Common malnutrition and their causes.
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7328",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Melatonin - Molecular Biology, Clinical and Pharmaceutical Approaches",title:"Melatonin",subtitle:"Molecular Biology, Clinical and Pharmaceutical Approaches",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Melatonin, the pineal neurohormone, is a pleiotropic molecule acting in the center of the integrative molecular mechanisms of the organism, based on interconnections of the regulatory systems: neural, endocrine, immune, and genetic, conveying into the uniqueness of human architecture. This book provides a systematic and updated overview of melatonin biochemical mechanisms of action, pharmacological features, and clinical uses, clutching the subject with complete details of pharmaceutical formulations designed for different routes of administration and different health issues, aiming at optimal melatonin bioavailability when therapeutically delivered. The book addresses a broad range of audiences, from healthcare professionals, medically and pharmaceutically based, to highly profiled medical specialists and biomedical researchers, helping them to expand their knowledge of the physiological and pathological implications of melatonin and its metabolites.",isbn:"978-1-78984-505-1",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-504-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-812-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74993",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"melatonin-molecular-biology-clinical-and-pharmaceutical-approaches",numberOfPages:210,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"80d0b8d927e0913f639da36f67be3522",bookSignature:"Cristina Manuela Drăgoi and Alina Crenguţa Nicolae",publishedDate:"November 21st 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7328.jpg",numberOfDownloads:13492,numberOfWosCitations:19,numberOfCrossrefCitations:33,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:67,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:119,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 8th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 1st 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 30th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 19th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 17th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"192919",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Cristina Manuela",middleName:null,surname:"Drăgoi",slug:"cristina-manuela-dragoi",fullName:"Cristina Manuela Drăgoi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192919/images/system/192919.jfif",biography:"CRISTINA MANUELA DRĂGOI is associate professor at the Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Medicine and Pharmacy 'Carol Davila', Bucharest, Romania. She has professional and academic experience in drugs molecular mechanisms, in assessing therapeutic effects on antioxidant processes and endogenous indoles modulatory actions. She has been fascinated by melatonin, the major circadian regulatory molecule, the pineal hormone, which she has studied under different circumstances, assessed its interactions with DNA, performed research on its effects in association with other therapeutic agents, using different animal models and cell lines. Her scientific interest focuses on revealing melatonin's actions on major physiological processes, as pregnancy or aging, determining its modulatory abilities in different stages of fetus evolution, in healthy aging mechanisms and in preventing neurodegeneration. This captivating subject of applied biochemistry in drug research is the core of her scientific research projects, underlying the tremendous perspectives of chronobiology into clinical practice.\nMrs. Drăgoi has a great interest in nutrition strategies applied in the clinical field, modulating the energy metabolism in cancerous states, mitochondrial and neurological diseases. The field of nutrition has been one of her active concerns, elaborating a series of scientific papers in this field.",institutionString:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"243088",title:"Dr.",name:"Alina Crenguţa",middleName:null,surname:"Nicolae",slug:"alina-crenguta-nicolae",fullName:"Alina Crenguţa Nicolae",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243088/images/system/243088.jfif",biography:"ALINA CRENGUȚA NICOLAE is currently an associate professor at the Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Medicine and Pharmacy 'Carol Davila', Bucharest, Romania. She is managing editor of FARMACIA journal, a major scientific publication gathering important research papers from the pharmaceutical field.\r\nIn 2013, she completed her doctoral thesis 'Biochemical mechanisms involved in multidrug resistance', and the interest in investigating multidrug resistance has remained a central pillar of her activity. \r\nShe is passionate about the field of neuropharmacology. Her research projects (conducted so far) focus on the individual neuro-biochemical profile, correlated with age, gender, race, metabolic and genetic profiles, as well as the establishment of predictive biomarkers that trigger the response to pharmacotherapy and multidrug resistance mechanisms modulation, at the level of blood-brain barrier.\r\nMrs. Nicolae's scientific research is supported by many articles published in ISI journals, books and book chapters, among which 'P-glycoprotein and the development of multidrug resistance' represents a complete book revealing all the biochemical mechanisms underlying this vast and intricate process of multidrug resistence that occurs in living cells.",institutionString:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1012",title:"Neuroendocrinology",slug:"medicine-endocrinology-neuroendocrinology"}],chapters:[{id:"63690",title:"Introductory Chapter: Melatonin, the Integrative Molecule within the Human Architecture",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81071",slug:"introductory-chapter-melatonin-the-integrative-molecule-within-the-human-architecture",totalDownloads:870,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Cristina Manuela Drăgoi and Alina Crenguța Nicolae",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63690",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63690",authors:[{id:"192919",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Cristina Manuela",surname:"Drăgoi",slug:"cristina-manuela-dragoi",fullName:"Cristina Manuela Drăgoi"}],corrections:null},{id:"62679",title:"How Can Molecular Pharmacology Help Understand the Multiple Actions of Melatonin: 20 Years of Research and Trends",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79524",slug:"how-can-molecular-pharmacology-help-understand-the-multiple-actions-of-melatonin-20-years-of-researc",totalDownloads:1102,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Melatonin actions are so numerous that a naive reader might become suspicious at such wonders. In a systematic way, we would like to summarize the various approaches that led to what is scientifically sounded in terms of molecular pharmacology: where and how melatonin is acting as a molecule, what can be its action as an antioxidant per se, and its side effects at a molecular level not as a drug or in vivo. Finally, the nature of the relationship between melatonin and mitochondria should be decrypted as well. The road we took from 1987 up to now, and particularly after 1995, will be mentioned with special considerations to the receptors from various species and our goals beyond that; the synthesis and catabolism of melatonin and their link to other enzymes; the discovery of the MT3 binding sites, and what’s left to understand on this particularly interesting target; and the search for agonists that occulted part of the potential discovery of true and potent antagonists, a situation quite unique among the G-protein-coupled receptors.",signatures:"Jean A. Boutin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62679",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62679",authors:[{id:"216590",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",surname:"Boutin",slug:"jean-boutin",fullName:"Jean Boutin"}],corrections:null},{id:"62672",title:"An Overview of Melatonin as an Antioxidant Molecule: A Biochemical Approach",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79421",slug:"an-overview-of-melatonin-as-an-antioxidant-molecule-a-biochemical-approach",totalDownloads:4116,totalCrossrefCites:23,totalDimensionsCites:43,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Melatonin is an endogenous hormone derived from tryptophan that is mainly released from the pineal gland in the dark. Melatonin regulates many biological functions such as sleep, circadian rhythm, immunity, and reproduction. Melatonin has a free radical scavenger, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant effects. It scavenges reactive oxygen and nitrogen species and increases antioxidant defenses, thus it prevents tissue damage and blocks transcriptional factors of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Due to its small size and amphiphilic nature, it increases the efficacy of mitochondrial electron transport chain and reduces electron leakage. Melatonin prevents degenerative changes in the central nervous system in models of Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease and reduces free radical damage to DNA which may lead to cancer and many other situations. Consequently, melatonin has beneficial effects including stimulation of antioxidant enzymes, inhibition of lipid peroxidation, and so it contributes to protection from oxidative damages.",signatures:"Aysun Hacışevki and Burcu Baba",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62672",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62672",authors:[{id:"248612",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Aysun",surname:"Hacışevki",slug:"aysun-hacisevki",fullName:"Aysun Hacışevki"},{id:"248614",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Burcu",surname:"Baba",slug:"burcu-baba",fullName:"Burcu Baba"}],corrections:null},{id:"64138",title:"Melatonin and Its Indisputable Effects on the Health State",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79817",slug:"melatonin-and-its-indisputable-effects-on-the-health-state",totalDownloads:1324,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Melatonin is a hormone synthesized from the amino acid tryptophan produced especially at night in the pineal gland and helps induce sleep. It is reported to play a role in preventing the production of free radicals and is thus a potent antioxidant. It can also enhance the function of the immune system and appears to have an antitumor effect. Melatonin secretion, mediated by photoperiod, directly influences reproductive function and dopamine which moves into frontal lobe regulating flow of information coming in from other areas of the brain. Additional side effects may be produced from treatment with melatonin and include stomach cramps, dizziness, headache, irritability, breast enlargement in men (called gynecomastia), and decreased sperm count. For clinical trials, the direct effect of exogenous melatonin administration on patients manifested with cancer should be studied to find its oncostatic effects on some cancers and provide information on its dosage and long-term safety. Moreover, mechanisms of action should be further investigated.",signatures:"Hanan Farouk Aly and Maha Zaki Rizk",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64138",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64138",authors:[{id:"252185",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanan",surname:"Farouk",slug:"hanan-farouk",fullName:"Hanan Farouk"},{id:"252755",title:"Prof.",name:"Maha",surname:"Zaki Rizk",slug:"maha-zaki-rizk",fullName:"Maha Zaki Rizk"}],corrections:null},{id:"62754",title:"Melatonin and Exercise: Their Effects on Malondialdehyde and Lipid Peroxidation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79561",slug:"melatonin-and-exercise-their-effects-on-malondialdehyde-and-lipid-peroxidation",totalDownloads:1080,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Melatonin as an omnipresent molecule is secreted by the pineal gland. It is a strong free radical scavenger, which reduces nitric oxide (NO) generation within mitochondria. Exercise has great impacts on many body’s homeostatic systems. Most human’s organisms display rhythms and have 24 hours environmental cycles, which are called circadian rhythm. Melatonin is one of the circadian rhythm generator in various physiological variables. Exercises could regulate plasma melatonin levels. Melatonin scavenges reactive oxygen spices (ROS) and reactive nitrogen spices (RNS) and acts as the antioxidant cascade. It not only decreases the exercise induced-oxidative stress in the muscles but also enhances muscle antioxidant enzymes, such as superoxide dismutase. Body lipids and unsaturated fatty acids are prone to oxidation, while the free radicals penetrate into bilayer membrane structure lipid peroxidation is going to happen. Malondialdehyde (MDA) is created by free radicals, and it is one of the most frequent marker of lipid peroxidation. Exercise, its duration, and time of the day have immediate and or delayed effects on melatonin secretion. The combination of aerobic exercise and melatonin reduces the exercise induced-free radicals agents. Melatonin supplementation, especially while it combined with aerobic training, could decrease the lipid peroxidation and malondialdehyde. Melatonin could impede exercise-induced ROS, increase body health, and exercise-related adaptation.",signatures:"Mahsa Rastegar Moghaddam Mansouri, Sadegh Abbasian and\nMohammad Khazaie",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62754",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62754",authors:[{id:"247702",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mahsa",surname:"Rastegar M.M.",slug:"mahsa-rastegar-m.m.",fullName:"Mahsa Rastegar M.M."},{id:"247704",title:"Dr.",name:"Sadegh",surname:"Abbasian",slug:"sadegh-abbasian",fullName:"Sadegh Abbasian"},{id:"247705",title:"MSc.",name:"Mohammad",surname:"Khazaei",slug:"mohammad-khazaei",fullName:"Mohammad Khazaei"}],corrections:null},{id:"62862",title:"Melatonin in Childhood Epilepsy and in Child Neurology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80005",slug:"melatonin-in-childhood-epilepsy-and-in-child-neurology",totalDownloads:1293,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Melatonin (MLT) was isolated as a hormone by Lerner in 1958, and since then, intense studies have been under way with respect to its action and possibilities of application in various fields of medicine. Despite the existence of multiple antiepileptic medications and progress that has taken place in neurosurgical treatment of epilepsy, drug-resistant epilepsy continues to be a phenomenon that occurs in 30–35% children treated for epileptic seizures. Reports presented in the study have shown that children with epilepsy suffer from sleep disorders. Sleep deprivation may cause seizures, and on the other hand, an increased frequency of seizures may lead to sleep disturbances.",signatures:"Justyna Paprocka, Marek Kijonka and Maria Sokół",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62862",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62862",authors:[{id:"245671",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Justyna",surname:"Paprocka",slug:"justyna-paprocka",fullName:"Justyna Paprocka"},{id:"265257",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Marek",surname:"Kijonka",slug:"marek-kijonka",fullName:"Marek Kijonka"},{id:"265258",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria",surname:"Sokół",slug:"maria-sokol",fullName:"Maria Sokół"}],corrections:null},{id:"62436",title:"Measurement of Plasma Tryptophan Metabolites: Clinical and Experimental Application for Depression and Stress States Assessment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78560",slug:"measurement-of-plasma-tryptophan-metabolites-clinical-and-experimental-application-for-depression-an",totalDownloads:1059,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"There are three pathways in tryptophan (TRP) metabolism. Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine; 5-HT) pathway is important in mood, anxiety, memory, and cognition and is impaired in depression. Kynurenine (KYN) pathways are involved in immunity, inflammation, muscles movement, and mental health. We investigated changes in TRP metabolites in plasmas of stressed rats and in depressive patients. TRP metabolite levels in 5-HT and KYN pathways in various brain areas and plasma were increased soon after electric foot shock given to rats but returned to normal 24 h later. Plasma levels of 5-HT were very low or undetectable in patients of monopolar depression. 5-hydroxyindole acetic acid (5-HIAA)/TRP ratios or KYN/TRP ratios were not different between healthy controls and depressive patients, indicating 5-HT quickly being degraded into 5-HIAA in patients of depression but KYN levels were not changed in depression. These results indicate that TRP metabolism changes upon stress application and in patients of depression.",signatures:"Akikazu Takada, Fumiko Shimizu and Junichi Masuda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62436",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62436",authors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"},{id:"248460",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyunichi",surname:"Masuda",slug:"jyunichi-masuda",fullName:"Jyunichi Masuda"}],corrections:null},{id:"63426",title:"Salivary Melatonin at Night: Responding to the Night Lighting and Cow’s Milk Consumption at Breakfast in Japanese Junior High and University Students",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79816",slug:"salivary-melatonin-at-night-responding-to-the-night-lighting-and-cow-s-milk-consumption-at-breakfast",totalDownloads:1162,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"(1) In junior high school students aged 14–15 years old, the salivary melatonin level increased rapidly from 3.00 pg/ml at 21:45 to 9.18 pg/ml at 23:40 under orange light from light bulb, whereas it remained at less than 1.3 pg/ml under white light from fluorescent lamp. (2) In 3 weeks of intervention on university athlete students, the salivary melatonin concentration at 23:00 of G3 (protein-rich breakfast and following sunlight exposure and orange light from the light bulb at night) after intervention was significantly higher than that of G1 (protein-poor breakfast and not following exposure to sunlight and white light from the fluorescent lamp at night) and G2 (protein-rich breakfast and following exposure to sunlight and white lights from the fluorescent lamp at night). (3) This study evaluates the effects of cow’s milk intake (Group 1: G1) for 20 days at breakfast on saliva melatonin concentration at 22:00 and 23:00 on 0, 10, and 21 days of the intervention period in Japanese university male athletes attending a university soccer club. In the intervention group (G1), salivary melatonin concentration increased at 22:00 in comparison with that before intervention, but there was no significant change in the control group (Group 2: G2). On the other hand, there were no significant differences in the melatonin at 23:00 between the both groups just after 21 days of intervention. Intake of cow’s milk at breakfast might make the circadian phase in advance in the soccer athletes.",signatures:"Hitomi Takeuchi and Tetsuo Harada",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63426",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63426",authors:[{id:"119509",title:"Dr.",name:null,surname:"Harada",slug:"harada",fullName:"Harada"},{id:"253461",title:"Dr.",name:"Hitomi",surname:"Takeuchi",slug:"hitomi-takeuchi",fullName:"Hitomi Takeuchi"}],corrections:null},{id:"61801",title:"Melatonin Modified Release Formulations Designed for Sleep Disorders",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78337",slug:"melatonin-modified-release-formulations-designed-for-sleep-disorders",totalDownloads:1486,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Melatonin (N-acetyl-5-methoxytryptamine, MLT), a hormone synthesized by the pineal gland and released at night, has a regulatory role on sleep in vertebrates, including humans. It has been shown to have a hypnotic action in animals and humans and it has been used as an agent for restoring circadian rhythms, disturbed by jet-lag, shift-work or aging. The physiological actions of melatonin in regulating seasonal and circadian rhythms are mediated through a family of specific, high affinity G protein-coupled membrane receptors. The beneficial effect of fast-release formulations on sleep initiation may come from the high amount of melatonin released immediately after administration, while the benefit of the sustained release systems comes from the release of melatonin in small dosages during the entire night period. 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Malnutrition refers to deficiencies or excesses in nutrient intake, imbalance of essential nutrients, or impaired nutrient utilization. Malnutrition can be divided into two types: undernutrition and overnutrition. Undernutrition manifests in four broad forms: stunting/chronic malnutrition, wasting/acute malnutrition, acute and/or chronic malnutrition/underweight, micronutrient deficiencies. Overnutrition consists of overweight and obesity [1, 2].
Wasting is defined as low weight for height. Wasting can be classified as severe acute malnutrition and moderate acute malnutrition. Severe acute malnutrition consists of kwashiorkor, marasmus and marasmic kwashiorkor. Wasting often shows current and severe weight loss, though it can also continue for a long time. It commonly happens when a person has not had food of adequate quality and quantity, and/or they have had frequent or prolonged illnesses. Wasting in children is related with a higher risk of mortality. Stunting is defined as low height for age. Stunting is the result of chronic undernutrition. It is related with poverty, poor maternal health and nutrition, illness, and feeding problems. It is the result of chronic or recurrent undernutrition, usually associated with poverty, poor maternal health and nutrition, frequent illness, and/or inappropriate feeding and care in early life. Stunting precludes children from attainment of their physical and mental potential. Underweight is defined as low weight for age. A child who is underweight may be stunted, wasted, or both. Micronutrient deficiencies are a lack of vitamins and minerals that are essential for body functions such as producing enzymes, hormones, and other substances needed for growth and development [2].
Malnutrition can be caused by various factors. Unavailability of enough food, having difficulty in eating or absorbing nutrient can cause malnutrition [3]. Health conditions such as vomiting, loss of appetite, mental health disorders, and some medicines can also cause malnutrition [4].
The causes of malnutrition can be grouped into immediate-level cause, underlying-level causes, and basic-level causes [5, 6]. Undernutrition can be particularly caused by consuming inadequate energy, vitamins, and minerals while overnutrition is caused by overconsuming energy and micronutrients [7]. The causes of malnutrition vary from place to place and from time to time. Availing updated information on causes of malnutrition is important to propose appropriate strategies that focus on prevention of malnutrition. The objective of this chapter is providing the best available and updated information on causes of malnutrition. The chapter described the causes of malnutrition by using different conceptual frameworks. The chapter also identified specific causes of malnutrition for common malnutrition types.
There is no single cause of malnutrition. Causes of malnutrition may range from individual, families, district, country, regions, and global level. The causes of malnutrition can be understood from UNICEF’s conceptual framework and from conceptual framework developed for dry lands of Africa. Malnutrition causes can classified as immediate, underlying, and basic (Figures 1 and 2).
UNICEF’s conceptual framework for the cause of malnutrition. Source: Sablah [
Acute malnutrition in African dry land: a new conceptual framework for cause of malnutrition. Source: Young [
A new conceptual frame work developed for dry lands of Africa identified the basic/system, underlying, and immediate causes of acute malnutrition. The new framework deals with acute malnutrition in African dry land [6]. The new conceptual framework focuses on the importance of climate and environment in dry lands in influencing livelihood systems. The conceptual framework also recognizes the deadly and often transformative impact of conflict and climate shocks on systems and institutions, livelihood resilience and adaptation, and the underlying causes of malnutrition. In reducing vulnerability and building resilience, the role of social and political systems, including governance, and within these systems, formal and informal institutions, is given renewed emphasis [6]. The manifestation of the new conceptual frame work is acute malnutrition. This is because severe acute malnutrition is a public health problem throughout the developing countries, mainly in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia.
The immediate-level causes of malnutrition include inadequate dietary intake and diseases. On an immediate level, malnutrition results from an imbalance between the required amount of nutrients by the body and the actual amount of nutrients introduced or absorbed by the body. Inadequate dietary intake and diseases are caused by food insecurity, inadequate care for women and children, insufficient health services, and unsanitary environments [5]. Reduced dietary intake, reduced absorption of macro- and/ or micronutrients, increased losses or altered requirements, and increased energy expenditure (in specific disease processes) can be a cause for immediate malnutrition [8].
Dementia can cause a person to neglect their health and forget to eat. This in turn causes immediate malnutrition. Ulcerative colitis or Crohn’s disease can also be a reason for malnutrition. People who have difficulty in eating due to painful teeth or lesions of mouth, dysphagia are also at risk of malnutrition. Loss of appetite that may be caused by cancers, tumors, mental illness, liver or kidney disease, chronic infections can also be included in immediate causes of malnutrition [9]. Diseases such as measles, diarrhea, AIDS, respiratory infection, malaria, renal failure, and intestinal worms can breakdown the nutritional status [10].
Anorexia, traditional behaviors, reduction of intestinal absorption, metabolic damage, disorder metabolism of lipids and carbohydrates, reduction of vitamins, iron, zinc, and copper can weaken the ability to fight infection and cause malnutrition. A large number of studies have illustrated a bidirectional interaction of malnutrition and infection (Figure 3) [11].
The factors that weaken the body’s ability to fight infection and cause malnutrition. Source: Farhadi and Ovchinnikov [
Health and nutrition are closely related in a “malnutrition-infection cycle” in which diseases contribute to malnutrition, and malnutrition makes an individual more vulnerable to disease. Malnutrition is the result of insufficient dietary intake, disease, or both. Disease contributes through loss of appetite, malabsorption of nutrients, and loss of nutrients through diarrhea or vomiting. If the body’s metabolism is altered, greater the risk is of malnutrition (Figure 3).
In some circumstances, such as enterocutaneous fistulae or burns, patients may have excessive and/or specific nutrient losses; their nutritional requirements are usually very different from normal metabolism [8].
The pharmacological and pharmaceutical properties of drugs can affect the intake, digestion, absorption, storage, metabolism, and elimination of nutrients, causing imbalance in the amount of nutrients required in the body [12].
Household (HH) food insecurity, poor social and care environment and poor access to health care, and unhealthy environment are included in underlying causes of malnutrition. The underlying issues are caused by conflict, inadequate education, poverty, gender inequality, inadequate infrastructure, and other basic issues [5].
HH food insecurity or the lack of food is a main factor that causes under nutrition. HH food insecurity is a problem specifically for displaced people [13]. Food insecurity happens when people are frequently concerned about accessing adequate amount of safe, affordable, and nutritious foods. Lack of income to meet the expenses of safe food can cause food insecurity [14].
Poor infant feeding behaviors, poor home care for ill children, and poor health-seeking behaviors are included in poor social and care environment [13, 15]. The social and care environment within the HH and local community also can directly influence malnutrition.
Infant and young child feeding practice is vital component of good nutrition and health. Appropriate childcare, which includes infant and young child feeding practices, is an essential element of good nutrition and health. Cultural factors and resources such as income, time and knowledge also influence caring practices as well as attitudes to modern health services, water supplies, and sanitation [13, 16].
Access to affordable health service, availability of safe water, adequate sanitation, and good housing condition are prerequisites for adequate nutrition [13, 15, 17]. Study conducted in different countries showed that poverty is the most important factor of malnutrition. In an area where poverty is prevalent, children do not obtain balanced diet [13].
The causes of malnutrition identified in UNCIEF conceptual framework on causes of malnutrition included potential resources and resources and control (human, economic, and organizational resources). However, a new conceptual framework developed by Young [6] to address acute malnutrition in Africa’s dry lands encompasses: environment and seasonability, system, formal and informal institutions, and livelihood system. In this conceptual framework, system, formal and informal institutions included governance and political economy, food and health system, gender, cultural and social norms. Livelihood system comprises livelihood resources, strategies, and goals [6].
In basic causes, there are three essential parts of resources: human resource (people, knowledge, skill, and time), economic resource (assets, lands, income, and others), and organizational resources (formal and informal institutions, extended families, and child care organizations) [18].
The formal national institutions that make up the system of governance are centrally essential. It includes civic, political, and economic institutions. Informal institutions include markets, traditional institutions, and wider social customs and rules. These informal social systems determine power relations and resource distribution between different social groups in society, which in turn determine disaster risk and risk of malnutrition [6].
The basic causes of malnutrition are poverty, lack of information, political and economic insecurity, war, lack of resources at all levels, unequal status of women, and/or natural disasters [15].
Malnutrition in children is caused when the demand of nutrient and calories is deficient. Increased demand for nutrients and calories that may be deficient in a normal diet.
Preterm babies have more chance of becoming malnourished than other babies. Preterm babies are at a higher risk of malnutrition as are infants at the time of weaning. Congenital heart disease, childhood cancers, cystic fibrosis, and other long-term diseases are the major risk factors for malnutrition. Neglected children, orphans, and those living in care homes are prone to malnutrition [9]. Some children may become malnourished because of an eating disorder or a behavioral or psychological condition that means they avoid or refuse food.
The conceptual framework developed by UNCIEF and the new conceptual frame developed for dry lands of Africa focus on the causes of undernutrition. However, currently double burden of malnutrition became an international agenda. Therefore, dealing with causes of overnutrition is mandatory.
Energy overnutrition is common in developed countries. Sometimes, people with this type of overnutrition may also experience micronutrient undernutrition if their foods are high in calories but low in micronutrients.
There are many causes of overnutrition. Overnutrition is caused by consuming too much energy than a person needs every day. Consuming too much energy will causes weight gain over time unless a person increases physical activity. It does not matter if those extra calories come from macronutrients (fat, carbohydrates, or protein) because the body takes whatever it does not need and stores it as fat. Overnutrition is associated also with eating too much food and hence having an excessive intake of many nutrients rather than of a single one.
Consuming energy above 1587 Cal/day, protein above 41–57 g/day, and fat above 19–32 g/day increases overweight/obesity both in men and women [19].
Per-capita per day consumption of milk/milk products, fats, and oils (including meat and meat products), sugars and jiggery (including condiments, biscuits,
Micronutrient overnutrition occurs when a person consumes too much of any certain nutrients. It’s possible to get too much of most vitamins or minerals, but usually this happens when you take mega doses of dietary supplements [20]. Micronutrient overnutrition can cause acute poisoning, such as taking too many iron pills at once [21]. Micronutrient overnutrition often results from the use of self-prescribed over-the-counter vitamin and mineral supplements. For example, it can also be chronic, taking large doses of vitamin B6 over several weeks or months [22].
The study also displayed that eating habit while watching television and not having close friend, educational status, sweet food preference, fat consumption more than 3 days per week, eating habit while reading and vigorous-intensity sports were associated with overnutrition [23].
The specific causes of malnutrition are different for different types of malnutrition. In Table 1, the common types of malnutrition, diseases, and their specific causes are described (Table 1).
Types of malnutrition | Caused by deficiency of | Diseases and abnormal conditions caused by malnutrition |
---|---|---|
Protein energy malnutrition | Protein | Kwashiorkor |
Protein | Marasmus | |
Micronutrient deficiency | Iodine | Goiter |
Vitamin A | Bitot’s spots, Night blindness | |
Iron deficiency | Anemia | |
Thiamine (Vitamin B1) | Beriberi | |
Niacin (Vitamin B3) | Pellagra | |
Folic Acid (Vitamin B9) | Several birth defects. | |
Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid) | Scurvy | |
Vitamin D | Rickets, Muscle diseases, osteoporosis | |
Vitamin E | Hemolytic anemia in premature infants and children | |
Vitamin K | Abnormal blood clotting, | |
Calcium | Osteoporosis, Osteomalacia, | |
Zinc | Growth retardation | |
Selenium | Keshan’s disease | |
Overnutrition | Caused by consumption of over-energy and micronutrients | Cardiovascular disease. Cancer. Type II diabetes |
Common malnutrition and their causes.
Malnutrition is not getting enough energy or getting too much of nutrients. There are two forms of malnutrition: undernutrition and overnutrition. Malnutrition can be caused by various factors. The causes of malnutrition can be classified as immediate, underlying, and basic causes. Insufficient dietary intake and diseases can cause immediate malnutrition. HH food insecurity, inadequate social and care environment and insufficient health service, and unhealthy environment are classified in underlying causes of malnutrition. Basic-level causes of malnutrition include: potential resource and resource control, environmental factors, reasonability, system, institutions, and livelihood system.
Energy, vitamin, and mineral deficiency causes undernutrition. Overnutrition is caused by overconsumption of energy and micronutrients. Hence, there is double burden of malnutrition around world, great emphasis should be given for undernutrition and overnutrition. The causes of overnutrition are not clearly indicated in several studies. Therefore, studies that focus on cause of overnutrition should be done by including both developed and undeveloped countries.
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\n\nOut of all of the publishing options available to researchers, why choose to contribute your research to an IntechOpen Edited Volume? The reasons are simple. IntechOpen has worked exceptionally hard over the past years to fine tune the Open Access book publishing process and we continue to work hard to deliver the best for all of our contributors. The quality of published content is of utmost importance to us, followed closely by speed, and of course, availability and accessibility. To view current Open Access book projects that are Open for Submissions visit us here.
\n\nQUALITY CONTENT
\n\nOver the years we have learned what is important. What makes a difference to the researchers that work with us, what they value. Something that is very high not only on their lists, but our own, is the quality of the published content.
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\n\nWith regular submission for coverage in the single most important database, the Book Citation Index in the Web of Science™ Core Collection (BKCI), and no rejected submissions to date, over 43% of all Open Access books indexed in the BKCI are IntechOpen published books.
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\n\nYOUR WORK, YOUR COPYRIGHT
\n\nThe utilization of CC licenses allow researchers to retain copyright to their work. Researchers are free to use, adapt and share all content they publish with us. You will never have to pay permission fees to reuse a part of an experiment that you worked so hard to complete and are free to build upon your own research and the research of others. The Edited Volume helps bring together research from all over the world and compiles that research into one book - accessible for all. The research presented in chapter one can inspire the author of chapter three to take his or her research to the next level. It is about sharing ideas, insights and knowledge.
\n\nCan collaboration be inspired by a publishing format? At IntechOpen, the answer is yes. The way the research is published, the way it is accessed, it’s all part of our mission to help academics make a greater impact by giving readers free access to all published work.
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\n\nCURRENT PROJECTS
\n\nTo view current Open Access book projects that are Open for Submissions visit us here.
\n\nNot sure if this is the right publishing option for you? Feel free to contact us at book.department@intechopen.com.
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Management Functions and Information System Components as an integration model are (1) to explain Management Functions, Information System Components, Goals and Benefit related to Information System and (2) to explain integration process of Management Functions with Information System Component to get goals and benefits as an integrated model. Research method using expert method has done an integration of management function, which includes the cycle of P, O, A, C, E and I, to run management process, must be step by step, and as a cycle. Information components include S, H, F, B, and T and must have minimum requirement. Management of Information System needs goals and benefits that can be calculated clearly and specifically. To get goals and benefits in excellence performance are needed the integrated process to coordinate management functions and information system components, as an Integrated Model with an example in applications of software in Nosocomial Infection Control for Hospital, as the figure below.",book:{id:"6259",slug:"management-of-information-systems",title:"Management of Information Systems",fullTitle:"Management of Information Systems"},signatures:"Boy Subirosa Sabarguna",authors:[{id:"200387",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Boy Subirosa",middleName:null,surname:"Sabarguna",slug:"boy-subirosa-sabarguna",fullName:"Boy Subirosa Sabarguna"}]},{id:"57870",title:"Information and Information Technologies in Conflict Management",slug:"information-and-information-technologies-in-conflict-management",totalDownloads:1259,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This paper analyzes information and modern information technologies as applied in different organizational environment and considers the content and peculiarities of conflict management process based on implementation of communicative scenarios. Currently, the need for escalated organizational transformations has become imminent, taking into account the intensifying development of the differentiated information society, which requires properly interactive and transparent policy-making. 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Its performance relates to many other information systems, for instance, DSS or decision support system, SIS or strategic information system, etc. Methods of testing statistical hypotheses concerning the performance of MIS are absolutely essential to support management activities and decision-making.",book:{id:"6259",slug:"management-of-information-systems",title:"Management of Information Systems",fullTitle:"Management of Information Systems"},signatures:"Khu Phi Nguyen and Hong Tuyet Tu",authors:[{id:"150274",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Khu",middleName:"Phi",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"khu-nguyen",fullName:"Khu Nguyen"}]},{id:"63078",title:"Decision Support Systems",slug:"decision-support-systems",totalDownloads:2378,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"The current decision-making problems is more complex than it was in the past, prompting the need for decision support. 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He previously worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Ben-Gurion University of Negev, Israel; University of the Free State, South Africa; and Central University of Technology Bloemfontein, South Africa. He obtained his Ph.D. in Organic Chemistry from Nagaoka University of Technology, Japan. He has published more than seventy-four journal articles and attended several national and international conferences as speaker and chair. Dr. Kendrekar has received many international awards. He has several funded projects, namely, anti-malaria drug development, MRSA, and SARS-CoV-2 activity of curcumin and its formulations. He has filed four patents in collaboration with the University of Central Lancashire and Mayo Clinic Infectious Diseases. His present research includes organic synthesis, drug discovery and development, biochemistry, nanoscience, and nanotechnology.",institutionString:"Visiting Scientist at Lipid Nanostructures Laboratory, Centre for Smart Materials, School of Natural Sciences, University of Central Lancashire",institution:null},{id:"428125",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinayak",middleName:null,surname:"Adimule",slug:"vinayak-adimule",fullName:"Vinayak Adimule",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/428125/images/system/428125.jpg",biography:"Dr. Vinayak Adimule, MSc, Ph.D., is a professor and dean of R&D, Angadi Institute of Technology and Management, India. He has 15 years of research experience as a senior research scientist and associate research scientist in R&D organizations. He has published more than fifty research articles as well as several book chapters. He has two Indian patents and two international patents to his credit. Dr. Adimule has attended, chaired, and presented papers at national and international conferences. He is a guest editor for Topics in Catalysis and other journals. He is also an editorial board member, life member, and associate member for many international societies and research institutions. His research interests include nanoelectronics, material chemistry, artificial intelligence, sensors and actuators, bio-nanomaterials, and medicinal chemistry.",institutionString:"Angadi Institute of Technology and Management",institution:null},{id:"284317",title:"Prof.",name:"Kantharaju",middleName:null,surname:"Kamanna",slug:"kantharaju-kamanna",fullName:"Kantharaju Kamanna",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284317/images/21050_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. K. Kantharaju has received Bachelor of science (PCM), master of science (Organic Chemistry) and Doctor of Philosophy in Chemistry from Bangalore University. He worked as a Executive Research & Development @ Cadila Pharmaceuticals Ltd, Ahmedabad. He received DBT-postdoc fellow @ Molecular Biophysics Unit, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore under the supervision of Prof. P. Balaram, later he moved to NIH-postdoc researcher at Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, USA, after his return from postdoc joined NITK-Surthakal as a Adhoc faculty at department of chemistry. Since from August 2013 working as a Associate Professor, and in 2016 promoted to Profeesor in the School of Basic Sciences: Department of Chemistry and having 20 years of teaching and research experiences.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rani Channamma University, Belagavi",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158492/images/system/158492.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yusuf Tutar conducts his research at the Hamidiye Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Biochemistry, University of Health Sciences, Turkey. He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"436430",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mesut",middleName:null,surname:"Işık",slug:"mesut-isik",fullName:"Mesut Işık",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/436430/images/19686_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bilecik University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a scientist and Principal Investigator at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering the lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via artificial intelligence-based analyses of exosomal Raman signatures. Dr. Paul also works on spatial multiplex immunofluorescence-based tissue mapping to understand the immune repertoire in lung cancer. Dr. Paul has published in more than sixty-five peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award and the 2022 AAISCR-R Vijayalaxmi Award for Innovative Cancer Research. He is a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"1",type:"subseries",title:"Oral Health",keywords:"Oral Health, Dental Care, Diagnosis, Diagnostic Imaging, Early Diagnosis, Oral Cancer, Conservative Treatment, Epidemiology, Comprehensive Dental Care, Complementary Therapies, Holistic Health",scope:"\r\n\tThis topic aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the latest trends in Oral Health based on recent scientific evidence. Subjects will include an overview of oral diseases and infections, systemic diseases affecting the oral cavity, prevention, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, as well as current clinical recommendations for the management of oral, dental, and periodontal diseases.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/1.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11397,editor:{id:"173955",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Marinho",slug:"sandra-marinho",fullName:"Sandra Marinho",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGYMQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-06-01T13:22:41.png",biography:"Dr. Sandra A. Marinho is an Associate Professor and Brazilian researcher at the State University of Paraíba (Universidade Estadual da Paraíba- UEPB), Campus VIII, located in Araruna, state of Paraíba since 2011. She holds a degree in Dentistry from the Federal University of Alfenas (UNIFAL), while her specialization and professional improvement in Stomatology took place at Hospital Heliopolis (São Paulo, SP). Her qualifications are: a specialist in Dental Imaging and Radiology, Master in Dentistry (Periodontics) from the University of São Paulo (FORP-USP, Ribeirão Preto, SP), and Doctor (Ph.D.) in Dentistry (Stomatology Clinic) from Hospital São Lucas of the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (HSL-PUCRS, Porto Alegre, RS). She held a postdoctoral internship at the Federal University from Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM, Diamantina, MG). She is currently a member of the Brazilian Society for Dental Research (SBPqO) and the Brazilian Society of Stomatology and Pathology (SOBEP). 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