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The cortex, amygdala, olfactory bulb, and hippocampus neurons all carry “free ionic zinc” (Zn2+), which appears to have the largest concentration of zinc in the brain. Zinc is involved in the physiochemical function of enzymes, proteins, and signal transcription factors, as well as the maintenance of numerous homeostatic systems, functioning as structural, regulatory, and catalytic cofactors for enzymes including DNA and RNA polymerases, histone deacetylases, and DNA ligases. Zinc is also required for cell proliferation and genomic integrity [1, 2, 3, 4, 5].
As a neuromodulator, zinc is produced during synaptic transmission and attaches to presynaptic or postsynaptic membrane receptors, allowing it to translocate from presynaptic terminals to postsynaptic neurons [6, 7]. Zinc can be found in glutamatergic neurons’ synaptic vesicles. Zinc is therefore liberated from glutamatergic synaptic vesicles and then interacts with excitatory and inhibitory amino acid receptors (N-methyl-D aspartic acid (NMDA), α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA), and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) [8, 9, 10]. Because of its actions on numerous voltage-gated ion channels, extracellular Zn2+ can modify the excitability of nerve cells [11, 12, 13].
Besides, zinc is required for cell proliferation control in a variety of mechanisms, including hormonal regulation of cell division. Also, zinc serves as a biochemical signal to immune cells and transcription factors involved in the synthesis of inflammatory cytokines. Zinc supplementation has been proven in trials to reduce rates of infection and proinflammatory cytokine secretion. Zinc also possesses metal-binding characteristics and is widely recognized for its antioxidant qualities [14, 15]. Zinc deficiency causes apoptosis in neurons via the mitochondrial pathway [16, 17]. Zinc has just lately been discovered to have a role in intracellular signaling as a second messenger. It is also used by immune cells as a molecular signal. Zinc controls a variety of transcription factors that control gene expression and are engaged in the signal transduction of inflammatory cytokines and adhesion molecules. Zinc helps to preserve genomic stability by regulating redox homeostasis, DNA repair, synthesis, and methylation [18, 19].
Zinc has a variety of crucial roles in neurogenesis [4]. Zinc deficiency decreases the neurogenesis process and impairs the expression of genes involved in hippocampus proliferation and neuronal development in the postnatal rat cerebellum [20]. Further, zinc deficiency reduces the proliferation of the human neuroblastoma cell line, promotes apoptosis, and inhibits retinoic-acid-induced neuronal development in cultured cells [1, 21].
Of note, zinc is found in the presynaptic glutamatergic vesicles across the brain, including the cerebral cortex, limbic system, hippocampus, and olfactory bulb [22].
It acts as a neuromodulator on a wide range of membrane receptors, ion channels, and transporters [23]. Synaptic zinc, in particular, is enhanced via a specialized zinc transporter, ZnT3, and is coreleased with glutamate during action potential-induced exocytosis [24]. These also have an impact on synaptic transmission, which interacts with receptors and channels that regulate auditory processing [25, 26]. Synaptic zinc has been discovered to inhibit NMDA receptors, GABA-A receptors, and calcium channels while activating AMPA and glycine receptors [27, 28, 29, 30]. Zinc also has vital effects on other kinds of receptors, including serotonin, dopamine, and acetylcholine receptors, as well as voltage-gated ion channels for sodium, potassium, calcium, and chlorine [29, 31].
Synaptic zinc regulates sensory processing and improves acuity in the discrimination of different sensory stimuli. Synaptic zinc plasticity leads to prolonged adaptations and sense memories. Recently, the mechanism of this long-term synaptic zinc plasticity has been described as being due to group 1 metabotropic glutamate receptors (G1 mGluRs)-dependent mechanism that triggers a bidirectional long-term change in synaptic zinc signaling [32].
No one denies that depression treatment is a gateway to overcoming many social and psychological problems that affect millions of people all over the world. Many factors play a role in depressive-like behaviors, such as impairment of functions of the hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex. These brain parts play an important role in decision-making processes, so any dysfunction at this area can induce a predisposition to negative feelings, and many glucocorticoid receptors are involved in these areas [33].
In terms of both pharmacological and clinical/epidemiological data, recent years have provided additional evidence confirming the role of zinc in depression. Zinc demonstrated antidepressant-like efficacy in preclinical studies and depressive models. Clinical evidence suggested that zinc supplementation might be beneficial in people suffering from depression. Zinc supplementation has been demonstrated to be beneficial as adjuvant therapy or as a stand-alone intervention for depression. Furthermore, zinc consumption has been linked to an increased risk of depression. Dietary zinc restriction was found to be a causal factor in the development of depressive-like symptoms or anhedonia in mouse studies [34]. Some epidemiological studies have reported that reduced nutritional zinc consumption is related to depression in females but not in males [35]. Even though the first prospective study examining the relationship between zinc intake and depression risk found a small but significant inverse correlation between them, a 20-year follow-up study found that a reduced dietary zinc intake protects from depression in men who were not previously depressed. However, because the research participants were all men with a hospital discharge diagnosis of unipolar depression, the findings cannot be applied to women or patients who did not require hospitalization. On the contrary, a reduced nutritional zinc intake was found to be a risk factor for depression in a prospective analysis of both men and women [36]. Mice missing the G-protein-coupled receptor 39 (GPR39), a zinc-activated receptor, show depressive-like behavior [37]. TC-G-1008, a GPR39 agonist, was recently discovered to have antidepressant-like effects [38]. These findings add to the growing body of evidence that zinc is useful in the treatment of depression.
Meta-analyses support the use of zinc as a supplement in the treatment of severe depression, and single research currently supports the use of zinc for psychotic symptoms [39]. Zinc deficiency has also been linked to neuropsychiatric symptoms such as altered behavior and cognition, learning difficulties, and depression [40, 41, 42].
The link between zinc dysregulation and psychiatric disorder was that zinc acts as an inhibitory modulator at the NMDA glutamate receptor [43, 44, 45]. In addition, the inhibitory effects on the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR), GSK3 (glycogen synthase kinase 3beta), and NOS (nitric oxide synthase) are also relevant to depressive processes [46, 47].
Numerous studies show lower zinc blood levels in depressed people compared with healthy people, with a meta-analysis showing depressive symptomatology at zinc serum levels of 1.8 M or below [48]. In several investigations, zinc supplementation enhanced mood in those who were suffering from treatment-resistant depression [41, 49].
Zinc’s effect on the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a growth factor that promotes neurogenesis and differentiation, may be connected to depression. The hippocampus is a center of lifelong neurogenesis, and periods of significant depression are associated with reduced BDNF expression and neuro/synaptogenesis. Rodents on a zinc-deficient diet had lower zinc levels in the hippocampus vesicles, a part of the brain where zinc levels are generally greater, as well as lower amounts of progenitor cells and immature neurons. Zinc-rich diets, on the other hand, increased amounts of progenitor cells [3, 41]. The GPR39 receptor is most likely a critical connection in the interaction between zinc and the serotonergic system, which is required for antidepressants that affect the serotonin pathway to work [34].
Of note, laboratory animal models showed that zinc insufficiency induces thymus and lymphoid tissue atrophy. It lowers the number of spleen cells and the sensitivity to antigens that are both T-cell-dependent and -independent [50]. Microglia is a kind of immune cell found in the central nervous system (CNS) [51]. The link between zinc and microglial activation reflects an undiscovered process that may play a role in neuropathy. However, zinc is produced by neurons under several conditions to activate microglial [52].
Ionophores are ion carrier molecules that reversibly bind and transport ions through biological membranes. Many ionophores are lipid-soluble ion transporters that traverse the cell membrane. Ionophores accelerate ion transport through hydrophobic membranes such as liquid polymeric membranes (carrier-based ion-selective electrodes), lipid bilayers in live cells, or synthetic vesicles (liposomes). A hydrophilic core and a hydrophobic section interact with the membrane in the structure of an ionophore [53]. Many microorganisms, fungi, and plants naturally manufacture ionophores, which import ions into their cells and function as a defense against competing or harmful species. Ionophores made from synthetic materials have also been developed. Ionophores that select for cations and anions have a wide range of uses in the analysis [54]. When paired with the ion they bind, these chemicals have been proven to have a variety of biological effects as well as a synergistic impact [55]. Ionophores change the permeability of biological membranes in the direction of certain ions for which they have affinity and selectivity (Figure 1). An ionophore has a hydrophilic core and a hydrophobic section that interacts with the membrane in terms of structure. An ionophore-ion complex is formed when ions are bound to the hydrophilic center. X-ray crystallography has confirmed the structure of the ionophore-ion complex [58].
Zinc ionophores mechanism in penetrating cell membranes. Two ionophore molecules can mediate intracellular zinc accumulation by exchanging extracellular Zn2+ with 2H+ [
Zinc ionophores (Table 1; Figure 2) have been shown to inhibit replication of various viruses in vitro, including coxsackievirus [63, 65], equine arteritis virus [68], coronavirus [68], HCV [69], HSV [70], HCoV-229E [71], HIV [72, 73], mengovirus [63, 65], MERS-CoV [71], rhinovirus [65], SARS-CoV-1 [68], and Zika virus [74].
Zinc Ionophore | Sources | References |
---|---|---|
Calcimycin | [59, 60] | |
Chloroquine | [61] | |
Clioquinol | Synthetic ionophore | [55] |
Diiodohydroxyquinoline | Synthetic ionophore | [62] |
Dithiocarbamates | Synthetic ionophore | [63] |
EGCG | [64] | |
Hinokitiol | [65] | |
Proanthocyanidins | Grape seed | [66] |
PBT2 | Synthetic analog of 8-hydroxyquinoline | [67] |
Pyrithione | [65] | |
Quercetin | Vegetables, fruits, berries, herbs, trees, and other plants | [64] |
Zincophorin | [55] |
Nature and synthetic zinc ionophores.
Natural zinc ionophores and their sources. Chemical structures of ionophores obtained from Pubchem database (Hinokitiol, CID: 3611; quercetin, CID: 5280343; EGCG, CID: 65064; Proanthocyanidin, CID: 108065).
Quercetin has attracted the attention of many researchers because of its capacity to pass the blood–brain barrier. It appears in the brain after hours of administration and plays a key function in the central nervous system [75]. Discoveries from animal model research reported that antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective effects of quercetin keep neurons in healthy condition by inhibiting the formation of hydroperoxide, reducing free radicals, and restoring antioxidant enzymes. Further, the study of quercetin at rat models proves its antidepressant action [76, 77]. Also, quercetin can reduce stress and depressive-like symptoms [75].
EGCG may act as a new antidepressant by inhibiting neuroinflammation, which may help to alleviate depression. Models of chronic unexpected mild stress (CUMS) in rats have been created in experimental investigations of depression [78]. Although the etiology of depression is not well understood, one popular theory is that depressed people have greater amounts of cytokines such as IL-6 due to lower levels of amines such as serotonin, noradrenaline, and dopamine [79]. EGCG injection improved depressed behavior in rats by reducing Il-6 levels in the hippocampus. As a result, EGCG was suggested to be used as a new antidepressant to reduce neuroinflammation, which could help to alleviate depression [80].
Hinokitiol (β-thujaplicin) is a monoterpenoid that occurs naturally in the wood of Cupressaceae plants. It is a natural zinc ionophore that is safe to use. Because of its powerful, broad-spectrum antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer effects, it is frequently employed in oral care and medicinal products. It is also a food additive that does not build up in the body. Throughout years of use, there have been no reports of allergic, poisonous, or adverse consequences in the literature. Hinokitiol is a safe zinc ionophore that increases the intracellular pool of labile zinc by facilitating zinc influx into cells [81].
Proanthocyanidins (GSPs), which comprise dimers, trimers, oligomers, and oligomers of catechin and epicatechin, are known to have antidepressant properties. Recent research has demonstrated the mechanism of GSPs’ antidepressant effects in female juvenile prenatally stressed offspring rats. The main pathway was that GSPs work synergistically to inhibit oxidative stress and inflammatory response activator proteins [66].
High rates of neuropsychiatric symptoms (e.g., depression) have been observed among patients affected by COVID-19, suggesting an effect of COVID-19 on the human central nervous system (CNS) [82, 83, 84, 85]. It was showed globally that depression is a leading cause of disability [86]. Accordingly, clinically significant depression and depressive symptoms in post-COVID-19 syndrome may have severe implications as it relates to life outcomes quality [86]. Herein according to previous research studies, we showed zinc deficiency as a possible risk factor for depression symptoms, which were commonly observed following severe infection of COVID-19. A meta-analysis of 17 observational studies found that blood Zn2+ concentrations were lower in depressed subjects than in control subjects [48]. Interestingly, a recent study showed that a significant number of patients with COVID-19 were zinc-deficient [87], and a higher number of zinc-deficient COVID-19 patients had prolonged hospital stay when compared with those with normal zinc levels and required intensive care unit (ICU) [87]. A significant positive correlation was observed between the prevalence of zinc deficiency and COVID-19 cases [88]. A pooled analysis of 1532 COVID-19 patients suggested that zinc deficiency was associated with a sixfold increased risk of severe disease and 16-fold increased risk of death via elevating LDH [89] The elevated LDH in the present study was probably indicative of severe disease [87].Because zinc has a critical role in regulating functions of the human brain, many disorders have been linked with Zn2+ deficiency, including neurological diseases, such as psychiatric disorders, (depression) [48, 89] and schizophrenia [90]. Consequently, the clinical picture, which is common in severe COVID-19 patients and is referred to as “Depression” [82, 83, 84, 85], is nothing more than depression seen in zinc deficiency [48, 87, 88, 89]. Most likely, depression and other mental problems in these patients also develop due to zinc deficiency in nerve cells in the brain.
The first study revealing a relationship between depression and dietary zinc deficiency was conducted by Amani et al. [90]. This study included 23 young females diagnosed with moderate and severe depression and 23 healthy volunteers who were age-matched. The findings revealed that the depressive group’s daily zinc consumption and serum zinc concentration were both lower than the healthy women’s. Moreover, an inverse correlation between serum zinc concentration and the depression scores was obtained [90]. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), zinc deficiency affects at least one-third of the world’s population [91]. The fact that zinc deficiency is linked to the risk of infection and severe advancement of COVID-19 [91] gives a first significant clue on a link between zinc deficiency and the risk of infection as well as its symptoms with unknown etiology such as depression and suggests possible benefits of zinc supplementation. Owing to Zn2+ neuroprotective properties, it is not surprising that Zn2+ supplementation could be effective not only on COVID-19-related symptoms but also on virus replication, as well as on COVID-19-related inflammation and neurological damage [92]. In vitro, Zn2+ inhibits Coronavirus and Arter virus RNA polymerase activity, and zinc ionophores prevent these viruses from replicating in cell culture [93]. Zinc ionophore may play a role in therapeutic management for COVID-19 [94].
Zinc deficiency has been linked to different nervous system disorders. Because zinc is not fat-soluble, it requires transporters called zinc ionophores, which facilitate the entrance of zinc in cytoplasm increasing its level of concentration in the body after consumption. The role of zinc in protecting brain cells has been extensively studied recently particularly in depression treatment. Therefore, natural zinc ionophores plus zinc supplements, which are commercially available, could be a new way to treatment of many neuropsychiatric disorders. Zinc ionophore may play a role in therapeutic management for COVID-19 and postcovid-19 depression.
AMPA | α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid |
BDNF | brain-derived neurotrophic factor |
CUMS | chronic unexpected mild stress |
EGCG | Epigallocatechin gallate |
G1 mGluRs | group 1 metabotropic glutamate receptors |
GABA | γ-aminobutyric acid, gamma-Aminobutyric acid |
GPR39 | G-protein coupled receptor 39 |
GSK3 | glycogen synthase kinase 3beta |
GSPs | Proanthocyanidins |
nAChR | nicotinic acetylcholine receptor |
NMDA | N-methyl-D aspartic acid |
NOS | nitric oxide synthase |
LDH | Lactate dehydrogenase |
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\n\n\r\n\tThis book series will offer a comprehensive overview of recent research trends as well as clinical applications within different specialties of dentistry. Topics will include overviews of the health of the oral cavity, from prevention and care to different treatments for the rehabilitation of problems that may affect the organs and/or tissues present. The different areas of dentistry will be explored, with the aim of disseminating knowledge and providing readers with new tools for the comprehensive treatment of their patients with greater safety and with current techniques. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This series of books will focus on various aspects of the properties and results obtained by the various treatments available, whether preventive or curative.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/3.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 14th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"1",title:"Oral Health",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/1.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11397,editor:{id:"173955",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Marinho",slug:"sandra-marinho",fullName:"Sandra Marinho",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGYMQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-06-01T13:22:41.png",biography:"Dr. Sandra A. Marinho is an Associate Professor and Brazilian researcher at the State University of Paraíba (Universidade Estadual da Paraíba- UEPB), Campus VIII, located in Araruna, state of Paraíba since 2011. She holds a degree in Dentistry from the Federal University of Alfenas (UNIFAL), while her specialization and professional improvement in Stomatology took place at Hospital Heliopolis (São Paulo, SP). Her qualifications are: a specialist in Dental Imaging and Radiology, Master in Dentistry (Periodontics) from the University of São Paulo (FORP-USP, Ribeirão Preto, SP), and Doctor (Ph.D.) in Dentistry (Stomatology Clinic) from Hospital São Lucas of the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (HSL-PUCRS, Porto Alegre, RS). She held a postdoctoral internship at the Federal University from Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM, Diamantina, MG). She is currently a member of the Brazilian Society for Dental Research (SBPqO) and the Brazilian Society of Stomatology and Pathology (SOBEP). Dr. Marinho's experience in Dentistry mainly covers the following subjects: oral diagnosis, oral radiology; oral medicine; lesions and oral infections; oral pathology, laser therapy and epidemiological studies.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"State University of Paraíba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/2.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11398,editor:{id:"179568",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Wen Lin",middleName:null,surname:"Chai",slug:"wen-lin-chai",fullName:"Wen Lin Chai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHGAQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-05-23T14:31:12.png",biography:"Professor Dr. Chai Wen Lin is currently a lecturer at the Department of Restorative Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry of the University of Malaya. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. 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