be obtained. However, determining these electromagnetic parameters should be performed cautiously when samples are more or less transparent. In this chapter, we explain how to extract the material parameters from terahertz time‐domain data. We list the main sources of error, and their contribution to uncertainties. We give rules to select the most adapted technique for an optimized characterization, depending on the transparency of the samples, and address the case of samples with strong absorption peaks or exhibiting scattering.",signatures:"Maxime Bernier, Frédéric Garet and Jean-Louis Coutaz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53988",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53988",authors:[{id:"188915",title:"Dr.",name:"Maxime",surname:"Bernier",slug:"maxime-bernier",fullName:"Maxime Bernier"}],corrections:null},{id:"54204",title:"Terahertz Waveform Measurements Using a Chirped Optical Pulse and Terahertz Spectroscopy of Reverse Micellar Solution: Towards Time-resolved Terahertz Spectroscopy of Protein in Water",doi:"10.5772/67195",slug:"terahertz-waveform-measurements-using-a-chirped-optical-pulse-and-terahertz-spectroscopy-of-reverse-",totalDownloads:1627,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"One challenging research target using terahertz spectroscopy is time-resolved terahertz spectroscopy of protein molecules to clarify the relationship between protein’s functions and the low-frequency collective motion within the molecule. Our results on two research topics necessary for this target are described. One is single-shot measurements of terahertz waveform that has large advantages in time-resolved terahertz spectroscopy. We examined experimentally and theoretically single-shot measurements using chirped optical pulses. The other is terahertz spectroscopy of reverse micellar solutions in which nanometer-sized water droplets are formed. Protein powder is usually used as a sample for terahertz spectroscopy because the absorption of terahertz waves by solvent water is very strong in aqueous solutions of protein, although protein molecules work in water. The absorption of terahertz waves by the nonpolar oil solvent in reverse micellar solution is considerably weak compared with that by water. We demonstrated that terahertz absorption spectra of protein in liquids are obtained by the use of protein-containing reverse micellar solution. On the other hand, a nanometer-sized water droplet in reverse micellar solutions is a promising candidate for studies of supercooled water. We made temperature-dependent terahertz spectroscopy of the water droplet to study collective water motions due to hydrogen bond networks.",signatures:"Hiroshi Murakami",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54204",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54204",authors:[{id:"189842",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroshi",surname:"Murakami",slug:"hiroshi-murakami",fullName:"Hiroshi Murakami"}],corrections:null},{id:"53961",title:"Application of Terahertz Technology in Biomolecular Analysis and Medical Diagnosis",doi:"10.5772/67090",slug:"application-of-terahertz-technology-in-biomolecular-analysis-and-medical-diagnosis",totalDownloads:1930,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Terahertz technology is a nondestructive technique, which has progressed significantly in the scientific research and gains highly attention in the analysis of biological molecular, cellular, tissues and organs. In this decade, some studies were reported on the application of terahertz technology in medical testing and diagnosis. Here, we summarize the terahertz characters, terahertz spectroscopy, and terahertz imaging technology combined with chemometrics. This chapter focuses on introducing the research progress on analyzing the tissues of cancers using terahertz spectroscopy and terahertz imaging technology. Furthermore, the problems should be solved, and development directions of terahertz spectroscopy and terahertz imaging technology are discussed.",signatures:"Xin Zhang and Zhuoyong Zhang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53961",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53961",authors:[{id:"189879",title:"Dr.",name:"Xin",surname:"Zhang",slug:"xin-zhang",fullName:"Xin Zhang"},{id:"189897",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhuoyong",surname:"Zhang",slug:"zhuoyong-zhang",fullName:"Zhuoyong Zhang"}],corrections:null},{id:"53751",title:"Broadly Tunable CW Terahertz Sources Using Intrinsic Josephson Junction Stacks in High‐Temperature Superconductors",doi:"10.5772/67087",slug:"broadly-tunable-cw-terahertz-sources-using-intrinsic-josephson-junction-stacks-in-high-temperature-s",totalDownloads:1710,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Electromagnetic waves in the 0.3–3.0 THz frequency range are considered to have great potential in research and industry; thus, compact, solid‐state and continuous‐wave (CW) terahertz sources have been developed throughout the vast field of science and technology. Since the first demonstration of terahertz emission from intrinsic Josephson junctions (IJJs) in the high‐temperature (high‐Tc\n) superconductor Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8+δ\n, terahertz generation utilizing stacks of IJJs has become a major topic of research, both experimentally and theoretically. In this chapter, we describe recent progress on the development of high‐Tc\n superconducting terahertz sources. We demonstrate that these superconducting terahertz sources emit continuous terahertz radiation and generate power in the microwatt range at broadly tunable frequencies in the range of 0.5–2.4 THz. The solid‐state source is extremely small in size and its output power is sufficiently stable during operation. In addition, we also established a transmission imaging system using high‐Tc\n sources to promote effective use in various applications.",signatures:"Manabu Tsujimoto, Takanari Kashiwagi, Hidetoshi Minami and\nKazuo Kadowaki",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53751",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53751",authors:[{id:"15233",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazuo",surname:"Kadowaki",slug:"kazuo-kadowaki",fullName:"Kazuo Kadowaki"},{id:"189216",title:"Dr.",name:"Manabu",surname:"Tsujimoto",slug:"manabu-tsujimoto",fullName:"Manabu Tsujimoto"},{id:"194960",title:"Dr.",name:"Takanari",surname:"Kashiwagi",slug:"takanari-kashiwagi",fullName:"Takanari Kashiwagi"},{id:"194961",title:"Dr.",name:"Hidetoshi",surname:"Minami",slug:"hidetoshi-minami",fullName:"Hidetoshi Minami"}],corrections:null},{id:"53857",title:"Terahertz Pulse Detection Techniques and Imaging Applications",doi:"10.5772/67089",slug:"terahertz-pulse-detection-techniques-and-imaging-applications",totalDownloads:1935,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Recent years have witnessed successful developments of detection techniques of terahertz (THz) pulse radiation and its imaging applications such as security, medicine and environmental sensing, to name an important few. Progress of detection techniques has been made in many aspects, including detection sensitivity, real‐time detection, room‐temperature operation, detection bandwidth and dynamic range, spatial (wavefront) and temporal profiles and so on. New detection techniques utilizing cutting‐edge materials, sensors, systems and even novel detection mechanisms contribute to advances in terahertz pulse detection. While detection techniques continuously improve, terahertz pulsed imaging (TPI) also finds broad and intriguing applications. For instance, TPI has shown applications in nondestructive evaluation in pharmaceutics, biomedical characterization of tissues, medical diagnosis of cancers, identification of explosive hazards and examination of art and archeology. The chapter highlights recent progress of terahertz pulse detection techniques and imaging applications.",signatures:"Sung-Liang Chen and L. Jay Guo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53857",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53857",authors:[{id:"188869",title:"Prof.",name:"Sung-Liang",surname:"Chen",slug:"sung-liang-chen",fullName:"Sung-Liang Chen"},{id:"189845",title:"Prof.",name:"L. Jay",surname:"Guo",slug:"l.-jay-guo",fullName:"L. Jay Guo"}],corrections:null},{id:"54368",title:"Semiconductor THz Lasers and Their Applications in Spectroscopy of Explosives",doi:"10.5772/67625",slug:"semiconductor-thz-lasers-and-their-applications-in-spectroscopy-of-explosives",totalDownloads:1942,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Recently, applications of THz spectroscopy for detecting explosive agents have attracted much attention due to following reasons: many CBRNE agents have fingerprint-like features in the THz wavelength range; the THz spectroscopy provides an ability for remote and non-destructive identification of explosives; the THz radiation penetrates through many covering dielectric materials including paper, leather, fabric and so on. One of the most important components of THz spectroscopy setups is the source of THz radiation, which has to be high-power, tunable, low-cost and to have compact sizes. In this chapter, we are going to overview recent progress of wide variety of THz emitters considered as candidates for that role. We will pay a special attention to recent trends in engineering of spectral characteristics of THz quantum-cascade lasers and their tunability. Also we will describe the advantages and difficulties that accompany a THz spectroscopy of explosives.",signatures:"Mykhailo Klymenko, Oleksiy V. Shulika and Igor A. Sukhoivanov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54368",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54368",authors:[{id:"43112",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor",surname:"Sukhoivanov",slug:"igor-sukhoivanov",fullName:"Igor Sukhoivanov"},{id:"190097",title:"Dr.",name:"Oleksiy",surname:"Shulika",slug:"oleksiy-shulika",fullName:"Oleksiy Shulika"},{id:"190974",title:"Dr.",name:"Mykhailo",surname:"Klymenko",slug:"mykhailo-klymenko",fullName:"Mykhailo Klymenko"}],corrections:null},{id:"53921",title:"Terahertz Spectroscopy for Gastrointestinal Cancer Diagnosis",doi:"10.5772/66999",slug:"terahertz-spectroscopy-for-gastrointestinal-cancer-diagnosis",totalDownloads:1938,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, we present a number of sensitive measurement modalities for the study and analysis of human cancer-affected colon and gastric tissue using terahertz (THz) spectroscopy. Considerable advancements have been reached in characterization of bio-tissue with some accuracy, although too dawn, and still long and exhaustive work have to be done towards well-established and reliable applications. The advent of the THz-time-domain spectroscopy (THz-TDS) test modality at a sub-picosecond time resolution has arguably fostered an intensive work in this field’s research line. The chapter addresses some basic theoretical aspects of this measurement modality with the presentation of general experimental laboratory setup diagrams for THz generation and detection, sample preparation aspects, samples optical parameters calculation procedures and data analysis.",signatures:"Faustino Wahaia, Irmantas Kašalynas, Gintaras Valušis, Catia D.\nCarvalho Silva and Pedro L. Granja",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53921",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53921",authors:[{id:"188029",title:"Dr.",name:"Faustino",surname:"Wahaia",slug:"faustino-wahaia",fullName:"Faustino Wahaia"},{id:"194778",title:"Dr.",name:"Irmantas",surname:"Kasalynas",slug:"irmantas-kasalynas",fullName:"Irmantas Kasalynas"},{id:"194779",title:"Dr.",name:"Pedro L.Granja",surname:"Granja",slug:"pedro-l.granja-granja",fullName:"Pedro L.Granja Granja"},{id:"194780",title:"MSc.",name:"Catia",surname:"Silva",slug:"catia-silva",fullName:"Catia Silva"}],corrections:null},{id:"53131",title:"Nanostructured Indium Tin Oxides and Other Transparent Conducting Oxides: Characteristics and Applications in the THz Frequency Range",doi:"10.5772/66344",slug:"nanostructured-indium-tin-oxides-and-other-transparent-conducting-oxides-characteristics-and-applica",totalDownloads:1981,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Transparent conductors are essential for optoelectronic components operating in the far-infrared or terahertz (THz) frequency range. Indium tin oxide (ITO), extensively used in the visible, is semi-transparent in the far-infrared frequency range. Other types of bulk transparent conducting oxides (TCOs), such as aluminum-doped zinc oxide (AZO) and aluminum and ytterbium-doped zinc oxide (AYZO), have not yet been explored for THz applications. Recently, biomimic nanomaterials have been shown to exhibit exotic optical properties, e.g., broadband, omnidirectional antireflective properties. Indeed, nanostructured ITO was found to exhibit the above desirable characteristics. In this chapter, we describe the fabrication and characterization of several TCOs, including ITO nanomaterials and several types of bulk TCO thin films, e.g., AZO and AYZO. Performance of THz phase shifters with ITO nanomaterials as transparent electrodes and liquid crystals for functionalities is presented.",signatures:"Ci-Ling Pan, Chan-Shan Yang, Ru-Pin Pan, Peichen Yu and Gong-Ru\nLin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53131",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53131",authors:[{id:"3341",title:"Prof.",name:"Ci-Ling",surname:"Pan",slug:"ci-ling-pan",fullName:"Ci-Ling Pan"}],corrections:null},{id:"53133",title:"Ultrafast Carrier Dynamics at p-n Junction of Cu(In,Ga)Se2- Based Solar Cells Measured by Optical Pump Terahertz Probe Spectroscopy",doi:"10.5772/66350",slug:"ultrafast-carrier-dynamics-at-p-n-junction-of-cu-in-ga-se2-based-solar-cells-measured-by-optical-pum",totalDownloads:1782,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Among other materials, the p-type Cu(In,Ga)Se2 (CIGS) alloy has attracted attention as the most efficient absorber in thin-film solar cells. The typical CIGS layer is deposited with a polycrystalline structure containing an amount of native defect states, which serve as carrier traps and recombination centers. These defect states in the CIGS layer can be easily changed after deposition of an n-type buffer layer, due to the formation of p-n junctions. To understand the influence of the p-n junction on these defect states, the behavior of photoexcited carriers, from the CIGS absorber to the buffer layer, is considered to be an important issue and is closely related to solar cell performance. In this study, we performed experiments to investigate the ultrafast carrier dynamics of CIGS-based solar cells, using optical pump terahertz (THz) probe (OPTP) spectroscopy, and demonstrated the correlation between solar cell performance and the behavior of photoexcited carrier dynamics.",signatures:"Woo-Jung Lee and Yong-Duck Chung",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53133",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53133",authors:[{id:"189245",title:"Dr.",name:"Yong-Duck",surname:"Chung",slug:"yong-duck-chung",fullName:"Yong-Duck Chung"},{id:"189863",title:"Dr.",name:"Woo-Jung",surname:"Lee",slug:"woo-jung-lee",fullName:"Woo-Jung Lee"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"2094",title:"Macro To Nano Spectroscopy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ab1da8af4d1105f8eaa755b5ee33b",slug:"macro-to-nano-spectroscopy",bookSignature:"Jamal 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Pollination is a multi-million-year-old ecosystem process from which both flowering plants and pollinators get benefitted. Pollinating animals come to flowers for a variety of reasons, including food and shelter. Pollen rubs or falls onto pollinator’s bodies when they visit flowers. As the pollinator passes from one flower to the next, it transfers the pollen to another flower. This transfer is important in the life cycle of all flowering plants because it is required to begin seed and fruit production. Pollinators are important for healthy, productive agricultural ecosystems and nature.
Indeed, the interactions between plants and their pollinators are among the most beautiful examples of coevolution on the planet. While some pollinators are generalists, visiting a wide variety of flowers, many pollinators have acquired preferences for certain flower kinds, and vice versa. Most pollinators have their favourite colour of flower: Bees prefer blue flowers, butterflies prefer pink and red flowers, flies choose yellow and white flowers, beetles and bats prefer white flowers, while hummingbirds prefer red flowers. In addition, the phenology, form, and food reward offered by the flower can all impact which pollinators visit [1]. Bees, for example, can see ultraviolet light and have a better sense of bilateral symmetry. As a result, flowers that want to attract bees will likely use these visual signals to lure the bee to the flower’s centre [2].
Though some plant species depend on wind or water currents to carry pollens from one flower to another, but majority of plant species (approx. 90%) prefer animal assistance in this task. Around 200,000 different species of animals do this task of pollen transfer. Out of these, 1,000 are of vertebrates (birds, bats and tiny mammals), with the remainder being invertebrates, such as moths, bees, flies, beetles and butterflies [3].
Plant-pollinator interactions may be one of the most ecologically significant types of animal–plant interactions: without pollinators, many plants would be unable to set seed or reproduce, and without plants to provide pollen, nectar, and other rewards, countless animal populations would decline, with knock-on effects for other species [4].
Plants and their pollinators have had a significant impact on each other’s growth, frequently leading to diversification and even an exclusive partnership. The Madagascar Star Orchid (
Mutualisms between plants and pollinators extend back to the Cretaceous period, when insects began to feed on flowers and flowers achieved higher reproductive success through the transfer of pollen by insects. At least 67 percent of blooming plants rely on insects for pollination today [5], with the rest relying on birds and mammals. Pollinators are just as important as light and water for these plants to survive [6].
Pollinators comprise a diverse group of animals that include species of butterflies, flies, moths, wasps, beetles, ants, birds, weevils, thrips, midges, bats, monkeys, marsupials, rodents, and reptiles, but are dominated by insects, particularly bees. Bees and flies visit more than 90% of the world’s major plant types, while the other species visit fewer than 6% of the crop varieties (Table 1). The western and eastern species of honey bees i.e.,
Many species of flower visitors have been reported to visit flowering crops in the literature. For instance, a mega-study that included 90 percent of all agricultural pollination studies from throughout the world discovered that 785 different bee species visit crop blooms [8]. Bees are the most prolific and diverse pollinators in most parts of the world, with over 20,000 species recorded [9, 10]. With over 1,20,000 species, flies are an important group in agriculture, although only a few families are effective pollinators [11]. In colder climates, such as high altitude/latitude environments, flies outweigh bees in both diversity and quantity as pollinators [12]. In addition to bees and flies, butterflies, beetles, moths, wasps, ants, thrips and vertebrates also pollinate plants, including some crops. Pollinating butterflies and moths are found all around the planet, but in the tropics they are more numerous and diversified [13]. The enormous variety of insect pollinators was discussed by Kevan and Baker [14]. Some birds and bats, in addition to insects, are essential pollinators [15, 16]. Bird pollinators are mostly found in warm (tropical/subtropical) climates, whereas bats pollinate tropical forests and some desert cactus. Pollinators that are less well-known have also been reported for a variety of plant species. These include, among others, cockroaches [17], mice [18], squirrels [19], lizards [20, 21, 22] and snails [23]. The less well known pollinators are not known to have major roles in supporting agricultural production.
Bees play a significant role in pollination in most terrestrial environments around the world. Honeybees and thousands of species of native bees pollinate garden crops, meadows and woodland plants in the United States. The majority of bees visit flowers in search of pollen or nectar to nourish themselves and their young ones. Crop pollination and honey production are significantly reliant on honeybees. Solitary bees are among the most common native pollinators and named because most of them live solitary lives and do not assemble to live in colonies. Blueberries, sunflowers, apples, watermelon, alfalfa and strawberries are among the commercial crops pollinated by solitary bees. Solitary bees build their nests in a variety of unusual locations, such as sticks, mud mounds, and termite holes. A few species build mud nests and saps, plant resins on the edge of rocks and trees to make domed nests. Many bees excavate their nests into the soft inner pith of stems and twigs, or exploit abandoned beetle burrows. Some solitary bees, on the other hand, create tunnels in bare or partially vegetated, well-drained soil to make their nests. These bees can be generalist or specialist feeders, depending on the species. Generalist bees visit a wide variety of floral types collect nectar and pollens. Being more hardy species, these are able to thrive in degraded settings dominated by weedy or invasive plants. While specialists are more vulnerable to the detrimental effects of landscape or habitat changes since they depend on a single plant species for nectar and pollen.
Bumblebees are social bees, which means these bees reside in colonies, share tasks, and have many generations that overlap in the spring, summer, and fall. The bumblebees require a suitable sized cavity in to build their nest. These bees usually build their nest underground in abandoned rat burrows and sometimes in hollow trees or walls or under a clump of grass above ground. Bumblebees usually feed on a wide variety of plants.
Ants are gregarious insects that enjoy nectar in large quantities. These active insects are frequently seen visiting flowers in search of energy-dense nectar. Ants do not have any wings, so they have to crawl into each bloom to get their meal. They are more likely to collect nectar from flowers that are not efficiently cross-pollinated. Ants are drawn to low-growing, inconspicuous blooms close to the stem. Small’s stonecrop (
Butterflies, like all pollinators, are inextricably related to their surroundings, and abrupt changes in the ecosystem can have fatal consequences for localised populations or species. The butterfly’s habitat requirements differ from stage to stage, and each has its own set of requirements that must be taken into account in order to create acceptable habitat. The life cycle of a butterfly is divided into four stages: egg, caterpillar, pupa, and adult. Butterfly deposit its eggs on leaves of trees and shrubs, flowers and grasses.
Being oligolectic, most butterfly species remain confined to one or a few closely related species of plants as these plant species effectively act as host plants for their caterpillars. The females usually lay their eggs on or near the host plant for the survival of their caterpillars. The caterpillars of monarch butterflies, for example, only consume milkweed, and adult females of monarch butterflies lay eggs on or near milkweed plants. Newly hatched caterpillars feed on the leaves, stalks, flowers and fruits of their host plants, which also act as a protective barrier against predators. Caterpillars begin to transform into adult forms after several weeks of eating and growing. This is the pupal stage of a butterfly’s life, which is a non-feeding, sedentary stage. Pupae do not require nourishment, but they do require a safe place to convert into their adult forms, such as sticks, tall grass or a pile of leaves.
Adult butterflies feed almost entirely on nectar. Butterflies prefer flowers that are brightly coloured, aromatic, and have flat, broad surfaces on which to land. Adult butterflies like the nectar of daisies such as zinnias, asters, marigolds, goldenrods, dahlias and asters, dogbane, butterfly weed, ironweed, phlox and milkweed. Rotting fruit, tree sap, mud puddles, animal excrement and urine are also sources of nutrients, minerals and salt for adult males of some species. Adult butterflies can feed, bask, and rest on the leaves and stems of the host plants, which provide perching locations. Wind, rain and predators can all be protected by vegetation and modest woodpiles.
The moths are nocturnal in nature and some species are pollinators of night-blooming flowering plants, especially in the southern United States and Mexico. The female yucca moth, for example, has mouthparts that allow her to capture pollen and lay her eggs in the stigma of the yucca flower. The life and propagation of yucca plants are entirely dependent on the yucca moth. Each flower’s pistil (female component) terminates in a three-lobed stigma. Pollen masses must be driven down into this centre stigmatic opening in order for pollination to occur. Using her particularly modified mouthparts, the female yucca moth collects pollen from flower anthers. She gathers the sticky pollen and rolls it into a ball. She then “stuffs” or “combs” the pollen ball into the stigmas of the flowers she visits. The yucca flower will not develop into a fruit or pod with seeds unless this procedure occurs.
When a female moth visits a flower, she walks up to the base of the flower and inserts her ovipositor into one or more of the six chambers to lay an egg. The egg is protected in the chamber while it develops. The yucca will have begun to grow a pod with little seeds by the time the egg hatches into a tiny caterpillar. In this association, both the yucca plant and the yucca moth benefit.
Flies and beetles are two important pollinator groups. Certain species of flies show resemblance with bees by mimicking bee coloration and patterns. Both bees and flies possess transparent membranous wings and but flies can be distinguished on the basis of having only one pair of wings. Some pollinating beetles are small in size and difficult to spot as these beetles resemble with the black specks present on the petals of flowers, while others are large and more colourful. There are hundreds of thousands of species of pollinating flies and beetles, many of which have yet to be documented. The habitat requirements of different species vary. For each of their life phases, such as egg, larva, pupa, and adult, flies and beetles require food, water, and cover in adequate quantity and quality. Pollination is greatly aided by syrphid flies.
Wasps, like bees, have extremely high energy requirements that must be satisfied in order for them to survive. Pollen and nectar from a variety of flowers are vital for wasps. True wasps have stingers, which they utilise to catch insects or spiders for their larvae to feed. Small fig wasps are common throughout the tropics. Many tropical ecosystems rely on figs as a keystone species. Fig wasps pollinate about 1,000 different varieties of figs.
Figs are unique because of how the flowers are contained within the immature fruit. To mate, lay eggs, and pollinate the small flowers, fig wasps enter through a tiny pore. Both are severe examples of obligatory symbiosis, in which the plant and the insect are entirely dependent on one another to survive.
These small insects perform one of the most important ecosystem services on the planet, ensuring that both our culinary experiences and the world’s environment flourish. Nearly 75% of the plant species cultivated for food, fibre, spices, beverages, condiments and pharmaceuticals are pollinated by animals (Table 2). The status of pollinator populations has huge economic impacts on agriculture. While some crops such as corn and wheat, are wind pollinated and some others like potatoes reproduce vegetatively, a whopping 35% of agricultural yield relies on animal pollinators [25]. Roubik published a comprehensive list of 1330 tropical crop species, including a list of viable breeding systems and pollinating taxa [24].
Sr. No. | Pollinator group | Species name |
---|---|---|
1. | Bumble bees | |
2. | Beetles | |
3. | Honey bees | |
4. | Hover flies | |
5. | Stingless bees | |
6. | Thrips | |
7. | Wasps |
Species list of known pollinators for global crop.
1. | Fruits, berries and nuts | Almonds, Apple, Apricot, Avocado, Blackberry, Blueberry, Cacao, Cashew, Cherry, Chestnut, Citrus, Coffee, Coconut, Cranberry, Date, Fig, Gooseberry, Grapes, Guava, Huckleberry, Kiwi, Litchi, Mango, Olive, Papaya, Peach, Pear, Plum, Pomegranate, Raspberry, Strawberry, Vanilla, Watermelon |
2. | Herbs and spices | Black Pepper, Cardamom, Chive, Clove, Coriander, Fennel, Lavender, Mustard, Nutmeg, Parsley, Pimento, Tea, White Pepper |
3. | Legumes | Beans, Cowpea, Lima Beans, Lupines, Mung Bean/Green or Golden Gram, Soybean |
4. | Seeds and grains | Alfalfa, Buckwheat, Canola, Flax, Oil Palm, Safflower, Sesame, Sunflower |
5. | Vegetables | Asparagus, Beet, Broccoli, Brussels Sprouts, Cantaloupes, Carrot, Cauliflower, Celeriac, Celery, Cucumber, Eggplant, Endive, Green Pepper, Leek, Lettuce, Okra, Onion, Parsnip, Pumpkin, Radish, Rutabaga, Squash, Tomato, Turnip, White Gourd |
6. | Others | Cotton, Kenaf |
Common agricultural crops benefited by insect pollination [24].
Williams examined the pollinator requirements for 264 crop species in Europe and found that 84 percent of them rely on animal pollination to some extent [26]. To put this in context, pollinators contribute over about $200 billion to the global economy [27].
The benefits of pollinators can easily be expanded to global biomes exceeding our gardens, kitchens, and dinner tables. With so many of the world’s plants depending on pollinators for reproduction, these flower-loving friends are inadvertently supporting soil stabilisation, carbon sequestration and animal habitats. Sustaining healthy pollinator populations leads to supporting healthy ecosystems. The native pollinators not only provide a significant portion of the food and add to the economy, but they also play an important part in the natural ecosystem. The native pollinators help to keep the plant communities healthy and able to reproduce. They also support plants to provide cover and food for wildlife, to prevent erosion and keep waterways clean. The fruits and seeds produced by pollinated plants form an important part of the diet of birds and mammals. Many insects, including butterflies, use flowering plants as egg laying and nesting places.
The significance to a plant or the loss of its pollinators depends on whether the pollination relationship is facultative or obligate [28]. Some plants grow as a result of vegetative reproduction and are thus unaffected by the loss of pollinators. Others have vast seed banks or live a long time, so they may not be in immediate risk of extinction if their pollinator goes extinct. Most plants have several pollinators, and most pollinators pollinate multiple plant species, rather than a rigid one-pollinator-one-plant relationship. The composition of communities varies with environment, and what appears to be a specific relationship between a plant and a pollinator species may shift over time. Plants that are dioecious and self-incompatible, those with a solitary pollinator, and those that proliferate only by seeds are the most vulnerable to pollinator loss.
Many pollinator habitats have been destroyed or disrupted as a result of human activities. Invasive plant species have fragmented and damaged many remaining habitat regions and such habitats become less suitable for pollinators and other wildlife. These habitat alterations may result decline in food sources, nesting and mating sites of native pollinators. Many pesticides have negative effects on pollinators and their habitats due to overuse and poor application. Herbicides diminish forage plant diversity by eliminating wildflowers, and some pesticides harm pollinators directly, particularly pollinating insects. Honeybees, for example, might outcompete indigenous pollinators for local nectar resources, putting them at greater risk of extinction. Pollinator populations have declined significantly as a result of habitat degradation and fragmentation. At least 185 pollinator species are designated as threatened or extinct by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), and two bat species and 13 bird species are recognised as endangered in the United States.
A number of threats to pollinators have been identified. These include habitat alteration, habitat fragmentation, introduction of alien pollinators and pesticide poisoning [28].
Many bees not only require large numbers of flowers to provide nectar and pollen, but also need a variety of flowering plants for their sustainability throughout the growing season. Oligolectic insects, such as some bees and butterfly larvae depend on specific plants for survival and persistence of their populations.
In addition to food requirements, pollinating organisms often have specific nesting requirements. Some bee species nest in cavities in the ground such as old rodent burrows, spaces under rocks, or holes excavated in sand or soft dirt. Many other types of bees nest in hollow twigs. As land is developed for human activity, the availability of twigs, rodent burrows and suitable nesting substrates typically decrease.
In the present scenario, large-scale monoculture of crops and intensive cropping practices reduce the amount of land available to support wild vegetation. With the increasing mechanisation of agriculture, the decrease in number and area of hedgerows and uncultivated patches reduced the number of native plants available as pollen and nectar sources [29, 30].
Gess and Gess determined that grazing livestock alters habitat sufficiently to affect pollinators [31]. They documented changes in availability of nesting sites, water resources, and vegetation that have direct negative effects on species diversity and population size of bees and wasps. Trampling of vegetation by livestock can directly destroy the nests of ground-nesting species and can compact the soil, constraining nest formation. In addition, the people who tend livestock in these areas of South Africa collect wood for fuel, thus reducing the availability of hollow twigs that provide nesting sites for some bee pollinators. Grazing also affects bees by decreasing water availability. Both ground-nesting and cavity-nesting bees must collect water for use in nest construction. Most bees cannot obtain water from livestock water tanks with steep sides, or even ponds without sloping edges, but need to stand at the edge of shallow water.
Tampering with the natural water supply to provision cattle or produce crops often modifies water availability for bees. Dramatic reductions in bee number and species diversity have been documented in areas of the Guana caste Province of Costa Rica that were deforested to support cattle [32, 33]. Vinson
Although habitat fragmentation is a problem, preserving large tracts of a particular vegetation type may not be enough to maintain pollinator populations. Janzen and colleagues censured euglossine bee populations in parks and reserves in Costa Rica and determined that even within the same park, different habitats vary dramatically in bee diversity [36]. Many of the bee species travel long distances to pollinate plants that do not occur within the habitats in which they were collected. This finding indicates that preservation of diverse patches within an area may be essential to maintain adequate pollinator populations.
Several studies have indicated that introduced honeybees decrease the foraging success of native pollinators by competing with them for resources [37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42]. Such example is provided by honeybees in Australia. Honeybees were introduced in Australia approximately 150 years ago, and so far they were considered beneficial to the native flora. However, Paron concluded in a recent study that honeybees may actually be harmful to the native flora as they may displace native pollinators, they may be ineffective at pollinating native flowers and they may interact in complex ways with native pollinators to reduce the amount and efficiency of pollen transfer [38].
Foraging on pesticide-treated plants is a major source of bee mortality, yet honeybees are often expected to pollinate crops that have been treated with pesticides. The susceptibility of bees to chemical poisoning is usually related to their surface area-volume ratio. Bumblebees are often more tolerant of pesticides than honeybees because of their smaller surface area-volume ratio and honeybees are in turn more tolerant than most small native bees. Chemical poisoning results in abnormal communication dances and mistakes in indicating distance and direction to food sources, in addition to direct mortality.
One source of pesticides that affects pollinators is the broad-spectrum insecticides used to control grasshoppers on rangelands in the South-Western United States. The rangelands are sprayed with these insecticides to save the grasses for cattle forage. The sprays kill many other insects in addition to grasshoppers, including local pollinators. The grasshopper-spraying campaigns overlap the flowering period of a number of endemic rangeland plants that grow among the grasses and many of these plants are listed as endangered or threatened [44]. Additionally, these campaigns also imbricate the period of emergence and active foraging of majority of the native bee species [45].
Another example of how pesticide application can affect plant reproductive success through its action on pollinators comes from the studies conducted in forests of New Brunswick, Canada [46]. These forest areas were sprayed with Matacil (aminocarb insecticide) to control spruce bud worm,
An area must have sufficient food, shelter, water, and nesting grounds to lure local pollinators. To ensure that habitat demands are met, habitat management actions should be implemented. For instance, landowners can acquire, build, or plant extra nesting sites for bees and butterflies. Depending on the type of native pollinator targeted, various habitat management strategies are used.
Plant-appropriate vegetation: Planting gardens or meadows with a variety of native wildflowers, trees, grasses and shrubs is the easiest approach to attract local pollinators. Wildflowers and indigenous grasses will offer food such as nectar, pollen and larval host plants. For pollinators, trees and dense shrubs provide crucial shelter, nesting and overwintering places. Considering pollinator species have different preferences, planted areas should have diverse amounts of vegetation and areas of light, full shade and partial shade. Planting should take place in wind-protected areas.
Native plants should be chosen since these have evolved with local pollinators and are adapted to local soils and temperature. Native plants should make up at least 75% of a habitat’s surface area. The cultivation of invasive species should not be avoided because such plants disrupt the ecosystem’s natural structure and composition resulting in degrading pollinator and other wildlife habitat. The area of mowed lawn should be restricted in favour of native wildflowers, shrubs, and grasses. The existing lawns should be mowed less frequently to allow plants to offer pollinator habitat. Annuals should be avoided in favour of perennials. Perennials are often higher in nectar content and provide a more reliable food source than annuals because they bloom year after year. Plants that reproduce in “doubles,” such as marigolds and roses, should be avoided because such plants are designed for ornamentation rather than pollen and nectar availability. The species of wildflowers should be grown in a clump to attract more pollinators and not grown individually. Throughout the growing season, nectar and pollen flowers should be available. The variation in flower shape and colour will deliver nectar and pollen to a variety of pollinators. Bell, tube, or trumpet-shaped flowers, as well as those with clusters of tubular florets, are favourites of birds and butterflies, especially when surrounded with a flat surface for perching. They favour flowers that are brilliantly coloured such as oranges, yellows and reds. Yellow, blue, and purple flowers are most appealing to bees. The flowers that bloom at night attract moths and bats.
Use pesticides carefully: Pesticides, the chemical toxins, do not distinguish between beneficial and harmful insects. As an insecticide is used to kill a crop-eating insect, it may also harm important natural pollinators. Pesticide treatment has the potential to harm or kill all pollinator species, as well as to effect other wildlife. Pollinators can be poisoned by such chemicals through contaminated food or directly from the contaminated surfaces of florets, leaves, soil, or other things when they come in contact with them. To sustain the whole spectrum of native pollinators, usage of such chemicals should be restricted or kept to a bare minimum. To address pest infestations, landowners should use non-chemical or organic methods.
Provide water: The pollinator species require water to survive. Bees and butterflies should be attracted to a source of pesticide-free water mud and other beneficial insects drawn to a birdbath, fountain, tiny pond, or mud puddle. For butterflies and bees, a moist salt lick can be made. A damp patch on the earth can be created by using a dripping hose, drip irrigation line, or birdbath and additionally, a small amount of sea salt or wood ashes can be mixed to meet the mineral needs of butterflies and bees.
Insects, being diverse and dominant, are the key component of a healthy ecosystem. Humans determine whether an insect is beneficial, benign or pestiferous. Majority of them are beneficial to humans either directly or indirectly as food, pollinators, pollution indicators, scavengers, for production of useful products etc. The insects represent their dominance as pollinator. Bees and flies visit more than 90% of the world’s major plant types, while the other species visit fewer than 6% of the crop varieties. The effectiveness of pollinators varies according to factors such as their abundance; their ability to reach individual plants of the same species and to collect, transfer and deposit the pollen to the appropriate plant organ. Insect pollinators are in decline which is tentative, considering the lack of comprehensive data [48], but it is still a matter of concern. Losses in diversity and abundance are particularly strong under intensive agricultural management [49, 50]. Despite their significance, pollinators are declining and often overlooked in terms of their contributions to healthy ecosystems. No pollinators would mean no seeds or fruits and therefore the collapse of agriculture. No plant reproduction in the wild means that many plants will become locally extinct. Human activities have destroyed and fragmented native pollinator habitats. This diversity needs protection by integrating conservation measures with sustainable agricultural practices, which may raise crop yields and protect both wild and managed species of bees and other pollinators.
A range of conservation measures in intensively-farmed regions can help to maintain diversity, by preserving the resources that pollinators need. Some of the measures are at farm-level such as planting flower strips among crops, reintroduction of hedges and planting trees while as others are implemented at landscape-level such as the conservation of natural and semi-natural habitats in agricultural landscapes. There is no “one size fits all” approach to conserve all species, due to their varying preferences for different food sources and nesting sites. Reversing the decline in pollinators is the key to feed mouths in future and must be seriously given a thought and action plan.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. 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They are also analyzed the new discoveries concerning the nonbenzodiazepine drugs due to the close relation they have with benzodiazepines.",book:{id:"7518",slug:"medicinal-chemistry",title:"Medicinal Chemistry",fullTitle:"Medicinal Chemistry"},signatures:"Elisabet Batlle, Enric Lizano, Miquel Viñas and Maria Dolors Pujol",authors:[{id:"252409",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Dolors",middleName:null,surname:"Pujol",slug:"maria-dolors-pujol",fullName:"Maria Dolors Pujol"},{id:"262535",title:"Dr.",name:"Elisabet",middleName:null,surname:"Batlle",slug:"elisabet-batlle",fullName:"Elisabet Batlle"},{id:"262756",title:"Mr.",name:"Enric",middleName:null,surname:"Lizano",slug:"enric-lizano",fullName:"Enric Lizano"},{id:"274188",title:"Dr.",name:"Miquel",middleName:null,surname:"Viñas",slug:"miquel-vinas",fullName:"Miquel Viñas"}]},{id:"62647",title:"Indomethacin from Anti-Inflammatory to Anticancer Agent",slug:"indomethacin-from-anti-inflammatory-to-anticancer-agent",totalDownloads:1333,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The chapter “Indomethacin from Anti-inflammatory to Anticancer Agent” covers the recent reports regarding the implication of COX-2/PGE2 in multiple cancer cell proliferation to emphasize the anticancer potential of COX-inhibitors including indomethacin and to reveal that the reduction of PGE2 production interferes with the cancer cell proliferation belongs to multiple cancer cell types. Impressively, indomethacin is involved in antiproliferative and apoptotic actions against cancer cell types via COX-2-independent mechanisms to highlight indomethacin as promising anticancer agent with dual actions to control the cancer cell proliferation. The cardiovascular complications result from diaryl heterocycle sulfonamide/methylsulfone selective COX-2 inhibitors upon reduction in PGE2 and PGI2 production that affects the vascular tone limits the use of Celecoxib as chemopreventive agent against recurrence of colorectal carcinoma cells. Kinetic profile of indomethacin against COX-2 showed obvious difference from that of selective COX-2 inhibitors in which it recovered completely from the enzyme after long time of incubation while COX-2 inhibitors did not recover to impress that this might be implicated in the cardiovascular toxicity of the selective inhibitors. This raised the concern to develop the indomethacin from nonselective COX- to selective COX-2-inhibitors and to assert whether the cardiac complications are from pharmacological class effect or chemical class effect.",book:{id:"7518",slug:"medicinal-chemistry",title:"Medicinal Chemistry",fullTitle:"Medicinal Chemistry"},signatures:"Shaymaa Emam Kassab",authors:[{id:"251335",title:"Dr.",name:"Shaymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Kassab",slug:"shaymaa-kassab",fullName:"Shaymaa Kassab"}]},{id:"63789",title:"Clinical Pharmacokinetics of Clavulanic Acid, a Novel β- Lactamase Isolated from Streptomyces clavuligerus and Its Variability",slug:"clinical-pharmacokinetics-of-clavulanic-acid-a-novel-lactamase-isolated-from-streptomyces-clavuliger",totalDownloads:1118,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The clavulanic acid derived by fermentation of Streptomyces clavuligerus and possessed the capability to inactivate a broad range of β-lactamase enzymes. A complex physicochemical process involves the binding of clavulanic acid to β-lactamases in which clavulanic acid itself deplete irreversibly along with β-lactamase enzyme rendering amoxicillin spared which otherwise would hydrolyze by an enzyme. It is therefore termed as ‘suicide ‘inhibitor for β-lactamases. We discussed here pharmacokinetic parameters and identified factors responsible for the variability of absorption of clavulanic acid. The results based on individual plasma concentration-time curve of amoxicillin and clavulanic acid in an open, randomized, two-way crossover study involving 10 healthy male subjects administered with two amoxiclav formulations.",book:{id:"7518",slug:"medicinal-chemistry",title:"Medicinal Chemistry",fullTitle:"Medicinal Chemistry"},signatures:"Anab Fatima, Mohammad Jiyad Shaikh, Hina Zahid, Ishart Younus,\nSheikh Abdul Khaliq and Farah Khalid",authors:[{id:"225358",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Jiyad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-jiyad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Jiyad Shaikh"},{id:"231412",title:"Dr.",name:"Anab",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"anab-fatima",fullName:"Anab Fatima"},{id:"243371",title:"Dr.",name:"Hina",middleName:null,surname:"Zahid",slug:"hina-zahid",fullName:"Hina Zahid"},{id:"243372",title:"Dr.",name:"Ishart",middleName:null,surname:"Younus",slug:"ishart-younus",fullName:"Ishart Younus"},{id:"243373",title:"Dr.",name:"Sheikh Abdul",middleName:null,surname:"Khaliq",slug:"sheikh-abdul-khaliq",fullName:"Sheikh Abdul Khaliq"},{id:"243374",title:"Dr.",name:"Farah",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"farah-khalid",fullName:"Farah Khalid"}]},{id:"63353",title:"New Antituberculosis Drug FS-1",slug:"new-antituberculosis-drug-fs-1",totalDownloads:1496,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"The new iodine complex (FS-1), including molecular iodine, which is coordinated by lithium, magnesium halides, and bioorganic ligands, possesses high bactericidal activity against various microorganisms, including Mycobacterium sp., Staphylococcus aureus MRSA and MSSA, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, etc. FS-1 has synergistic properties with a broad class of antibiotics. The experimental model of tuberculosis in guinea pigs caused by clinical multidrug-resistant strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis shows antituberculosis, immunomodulatory, and anti-inflammatory activity. FS-1 is characterized by low acute toxicity and lack of genotoxicity and mutagenicity. FS-1 is well distributed to organs and tissues; its pharmacokinetics is linear. The maximum nontoxic dose is 100 mg/kg for rats after 28-day oral administration and 30 mg/kg for rabbits after 180-day oral administration.",book:{id:"7518",slug:"medicinal-chemistry",title:"Medicinal Chemistry",fullTitle:"Medicinal Chemistry"},signatures:"Rinat Islamov, Bahkytzhan Kerimzhanova and Alexander Ilin",authors:[{id:"109493",title:"Dr.",name:"Rinat",middleName:null,surname:"Islamov",slug:"rinat-islamov",fullName:"Rinat Islamov"},{id:"136527",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Ilin",slug:"alexander-ilin",fullName:"Alexander Ilin"},{id:"261645",title:"Prof.",name:"Bahyitzhan",middleName:null,surname:"Kerimzhanova",slug:"bahyitzhan-kerimzhanova",fullName:"Bahyitzhan Kerimzhanova"}]},{id:"64761",title:"Introductory Chapter: Unregulated Mitochondrial Production of Reactive Oxygen Species in Testing the Biological Activity of Compounds",slug:"introductory-chapter-unregulated-mitochondrial-production-of-reactive-oxygen-species-in-testing-the-",totalDownloads:1006,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:null,book:{id:"7518",slug:"medicinal-chemistry",title:"Medicinal Chemistry",fullTitle:"Medicinal Chemistry"},signatures:"Janka Vašková and Ladislav Vaško",authors:[{id:"140747",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Janka",middleName:null,surname:"Vašková",slug:"janka-vaskova",fullName:"Janka Vašková"},{id:"207199",title:"Prof.",name:"Ladislav",middleName:null,surname:"Vaško",slug:"ladislav-vasko",fullName:"Ladislav Vaško"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1190",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:319,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:133,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:16,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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