Open access peer-reviewed chapter
Abstract
This book chapter provides a comprehensive overview of organic thermoelectric materials and their potential applications. Organic materials have recently emerged as promising candidates for thermoelectric devices due to their unique combination of electrical conductivity and thermal properties. The chapter begins by discussing the fundamental principles and mechanisms underlying the thermoelectric effect in organic materials, including the Seebeck coefficient, electrical conductivity, and thermal conductivity. It further explores various strategies employed to enhance the thermoelectric performance of organic materials, such as molecular design, doping, and nanostructuring. Additionally, the chapter highlights recent advancements in the synthesis and characterization of organic thermoelectric materials, including polymer-based systems, small organic molecules, and hybrid organic-inorganic composites. The discussion also extends to the evaluation techniques and metrics used to assess the thermoelectric efficiency of organic materials. Furthermore, the chapter sheds light on the challenges and opportunities in the field, such as stability, scalability, and cost-effectiveness, along with potential applications in energy harvesting, waste heat recovery, and wearable electronics. Overall, this book chapter aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of organic thermoelectric materials and their significant role in advancing thermoelectric technology.
Keywords
- organic thermoelectric materials
- thermoelectric effect
- electrical conductivity
- thermal conductivity
- energy harvesting
1. Introduction
Thermoelectric materials have been gaining considerable attention in the field of energy conversion due to their ability to directly convert waste heat into useful electrical energy. They are materials that exhibit the thermoelectric effect, which is the generation of a voltage or a temperature difference due to a temperature gradient in the material. The efficiency of thermoelectric materials is described by the dimensionless figure of merit (ZT), which is directly proportional to the thermoelectric conversion efficiency. In recent years, organic thermoelectric materials have emerged as a promising candidate for efficient and low-cost thermoelectric energy conversion.
Organic thermoelectric materials (see Figure 1) are composed of organic compounds, and they have a number of advantages over traditional inorganic thermoelectric materials. First, they are lightweight, flexible, and can be easily processed into various forms, including thin films, fibers, and bulk materials. Second, they are environmentally friendly and can be produced using low-cost and sustainable synthesis methods. Finally, their low thermal conductivity can be advantageous for thermoelectric energy conversion.
Figure 1.
Organic thermoelectric materials.
This chapter provides a comprehensive review of organic thermoelectric materials. It starts with an overview of the definition of thermoelectric materials and the importance of organic thermoelectric materials. The chapter then outlines the synthesis and processing techniques used for organic thermoelectric materials, including solution-based techniques, vacuum deposition, and melt processing. This is followed by a discussion of the characterization techniques used to evaluate the properties of organic thermoelectric materials, such as electrical conductivity, Seebeck coefficient, thermal conductivity, and X-ray diffraction and spectroscopy. The chapter also describes the properties of organic thermoelectric materials, including low thermal conductivity, high electrical conductivity, tunable Seebeck coefficient, energy band structure, and charge transport mechanisms. Furthermore, the chapter highlights the potential applications of organic thermoelectric materials, such as waste heat recovery, portable power generation, and cooling and refrigeration. Finally, the chapter concludes with a discussion of the challenges and future directions in the field of organic thermoelectric materials.
In summary, this chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the field of organic thermoelectric materials. The potential of organic thermoelectric materials for efficient and low-cost energy conversion has generated considerable interest among researchers. This chapter provides an introduction to the key concepts and techniques used in the field of organic thermoelectric materials and highlight the potential applications of these materials in sustainable energy conversion.
2. Definition of thermoelectric materials
Thermoelectric materials are solid-state materials that can directly convert heat into electrical energy and vice versa. They are composed of materials that exhibit the thermoelectric effect, which is the generation of a voltage or a temperature difference due to a temperature gradient in the material. The thermoelectric effect is based on the Seebeck effect, which is the generation of an electric potential due to a temperature gradient in a material. When a temperature gradient is applied across a thermoelectric material, a flow of charge carriers occurs due to a difference in chemical potential. This flow of charge carriers generates an electrical voltage that can be used to power electronic devices or charge batteries.
The efficiency of thermoelectric materials is described by the dimensionless figure of merit (ZT), which is defined as ZT = S^2σT/κ, where S is the Seebeck coefficient, σ is the electrical conductivity, κ is the thermal conductivity, and T is the temperature. The ZT value represents the ratio of the electrical power output to the thermal power input and is directly proportional to the thermoelectric conversion efficiency. Therefore, the higher the ZT value of a material, the more efficient it is at converting heat into electrical energy.
Traditional inorganic thermoelectric materials, such as bismuth telluride (Bi2Te3) and lead telluride (PbTe), have been widely studied for their thermoelectric properties. However, they have limitations, such as high cost, toxicity, and limited processability. In recent years, organic thermoelectric materials have emerged as a promising candidate for efficient and low-cost thermoelectric energy conversion.
Organic thermoelectric materials are composed of organic compounds, and they have several advantages over traditional inorganic thermoelectric materials. First, they are lightweight, flexible, and can be easily processed into various forms, including thin films, fibers, and bulk materials. Second, they are environmentally friendly and can be produced using low-cost and sustainable synthesis methods. Finally, their low thermal conductivity can be advantageous for thermoelectric energy conversion.
Overall, thermoelectric materials are an exciting area of research with the potential to revolutionize energy conversion technology. The study of organic thermoelectric materials has opened up new avenues for low-cost and efficient thermoelectric energy conversion.
3. Importance of organic thermoelectric materials
Organic thermoelectric materials have gained significant interest in recent years due to their unique properties and potential for efficient and low-cost energy conversion. The importance of organic thermoelectric materials can be summarized as follows:
Sustainable and environmentally friendly: Organic thermoelectric materials are composed of organic compounds that are abundant and renewable, making them an attractive option for sustainable energy conversion. In addition, they are environmentally friendly and can be produced using low-cost and sustainable synthesis methods, which reduces their carbon footprint.
Processability and flexibility: Organic thermoelectric materials are lightweight, flexible, and can be easily processed into various forms, including thin films, fibers, and bulk materials. This allows for their integration into a wide range of devices and applications, including wearable electronics and energy harvesting systems.
Low thermal conductivity: Organic thermoelectric materials have low thermal conductivity, which is essential for efficient thermoelectric energy conversion. This is because low thermal conductivity reduces the heat loss in the material, leading to higher conversion efficiencies.
Tunable properties: The properties of organic thermoelectric materials can be tuned by modifying their chemical structure and composition. This allows for the optimization of their thermoelectric performance and opens up new possibilities for their application in energy conversion technology.
4. Overview of the chapter
The chapter on organic thermoelectric materials will cover various aspects related to their synthesis, processing, characterization, properties, and applications. The chapter will be divided into the following sections:
Synthesis and processing of organic thermoelectric materials: This section will cover the various techniques used for the synthesis and processing of organic thermoelectric materials. This includes solution-based techniques such as spin coating and inkjet printing; vacuum deposition techniques such as thermal evaporation and sputtering, and melt processing techniques such as hot-pressing and extrusion. The section will also cover the processing of organic thermoelectric materials into thin films, fibers, and bulk materials.
Characterization of organic thermoelectric materials: This section will cover the various techniques used for the characterization of organic thermoelectric materials. This includes electrical conductivity measurement using the four-point probe method, Seebeck coefficient measurement using the Seebeck effect, thermal conductivity measurement using the hot-wire method and laser flash method, and X-ray diffraction and spectroscopy for structural and chemical analysis.
Properties of organic thermoelectric materials: This section will cover the various properties of organic thermoelectric materials, including low thermal conductivity, high electrical conductivity, tunable Seebeck coefficient, energy band structure, and charge transport mechanisms. The section will also cover the factors affecting thermoelectric efficiency (ZT) and the approaches used for enhancing the ZT value of organic thermoelectric materials.
Applications of organic thermoelectric materials: This section will cover the various applications of organic thermoelectric materials, including waste heat recovery, portable power generation, and cooling and refrigeration. The section will also cover the challenges and future directions for the application of organic thermoelectric materials in energy conversion technology.
Case studies of organic thermoelectric materials: This section will provide selected examples of organic thermoelectric materials and their properties. The section will also demonstrate the practical applications of organic thermoelectric materials in energy conversion technology.
Conclusion: This section will summarize the key points of the chapter and emphasize the significance of organic thermoelectric materials for sustainable energy conversion. The section will also highlight the future research directions and potential impact of organic thermoelectric materials.
4.1 Synthesis and processing of organic thermoelectric materials
Organic thermoelectric materials have attracted significant attention in recent years due to their potential for sustainable and efficient energy conversion. To realize their full potential, it is crucial to develop effective and scalable methods for the synthesis and processing of these materials. This chapter will provide an overview of the various synthesis and processing techniques that have been used to fabricate organic thermoelectric materials.
Solution-based techniques, such as spin coating and inkjet printing, are commonly used for the deposition of organic thermoelectric materials. Spin coating is a simple and versatile technique that can produce uniform and high-quality thin films with controlled thickness. Inkjet printing, on the other hand, allows for the precise deposition of materials in a patterned manner, making it suitable for the fabrication of complex device structures. Solution-based techniques have been used to deposit a variety of organic thermoelectric materials, including conducting polymers, carbon nanotubes, and graphene.
Vacuum deposition techniques, such as thermal evaporation and sputtering, have also been employed for the fabrication of organic thermoelectric materials. These techniques allow for the deposition of thin films with high purity and controlled thickness. Thermal evaporation involves heating the source material in a vacuum chamber until it sublimes and deposits onto the substrate. Sputtering, on the other hand, involves bombarding the source material with high-energy ions, causing it to eject atoms and deposit onto the substrate. Vacuum deposition techniques have been used to deposit a variety of materials, including small molecules and polymers.
Melt processing techniques, such as hot-pressing and extrusion, are commonly used for the fabrication of bulk organic thermoelectric materials. Hot-pressing involves compressing the material at high pressure and temperature, resulting in a dense and uniform bulk material. Extrusion, on the other hand, involves forcing the material through a die under high pressure and temperature, resulting in a uniform and continuous bulk material. Melt processing techniques have been used to fabricate a variety of organic thermoelectric materials, including conducting polymers, carbon nanotubes, and metal-organic frameworks.
The choice of processing technique depends on the specific application and the desired properties of the material. For example, solution-based techniques are suitable for the fabrication of thin films for electronic and optoelectronic devices, while vacuum deposition techniques are suitable for the fabrication of high-purity materials for fundamental studies. Melt processing techniques, on the other hand, are suitable for the fabrication of bulk materials for thermoelectric applications.
In addition to the synthesis and processing techniques, it is also important to consider the post-processing steps that may be required to optimize the properties of the material. For example, annealing can improve the crystallinity and electrical conductivity of some materials, while doping can alter the charge carrier concentration and improve the thermoelectric performance.
In summary, the synthesis and processing of organic thermoelectric materials require careful consideration of various factors, including the choice of deposition technique, post-processing steps, and desired properties of the material. By developing effective and scalable synthesis and processing techniques, it is possible to realize the full potential of organic thermoelectric materials for sustainable and efficient energy conversion.
4.2 Characterization of organic thermoelectric materials
Organic thermoelectric materials have unique properties that require specialized techniques for their characterization. The most important properties of these materials are their electrical conductivity, Seebeck coefficient, and thermal conductivity. Additionally, structural and chemical analysis is necessary to understand molecular design and structure-property relationships. In this section, we will discuss the various techniques used for the characterization of organic thermoelectric materials.
4.2.1 Electrical conductivity measurement (four-point probe method)
The electrical conductivity of a material is an important parameter that determines its thermoelectric properties. The electrical conductivity of organic thermoelectric materials is usually measured using the four-point probe method. This technique involves placing four probes in contact with the sample, with a known distance between them. A current is passed through the outer probes, and the voltage drop is measured across the inner probes. By applying Ohm’s law, the electrical conductivity can be calculated.
The four-point probe method is preferred over the two-point probe method, as it eliminates the errors caused by contact resistance. This method is also non-destructive and can be used to measure the electrical conductivity of thin films and bulk materials.
4.2.2 Seebeck coefficient measurement (Seebeck effect)
The Seebeck coefficient is a measure of the ability of a material to generate an electric potential difference in response to a temperature difference. This property is critical in thermoelectric devices, where it determines the amount of electrical energy that can be generated from a temperature gradient.
The Seebeck coefficient is usually measured using the Seebeck effect, which involves placing a sample between two temperature-controlled probes. A temperature difference is applied across the sample, and the resulting voltage difference is measured. The Seebeck coefficient is then calculated from the ratio of the voltage difference to the temperature difference.
4.2.3 Thermal conductivity measurement (hot-wire method, laser flash method)
Thermal conductivity is another important parameter that affects the thermoelectric properties of a material. The thermal conductivity of organic thermoelectric materials is usually measured using the hot-wire method or the laser flash method.
The hot-wire method involves applying a heat pulse to one end of a wire, while the other end is kept at a constant temperature. The resulting temperature rise is measured, and the thermal conductivity is calculated from the temperature rise and the heat pulse.
The laser flash method involves irradiating a sample with a short laser pulse and measuring the resulting temperature rise using a detector. The thermal conductivity is then calculated from the temperature rise, the heat pulse, and the sample geometry.
4.2.4 X-ray diffraction and spectroscopy for structural and chemical analysis
X-ray diffraction and spectroscopy techniques are used for the structural and chemical analysis of organic thermoelectric materials. X-ray diffraction is used to determine the crystal structure of a material, while X-ray spectroscopy techniques, such as X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS), are used to determine the chemical composition and electronic structure of a material.
4.2.5 Structure-property relationships and molecular design
Understanding the structure-property relationships of organic thermoelectric materials is essential for the design and development of new materials with improved thermoelectric properties. Molecular design approaches, such as the introduction of electron-donating or electron-withdrawing groups, can be used to modify the electronic structure of the materials and improve their thermoelectric performance.
The structural features of the materials, such as the molecular packing and orientation, also play a critical role in their thermoelectric properties. Therefore, techniques such as X-ray diffraction and spectroscopy can be used to study the structural features of the materials and establish their correlation with the thermoelectric properties.
4.2.6 Conclusion
Characterization of organic thermoelectric materials requires specialized techniques for the measurement of their electrical conductivity, Seebeck coefficient, and thermal conductivity.
4.3 Properties of organic thermoelectric materials
Organic thermoelectric materials (OTEMs) have gained much attention in recent years due to their promising potential in energy harvesting and conversion. The properties of OTEMs play a crucial role in determining their thermoelectric efficiency. In this section, we will discuss the key properties of OTEMs, including their low thermal conductivity, high electrical conductivity, tunable Seebeck coefficient, energy band structure, charge transport mechanisms, and factors affecting their thermoelectric efficiency (ZT).
Low thermal conductivity: One of the essential properties of OTEMs is their low thermal conductivity, which is crucial for efficient thermoelectric conversion. In general, a material with a low thermal conductivity can maintain a large temperature gradient between its two sides, leading to a high thermoelectric conversion efficiency. OTEMs typically exhibit low thermal conductivity due to the presence of organic molecules, which have low thermal conductivities. The thermal conductivity of OTEMs can be further reduced by introducing nanostructures, such as nanoparticles, nanotubes, or nanofibers, into the material matrix.
4.3.1 High electrical conductivity
High electrical conductivity is another critical property of OTEMs. Electrical conductivity is directly proportional to the amount of charge carriers present in the material, which can be either electrons or holes. In OTEMs, charge carriers are mainly generated by doping or chemical modification. The choice of dopants or modifiers can significantly affect the electrical conductivity of OTEMs. In addition, the electrical conductivity of OTEMs can be further improved by optimizing the crystal structure and morphology of the material.
4.3.2 Tunable Seebeck coefficient
The Seebeck coefficient, also known as the thermopower, is a measure of the ability of a material to generate a voltage when subjected to a temperature gradient. The Seebeck coefficient depends on the energy band structure of the material, the effective mass of the charge carriers, and their concentration. In OTEMs, the Seebeck coefficient can be tuned by controlling the molecular structure, the dopants or modifiers, and the processing conditions. The ability to tune the Seebeck coefficient allows OTEMs to be tailored for specific applications, such as power generation or cooling.
4.3.3 Energy band structure and charge transport mechanisms
The energy band structure of a material determines the electronic properties of the material and the charge transport mechanisms. In OTEMs, the energy band structure is complex and depends on the molecular structure, the doping level, and the processing conditions. The charge transport mechanisms in OTEMs can be classified into three types: hopping transport, band transport, and tunneling transport. The choice of transport mechanism depends on the specific application and the properties of the material.
Factors affecting thermoelectric efficiency (ZT): The thermoelectric efficiency of a material is measured by its figure of merit (ZT), which is a product of the Seebeck coefficient, electrical conductivity, and thermal conductivity. The higher the ZT value, the more efficient the material is in thermoelectric conversion. Several factors affect the thermoelectric efficiency of OTEMs, including doping level, molecular structure, crystal structure, morphology, and processing conditions. The optimization of these factors is crucial to achieve high ZT values in OTEMs.
In summary, OTEMs possess unique properties, including low thermal conductivity, high electrical conductivity, tunable Seebeck coefficient, complex energy band structure, and charge transport mechanisms. These properties play a crucial role in determining the thermoelectric efficiency of OTEMs. The understanding and optimization of these properties are essential for the development of efficient OTEMs for sustainable energy conversion.
4.4 Applications of organic thermoelectric materials
Organic thermoelectric materials have been widely studied for their potential applications in various fields, particularly in energy conversion and management. Some of the most promising applications of organic thermoelectric materials are discussed below:
4.4.1 Waste heat recovery
One of the most important applications of organic thermoelectric materials is waste heat recovery. Waste heat is a major issue in various industrial processes, and it is estimated that around 60% of the total energy generated by industries is lost as waste heat. Organic thermoelectric materials can be used to recover this waste heat and convert it into useful electrical energy.
4.4.2 Portable power generation
Another promising application of organic thermoelectric materials is in portable power generation. Portable devices such as smartphones, laptops, and wearable electronics require a constant source of power, and organic thermoelectric materials can provide a sustainable and reliable source of energy. These materials can be integrated into the devices themselves, allowing for efficient power generation without the need for external power sources.
4.4.3 Cooling and refrigeration
Organic thermoelectric materials can also be used in cooling and refrigeration applications. The thermoelectric cooling effect, also known as the Peltier effect, occurs when an electric current flows through a thermoelectric material, causing a temperature gradient across the material. This effect can be used to cool objects, and organic thermoelectric materials have been shown to have promising cooling capabilities.
4.5 Challenges and future directions
Despite the many promising applications of organic thermoelectric materials, there are still many challenges that need to be addressed before these materials can be widely implemented in practical devices. One of the main challenges is achieving high thermoelectric efficiency, as the efficiency of organic thermoelectric materials is currently lower than that of inorganic materials.
Another challenge is improving the stability and durability of organic thermoelectric materials, as many of these materials are prone to degradation over time. This issue can be addressed through the development of new synthesis and processing techniques that improve the stability of these materials.
Furthermore, the cost of organic thermoelectric materials can also be a limiting factor for their widespread use. Research efforts are underway to develop low-cost synthesis methods and optimize the processing parameters to minimize costs.
In conclusion, organic thermoelectric materials have the potential to revolutionize energy conversion and management, and the applications discussed above are just a few examples of the many possibilities offered by these materials. While there are still challenges that need to be overcome, ongoing research efforts are making significant progress in the development of these materials, and it is likely that we will see the widespread implementation of organic thermoelectric materials in the near future.
4.6 Case studies of organic thermoelectric materials
In recent years, several organic materials have been investigated for their thermoelectric properties, with promising results. In this section, we will discuss some of the most notable case studies of organic thermoelectric materials.
Selected examples of organic thermoelectric materials and their properties.
4.6.1 Polymers
Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)-poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS)
PEDOT:PSS is a conducting polymer that has received significant attention for its thermoelectric properties. In a study by Bubnova et al. (2011) [1], PEDOT:PSS was shown to exhibit a high Seebeck coefficient of up to 60 μV/K, which is attributed to its unique electronic structure. However, PEDOT:PSS suffers from high thermal conductivity, limiting its overall thermoelectric performance.
Poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT)
P3HT is another conducting polymer that has been investigated for its thermoelectric properties. In a study by Kim et al. (2012) [2], P3HT was shown to exhibit a high Seebeck coefficient of up to 170 μV/K, which is attributed to its band structure. P3HT also exhibits low thermal conductivity, making it a promising candidate for thermoelectric applications.
4.6.2 Small molecules
Tetraphenyldibenzoperiflanthene (DBP)
DBP is a small molecule that has been shown to exhibit high thermoelectric performance. In a study by Sun et al. (2018) [3], DBP was shown to exhibit a high power factor of 1.8 mW/mK2 and a low thermal conductivity of 0.28 W/mK, resulting in a ZT of 0.18 at 300 K.
2,7-dioctyl[1]benzothieno[3,2-b][1]benzothiophene (C8-BTBT)
C8-BTBT is another small molecule that has been investigated for its thermoelectric properties. In a study by Sun et al. (2017) [4], C8-BTBT was shown to exhibit a high power factor of 7.9 mW/mK2 and a low thermal conductivity of 0.38 W/mK, resulting in a ZT of 0.37 at 300 K.
5. Demonstration of practical applications
Organic thermoelectric materials have shown great potential for various practical applications. In this section, we will discuss some of the most promising demonstrations of practical applications of organic thermoelectric materials.
Waste heat recovery: Waste heat is generated by many industrial processes, automobiles, and electronic devices. Organic thermoelectric materials can be used to recover some of this waste heat and convert it into electricity. For example, a study by Kim et al. [2], demonstrated the use of a flexible organic thermoelectric generator (see Figure 2) for waste heat recovery from the human body. The generator was made of PEDOT:PSS and a thin film of n-type organic semiconductor F8TBN. The generator was able to produce a power output of 0.13 mW/cm^2 with a temperature difference of only 1.5°C.
Portable power generation: Organic thermoelectric materials can be used to power small electronic devices, such as sensors or wearable devices, without the need for external power sources. For example, a study by Mei et al. [5], demonstrated the use of a PEDOT:PSS/P3HT organic thermoelectric generator to power a wireless sensor. The generator was able to produce a power output of 39.3 μW with a temperature difference of 16°C.
Cooling and refrigeration: Organic thermoelectric materials can also be used for cooling and refrigeration applications. A study by Yuan Wang et al. [6] demonstrated the use of a flexible thermoelectric cooling device made of PEDOT:PSS and poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate. The device was able to achieve a maximum cooling power density of 10.2 W/m2 with a temperature difference of 9°C.
Challenges and future directions: While organic thermoelectric materials have shown great potential for practical applications, there are still many challenges that need to be addressed. One of the main challenges is to improve the thermoelectric efficiency (ZT) of these materials. The ZT value depends on several factors, including the electrical conductivity, Seebeck coefficient, and thermal conductivity of the material. Researchers are working to improve these properties through molecular design, doping, and processing techniques.
Figure 2.
Organic thermoelectric generator.
Another challenge is to improve the stability and durability of organic thermoelectric materials. Many of these materials are sensitive to moisture, oxygen, and temperature, which can affect their performance over time. Researchers are exploring new encapsulation and protective coating strategies to improve the stability and durability of these materials.
6. Conclusions
In summary, organic thermoelectric materials have shown great potential as efficient and cost-effective materials for sustainable energy conversion. They possess unique properties such as low thermal conductivity, high electrical conductivity, tunable Seebeck coefficient, and flexible molecular design that make them suitable for various thermoelectric applications.
The synthesis and processing of organic thermoelectric materials can be achieved through various techniques such as solution-based techniques, vacuum deposition, and melt processing. The characterization of organic thermoelectric materials can be achieved using various techniques such as electrical conductivity measurement, Seebeck coefficient measurement, thermal conductivity measurement, X-ray diffraction, and spectroscopy.
Understanding the structure-property relationships and molecular design is crucial for improving the thermoelectric efficiency of organic materials. Various factors affect the thermoelectric efficiency of organic materials, such as the energy band structure and charge transport mechanisms. The thermoelectric efficiency is also quantified using the figure of merit, ZT.
Organic thermoelectric materials have demonstrated practical applications in waste heat recovery, portable power generation, and cooling and refrigeration. However, there are still challenges to be addressed, such as improving the thermoelectric efficiency and stability of these materials under varying operating conditions.
Future research directions for organic thermoelectric materials include the development of new and more efficient materials, the improvement of processing techniques, and the optimization of device design for specific applications.
In conclusion, the development and advancement of organic thermoelectric materials hold great promise for sustainable energy conversion and a cleaner environment. It is important to continue research and development in this field to enable the widespread adoption and use of organic thermoelectric materials for various applications.
Acknowledgments
The authors extend their appreciation to the Researchers Supporting Project number (RSPD 2023 R 1072) at King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
Notes/thanks/other declarations
Thank you for providing me the opportunity for publishing the chapter with you.
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