A Holistic Approach of Organic Farming in Improving the Productivity and Quality of Horticultural Crops

Abstract

Horticultural crops take into account fruits, vegetables, medicinal, aromatic, and ornamental plants. These crops play a vital role in dietary nutritional components and sources of medicines and aroma along with extensive aesthetic values for human beings. Horticulture is also becoming essential to meet the demand for fruits, vegetables, and other horticultural products for the fast-growing global population. With the rise of population, industrialization, and globalization, the arable soil resource is abated rapidly. Again, as a result of green revolution in the post-independence age, the “resource degrading” chemical or inorganic agriculture has given way to “resource protective” biological or organic farming as a means of preserving agricultural production against the demands placed on the earth’s limited natural resources in the many developing nations. Organic farming is a holistic approach that promotes environmentally, socially, and economically sound production of food. During the last two decades, there has also been a significant sensitization of the global community toward environmental preservation and assuring food quality. This chapter aims to provide an updated knowledge of organic agriculture and its potential uses for enhancing productivity and quality of horticultural crops, saving the soil from chemical contamination and environmental preservation to ensure safe food for human beings.

1. Introduction

Holistic Management is a whole farm planning system that helps farmers, ranchers, and land stewards better manage agricultural resources in order to reap sustainable environmental, economic, and social benefits [1]. A holistic approach encompasses food security and environmental and social goals. It helps restore the health of agricultural ecosystems and increases the resilience of farms to future challenges. Roger M. Savory [2] is originally credited with the development of the term Holistic Management in agriculture that is designed to restore degraded grasslands using a method that integrates economic, social, and environmental variables (particularly movements of grazing livestock) into land management. Again, agriculture is facing difficulty feeding the vast population that is expanding quickly while still having enough food to spare for future generations. But sustainable human agricultural activities directly or indirectly responsibly cause climate change, the depletion of nonrenewable resources, and water contamination, which altogether has been putting the future food supply in danger.

Holistic agricultural systems that ascertain enhanced productivity by making the best utilization of natural resources and ecological processes are better suited to tackle these difficulties rather than using the reductionist approaches that prioritize output maximization only [3]. Organic agriculture is a holistic system considered to sustain and enhance the profitability of organic yield [4]. Organic farming is a sustainable approach that positively impacts the environment and health of human beings and wildlife because no agrochemicals such as pesticides, insecticides, herbicides, and synthetic fertilizers are used compared to conventional farming [5]. Sustainable agricultural systems also rely on the traditional knowledge and entrepreneurial skills of farmers and include both organic farming and agroecological methods. Organic farming (OF), also known as ecological farming or biological farming, can be defined as an integrative farming technology that is ecologically, economically, and socially acceptable and that ensures sustainable supply of safe and healthy foods and fibers with the least possible amount of resource use and the least amount of ecological harm.

The IFOAM General Assembly organized in June 2008 in Italy defined organic agriculture as “a production system that sustains the health of soils, ecosystems, and people through depending on ecological processes, biodiversity, and cycles adapted to local conditions, rather than the use of inputs with adverse effects.” United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) and UN-Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) also termed organic farming as a method that, to the greatest possible extent, relies on crop rotation, crop residues, animal manures, off-farm organic waste, mineral grade rock additives and biological systems of nutrient mobilization and plant protection instead of avoiding or largely excluding the use of synthetic inputs (such as fertilizers, pesticides, hormones, feed additives). Environmental preservation, livestock production, and animal care are prioritized in organic farming [6] and discourage the application of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides [7]. Organic farming also forbids the creation of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and their usage in animal feed. It is distinguished by the use of regulated standards (production regulations), compelled control programs, and particular labeling strategies compared to other agricultural production techniques [8]. Organic farming is, therefore, economic, environmentally safe and produces hygienic foods with no or less pesticide residue than those made by conventional agriculture [9, 10]. The concepts of organic farming are based on the idea that everything in a living system—soil, plants, farm animals, insects, the farmer, etc.—is interconnected. Therefore, it must be based on a thorough understanding and clever management of these interactions and processes. Dependence on extraneous inputs, whether synthetic or natural, is lessened as far as possible. Organic farming is promoted as one of the sustainable agricultural systems augmenting human nutrition by producing a variety of crops including fruits, vegetables, and livestock in addition to reducing the negative effects of high-input-based agriculture [11]. More recently, organic agriculture production has been rapidly increasing in all parts of the universe [9, 12] because of people’s enhanced willingness to consume organic products even at a premium price.

Moreover, healthy soils are essential for biodiversity, ecological safety, and food security, which combat climate change issues. By encouraging the switch to organic farming, we are helping to repair our planet’s soil by preventing chemically induced deterioration and enhancing their potential as carbon sinks. Therefore, there needs to be a permanent shift toward ecologically sound land use, which incorporates holistic techniques like organic farming and agroecology together with the preservation and restoration of natural ecosystems like peatlands and forests. But in order to ensure mitigation and adaptation in the face of the current climate crisis, soil preservation is essential. Organic farming is, therefore, a holistic system for quality crop production, not even endangering the soil as well as the climate.

2. Global history, status, and economics

2.1 Background

The origin of the concept of organic farming is actually primitive. Organic farming first became popular at the turn of the twentieth century (Table 1). It began as a response to opposition to the industrialization of agriculture and worries regarding the use of chemical and mineral pesticides [14]. The “Life Reform Movement” (Lebensreform Bewegung) in Germany in the 1920s, which opposed modernization and industrialization and idealized vegetarian food, self-sufficiency, natural medicine, allotment gardens, outdoor physical work, and all types of nature conservation, was one of the early pioneers of organic agriculture [15]. But the first distinct form of organic agriculture was introduced by the Austrian Rudolf Steiner, who delivered a series of lectures in 1924 and later published the series as “Spirituals Foundations for Renewal of Agriculture” coining the term—biodynamic agriculture [16, 17]. However, in the late twentieth century, the use of chemicals in agriculture began to be widespread. Since 1990, the market for organic products has been growing rapidly. Today, organic agriculture is a mainstream interest in Western societies, although it has been criticized for not considering contradictory evidence regarding some of its claims [18, 19]. As the demand for organic produce increases, so does the area under organic cultivation.

Year	Country	Historical focuses
1911	USA	Franklints King’s “Farmers for Fourties Centuries” acknowledged the Asian soil management practices, and recommended other agriculturists.
1924	Germany	Rudolf Steiner’s lecture series, later published as “Spiritual Foundations for the Renewal of Agriculture” coined—biodynamic agriculture.
1927	Germany	“The Natural Farming” and “Back-to-back Land Association” movement.
1931	Germany/UK	Germany: Eward Konemann “Biological Soil Culture and Manure Economy,” Vol 1; UK: Sir Albert Howard “The Waste Product of Agriculture”; often refereed as “Father of modern organic agriculture.”
1932	Germany	Eward Konemann “Biological Soil Culture and Manure Economy,” Vol 2.
1937	Germany	Eward Konemann “Biological Soil Culture and Manure Economy,” Vol 3.
1938	Germany/UK	Germany: Ehrenfried Pfeiffer “Biodynamic Farming and Gardening”; UK: Sir Robert McCarrison inspired GT Wrench’s “The Wheel of Health.”
1940	USA/UK	USA: Rodale Organic Gardening and Experimental Farm (Rodale Institute today), 2nd longest experimental farm on organic vs. conventional; UK: [a] Sir Albert Howard’s “An Agricultural Testament,” [b] Lord Walter Northbourne: “Look to the Land”—first spell out “organic farming.”
1942	USA	Jerome Rodale’s “Organic Farming and Gardening.”
1943	UK	[a] Lady Eva Balfour, founder and the first president of Soil Association in Britain, “The Living Soil” and started [b] “Haughley Experiment”—the first longest experimental farm on organic versus nonorganic.
1945	USA	Jerome Rodale “Pay Dirt.”
1947	UK	Sir Albert Howard “The Soil and Health: A Study of Organic Agriculture.”
1962	USA	Rachel Carson “Silent Spring” brought about an environmental and social movement. She is often referred as “mother of environmental movement.”
1970	France	Claude Aubert “L’Agriculture Biologique”—a popular book, helped to form the Frenche association Nature et Progres.
1972	France	Formed the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movement (IFOAM).
1973	Germany	Formed Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL).
1978	Germany	FiBL started the DOK trial—the longest experimental trial among biodynamic (B), organic (O), and conventional (K).
1984	USA	First spell out “organic agriculture” in the policy document.
1989	USA	The National Research Council report entitled “Alternative Agriculture.”
1990	USA	[a] Endorsed “Organic Food Production Act” that established USDA National Organic Program; [b] Nicolas Lampkin “Organic Farming,” a very popular publication.

Table 1.

Global organic agriculture history in the twentieth century.

Source: [13].

2.2 Global organic agriculture status

Almost 38% of global land area is covered by agricultural production [20]. Even though just 1.6% of all agricultural land in the world is employed in organic agriculture [21], the proportion of organic farms and agricultural land is steadily increasing. According to the Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL) and IFOAM’s (2022) latest survey, in 2020, about 74.9 million hectares of agriculture land, which was merely 11 Mha in 1999, are managed organically on a continental basis involving more than 190 countries of the world. Oceania accounts for almost half of the total organic agriculture land worldwide with a land area of 35.9 million hectares (Mha), followed by Europe (17.1 Mha), Latin America (9.9 Mha), Asia (6.1 Mha), North America (3.7 Mha), and Africa (2.1 Mha), as shown in Table 2 and Figure 1, as reported by Willer et al. [21]. About one-third of the world’s organically managed land is located in the developing countries [22], involving around 65% of the developing countries. According to the FiBL-IFOAM report [21], organic farmland increased by 3.0 million hectares (4.1 percent) in 2020 since 2019, while in the past 10 years (from 2011 to 2020), world organic farmland increased by 104.3% (Figure 2). Compared with 1999, when 15 million hectares were organic, organic agricultural land has increased fivefold by 2020. The highest absolute growth was in Latin America (+19.9 percent, +1.7 million hectares), followed by Europe (+3.7 percent, +0.60 million hectares) and Asia (+7.6 percent, +0.43 million hectares). Many countries reported a significant increase; Chile and Papua New Guinea showed 650 percent and 322 percent more organic farmland, respectively. Argentina, Uruguay, and India saw the largest gains in terms of absolute hectares: in Argentina, organic farmland expanded by 781,000 (+21.3%), in Uruguay by more than 589,000 (+27.9%), and in India by over 359,000 (+15.6%). The latest FiBL survey on organic agriculture revealed that Australia occupies the largest individual land shares having 35.7 Mha of organic farmland followed by Argentina (4.5 Mha) and Uruguay (2.7 Mha). In terms of countries organic land shares to its total agricultural land, Liechtenstein has 41.6% of its agricultural land that is cultivated organically, followed by Austria (26.5%) and Estonia (22.4%). The survey also showed that 88 countries (54%) have less than 1% organic land, while another 46 countries (28%) have 1–5% organic share, and among the rest, 18 countries have 5–10% and 11 countries have more than 10% organic land (Figure 3). Australia had the largest organic land area in the Oceania region as well as the country became the top of the world, having had the largest individual organic area of 35,687,799 hectares representing 47.63% of the global organic farmland, whereas USA, Argentina, India, France, and Tunisia were the toppers in North America, Latin America & the Caribbean, Asia, Europe, and Africa, respectively, regarding organic agricultural land shares [21]. Again, the leading 10 countries constitute about 78.86% of the world’s organic agricultural land: Australia, Argentina, Uruguay, India, France, Spain, China, USA, Italy, and Germany [21].

Region	Producers (no.)	Retail sales	Per capita consumption
Africa	833,986	16	0.01
Asia	1,808,464	12,540	2.7
Europe	417,977	52,000	63.2
Latin America	270,472	778	1.2
North America	22,448	53,717	147.5
Oceania	15,930	1594	38.4
World	3,368,254	120,647	15.8

Table 2.

Organic producers, retail sales, and consumption (million €) by region in 2020.

Source: [21].

Figure 1.

Distribution of organic farming area by region in 2020 (source: [21]).

Figure 2.

Growth of the organic agricultural land and organic share in past 10 years (during 2011–2020) (source: [21]).

Figure 3.

Top 10 countries with the largest areas of organic agricultural land in 2020 (source: [21]).

2.3 Economics

Over the last 20 years, the global market for organic products has grown dramatically, notably in developing nations. Organic food sales increased steadily, especially from the late twentieth century. According to the FiBL-IFOAM survey [21], at least 3.4 million organic producers existed globally in 2020. Asia accounts for 56% of the world’s organic producers, followed by Africa (24%), Europe (12%), and Latin America (8%). India had the majority of the producers (1,599,010), followed by Ethiopia (219,566) and Tanzania (148,607) (Table 2). From 2019 to 2020, a 7.6% increment in the number of organic producers was noted. According to the survey, revenues from organic foods and beverages exceeded 120 billion euros in 2020. The United States (49.5 billion euros), Germany (15.0 billion euros), and France (12.7 billion euros) had the largest organic markets in 2020. The United States accounted for 41% of the global market, followed by the European Union and China. Switzerland had the highest per capita organic food expenditure (418 euros) in 2020. The countries with the biggest market shares for organic products were Denmark (13.1%), Austria (11.3%), and Switzerland (10.8 percent) (Figure 4). The market for organic agri-food goods in the EU kept expanding; however, between 2019 and 2020, imports of these products marginally dropped. The Netherlands, Germany, and Belgium were the top three EU member states for imports in 2020.

Figure 4.

The top 10 countries with the largest markets for organic food in 2020 (source: [21]).

3. Basic concepts and principles followed in organic farming

As a result of various analyses of financial, environmental, and sociocultural goals, organic farming may improve conventional agriculture to the point where it may seem unnecessary to strictly forbid pesticides and mineral fertilizers as required by the organic standard (Figure 5). Organic farming encourages the following basic issues [23]:

• To utilize available resources and operate as much as feasible within a closed system.

• To keep soils fertile for the long run.

• To avoid all forms of pollution that may result from agricultural techniques.

• To generate sufficient amounts of food that are high in nutrients.

• To utilize as little fossil energy as possible in agricultural practices.

• To provide animals with living conditions consistent with their physiologic requirements.

• To help farmers achieve financial security through their job and realize their full potential as people.

Figure 5.

Generalized input and output features of organic farming system.

Thus, organic farming methods accord with the four ethical principles [24, 25, 26].

1. Principle of health.

2. “Organic agriculture should sustain and enhance the health of soil, plant, animal, humans and planet as one and indivisible”.

3. Principle of ecology.

4. “Organic agriculture should be based on living ecological systems and cycles, work with them, emulate them and help sustain them”.

5. Principle of fairness.

6. “Organic agriculture should build on relationships that ensure fairness with regard to the common environment and life opportunities”.

7. Principle of care.

8. “Organic agriculture should be managed in a precautionary and responsible manner to protect the health and well-being of current and future generations and the environment”.

4. Strengths/blessings of organic farming

The most important benefits of organic farming are the preservation of the environment and increased resistance to ecological change, as well as the improvement of social capacity and the expansion of employment prospects. It is an ecologically safe and environmentally friendly production system spreading worldwide as the demand for sustainability increases [21, 27]. Although farm yield is less in organic system compared to conventional systems [28, 29], they are more profitable, pollinator friendly, environmentally safe and produce equally or even more healthy foods with fewer pesticide residues (Figure 6) [9, 31, 32]. Therefore, the benefits or overall gains from organic farming can be summarized as follows:

Figure 6.

Key variable indicators deferring the impacts of organic and inorganic farming for agricultural sustainability (source: [30]).

4.1 Profitable

In many cases, organic agriculture is significantly more profitable than conventional agriculture when premium prices are considered. Crowder and Reganold [33] stated after investigating 55 crops grown on five continents that organic agriculture was significantly more profitable (22–35%) and had higher benefit/cost ratios (20–24%) than conventional agriculture. But when organic premiums were taken away, net present values (−27 to −23%) and benefit/cost ratios (−8 to −7%) of organic agriculture were significantly lower than conventional agriculture. According to a recent global comparison research, organic farming is 13% more profitable than conventional farming on average [30]. Generally, organically produced goods fetch 10 to 50% premium price over conventional production and also possess a faster marketing rate [34, 35].

4.2 Multifunctional use and resilience

Organic food and farming practices typically increase the resilience of agroecosystems in addition to generating food by supplying a variety of ecosystem goods and services, some of which are listed below. By doing so, they might achieve social and environmental policy objectives. For instance, they cover both animal welfare and the means of subsistence for farmers and farmworkers. Grazing animals are a crucial component of the utilization of the land [6, 36]. Organic agriculture produces both commodity and noncommodity outputs and addresses ethical concerns such as animal welfare and the livelihoods of farmers (fair trade). According to a decades-long study on organic farming, in years of drought, organic yields can be up to 40% greater than nonorganic farms [37]. Organic farmers are more resilient and adaptable to stresses connected to climate change as well as other disruptive global stressors since they avoid the majority of fossil fuel-based inputs.

4.3 Ecosystem balance and biodiversity conservation

In most cases, organic food and farming systems increase overall biomass abundance and conserve biodiversity both within and between species, which in turn may enhance the pollination of crops and natural pest regulation [6, 36]. Comparative biodiversity assessments on organic and conventional farms reveal a 30% higher species diversity and a 50% greater abundance of flora and fauna in organic fields [38, 39]. The diversity and richness of bees significantly increased in places where the number of organic farms increased, which helped pollinate crops and wild plants over wider areas [40]. Organic farming has beneficial effects on species abundance/richness for a wide variety of taxa. Of the 99 studies reviewed by Hole et al. [39], only 8 found negative effects of organic farming on diverse individual taxon.

4.4 Soil health conservation and carbon sequestration

Organic agriculture preserves healthy soils by enhancing soil fertility, maintaining and creating a fertile living soil through the use of organic inputs in the form of green manures, farm yard manures, and compost, as well as by adopting cover crops, crop rotations, and intercropping and also by practicing minimum or no soil disturbance tillage. Crops and animals are integrated, which reduces overgrazing and makes nutrient recycling on farms easier. According to a review report, organic farming uses more organic fertilizers (such as manure, compost, and fertility-building/green manure crops) than conventional farming, with the median soil organic matter being 7% greater than conventional farming. The soil organic carbon concentrations and stocks of C per hectare are higher in top soils managed organically [30]. As a result, organic food and farming practices typically retain soil fertility in a sustainable manner, which may also lessen soil erosion and allow for the storage of carbon in organic matter.

4.5 Environmental protection

Traditional farming’s heavy reliance on chemical pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers has had a negative impact on the environment. Almost 35–65% less nitrogen leaks from arable fields into soil zones where it could harm the quality of the ground and drinking water as a result of the ban on chemical fertilizers on organic farms [41]. Leaching and run-off impacts are probably not a problem in organic farms because synthetic pesticides and herbicides are avoided. EU organic research places high emphasis on replacing copper fungicides with the breeding of disease-resistant cultivars and with easily biodegradable botanicals [6]. Nitrate leaching and greenhouse gas emissions per ha are up to 60% lower in organic farming. However, when assessed by the unit of product, the impacts of both organic and conventional farming on greenhouse gas emissions are very similar [30]. As per a meta-analysis, the area-scaled nitrous oxide emissions from organically managed soils were 492 kg CO₂ equivalents/ha lower per year than those from nonorganically managed soils [42].

4.6 Climate change adaptation

Organic food and farming systems emit fewer greenhouse gases under best farm practices, show higher yield stability in climatically extreme years, and reduce the risk of floods. Organic agriculture improves the capacity of agroecosystem to function in the face of unanticipated occurrences like climate change by boosting ecosystem resilience [43]. Organic agricultural practices reduce the need for fossil fuels, as well as their emissions of carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide, soil erosion, and carbon stocks. In comparison with high-input systems, energy consumption in organic systems has been reported to be lowered by 10 to 70% in EU nations and by 28 to 32% in the United States. Compared to conventional soils, organic systems in temperate regions almost double the effectiveness of carbon sequestration (575–700 kg carbon per ha/year) [44]. Thus, organic farming can potentially contribute to mitigating threats from climate change on crop production.

4.7 Safe and quality production

In some cases, organic food contains higher concentrations of secondary plant metabolites, antioxidants, and vitamins, as well as polyunsaturated fatty acids. Furthermore, organic food is often less contaminated with cadmium, nitrate, nitrite, and other residues. Organic food is considered healthier as compared to the food obtained by conventional farming [45, 46]. According to Baranski et al. [47], phenolic acids, flavanones, stilbenes, flavones, flavonols, and anthocyanins were significantly more concentrated in organic crops and crop-based foods.

5. Management approaches in organic farming

Effective management of nutrients, weeds, insect pests, and diseases is the major challenge for successful organic farming. Integrated management comprising cultural, mechanical, and biological practices is warranted for managing nutrients, weeds, pests, and diseases in an eco-friendly way in organic farms.

5.1 Nutrient management

Soils are a nonrenewable resource on which 95% of our food supply depends. Short-sighted chemical fertilizer applications in industrial farming are depleting soils at an alarming rate. Organic farming systems require effective nutrient management. Recycling, controlling biologically related processes like nitrogen fixation, and the sparing use of unprocessed, slowly soluble off-farm items that disintegrate in the same way as soil minerals or organic matter all promote the provision of nutrients to crop plants.

5.1.1 Green manure

Many fast-growing crops such as dhaincha (Sesbania sp.), sunhemp, and cowpea can fix atmospheric nitrogen at the rate of 60–100 kg/ha and can be utilized as green manure to the land. Dhaincha (Sesbania esculenta and S. rostrata) and sunhemp (Crotalaria juncia) are often plowed into the soil 6 to 8 weeks after being sown once sufficient vegetative development has been achieved. The use of green manure is very advantageous for organic production and preserving the health of the soil. Green manures enhance the physical and microbiological qualities of the soil in addition to adding nutrients.

5.1.2 Farm yard manure

The manure prepared using cow urine, dung, and farm waste in the backyard is called farm yard manure (FYM). This method has been followed since old times. The preparation of FYM can be by the use of any one of the methods including the sealed pit method, open pit method, and Japanese method. The soil physical property, microbial activity, and yield have been increased considerably using FYM. It is possible to recover between 70 and 80 percent of the energy provided to cattle as agricultural leftovers if the manure and urine from the animals are correctly collected.

5.1.3 Enriched compost

One of the traditional crop nutrient sources is composting organic residues. Though nutrient concentration is less, apart from NPK, it also provides the required micronutrients to the areas cultivated. Micronutrient supply satisfies the hidden hunger in the plants particularly and safeguards them against injury and toxicity. It also improves chemical, physical, and biological properties of the soil. In addition, compost is enriched externally through microbial inoculants, biofertilizers, etc. It is found that in cucumbers, the application of compost increases the yield [48].

5.1.4 Vermicompost

The technology uses earthworms as natural bioreactors for recycling nontoxic organic waste into soil. Vermicompost refers to the manure generated through rearing earthworms on a large scale in natural or artificial pits. This method is generally adopted when there is a huge quantity of undecomposed organic matter [49, 50]. Many forms of organic material can be used to prepare vermicompost; it includes manure of animals, wastes of manufacturing industries like paper waste, sugar waste of cane or cotton residues, kitchen waste, agricultural wastes, and municipal wastes having an organic origin. Higher concentrations of vermicast and vermitea improve the health of the plant, provide protection, improve growth, and also provide optimum production of crops.

5.1.5 Concentrated organic manure (oil cakes)

The oil cakes are applied in the granular form before the fertilizer use, so that nutrients that are contained in them are available for the crops. This enriches the soil organic carbon to soil, which in turn increases microbial activity. Castor cake, neem cake, and linseed cakes are few examples of nonedible cakes. As most of the edible cakes are fed to cattle as concentrates, the use of it as a nutrient source is limited in the Indian scenario.

5.1.6 Biofertilizers

Biofertilizers are the cultures of the appropriate microbial species that can fix the atmospheric nitrogen such as Azospirillum and Azotobacter in nonleguminous and Rhizobium species in the leguminous crops. The phosphate-mobilizing fungi (VAM) and phosphate-solubilizing bacteria are found to be more efficient in making the unavailable soil phosphorous available for the plants. It is found that the legume-rhizobium association could fix 40–120 kg/ha of nitrogen under optimum conditions. The crops inoculated with Mycorrhizal fungi are found resistant to Fusarium oxysporum, Rhizoctonia solani, Phythium, and nematode. It has been discovered that biofertilizers, such as Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Azospirillum, PSB Azolla, VAM, and Pseudomonas, are particularly powerful tools for managing fertility and biological nutrient mobilization. Use of such inputs must be ensured in all cropping scenarios because the efficacy of such microbial formulations is significantly better in no-chemical use situations.

5.2 Weed Management

The main objective of the organic system’s weed management technique is to lower weed competition and reproduction to a level the farmer can tolerate. In many instances, not all weeds will be totally removed. By inhibiting the generation of weed seeds and perennial propagules, the portions of a plant that can produce a new plant, weed management should lessen competition. Regular weed control can lower weed control expenditures and help create a crop production system that is less expensive. Weeds in organic farming systems are controlled in the following ways.

5.2.1 Cultural practices

Cultural weed control includes nonchemical crop management practices ranging from variety selection to land preparation to harvesting and postharvest level. The management practices that are included in cultural weed control are (a) crop rotation, (b) cover crops, (c) intercropping, (d) mulching, (e) stale seedbed preparation, (f) soil solarization.

5.2.2 Mechanical control

The best way to manage weeds, especially on an organic farm, is through mechanical eradication, which takes time and effort intensively. One of the earliest weed management techniques is mechanical weed control, which calls for the actual removal of weeds by mechanical equipment either prior to the main crop planting or during the crop growth season. Mechanical weeders include cutting and cultivating instruments like mowers and stimmers, as well as multifunctional implements like hoes, harrows, tines, and brush weeders.

5.2.3 Biological control

Using live creatures to eradicate weeds or to stop their growth and capacity to compete with crops is known as biocontrol of weeds. The introduction of traditional biocontrol agents, frequently insects, and the expansion and widespread usage of organisms, frequently disease agents, are two categories into which biocontrol is often divided – (i) allelopathy and (ii) beneficial organisms.

5.3 Pest and disease management

The pest control strategies in organic farming aim to reduce and prevent the insect population’s aggregation. The risks of pest outbreaks are minimized by enriching the soil with compost, crop rotation, intercropping, and conservation tillage [51]. Strategy for pest control in organic farming limits the use of chemical pesticides and promotes the use of organically derived pesticides. The effective control of pest population is achieved through field scouting, trap crops, insect trapping, and application of some biological control methods like introducing beneficial insects and using natural enemies to reduce the pest population. Onion thrips incidence was similar between the mineral fertilized and organic fertilized fields. Simmons et al. [52] suggested that the combination of host plant resistance and the reflective mulch could suppress the white-fly infestation that mainly affects organic vegetable production.

6. Organic farming in vegetable crop improvement

6.1 Productivity

Application of commercial organic fertilizer at recommended level results in higher vegetable yield than application of inorganic fertilizer. Alimi et al. [53] opined that the higher yield in organically managed fields might be the inclusion of Ca and Mg from organic fertilizer, which are missing from chemical fertilizer. Comparing organic treatments to conventional ones, the output of carrot roots increased [54]. In comparison with a supply of mineral nutrients, organic fertilization dramatically increased lettuce yield [55]. The organic method produced greater yields of tomatoes and cabbage than the conventional system did [56]. The use of compost resulted in a high yield of marketable cucumbers [48]. A study on organic farming in vegetable crops at IIVR, Varanasi, found that while yields under organic production gradually engrossed to yields under conventional inorganic farming in 4–5 years, the productivity of vegetable crops in organic farming was lower in the early years [57, 58]. Okra and cowpeas were produced during the summer, and tomatoes and cabbage were grown during the winter. By the fourth year, the yields from organic cultivation and conventional cultivation were equivalent (Table 3). However, the equivalent yield for cowpea and pea during the winter wet season was finally discovered after 3 years of continuous organic farming. In another study, Rembialkowska [60] noted that the average yield of carrots was higher by 33% on organic than conventional farms with a nonsignificant statistical variation. The average yield of the organic potatoes was significantly lower than the conventional ones [60]. Maggio et al. [61] registered lower yield in cauliflower, broad-leaved endive, and zucchini in organic cultivation compared to conventional. Sultana et al. [62] noted a more than 150% yield increase in eggplant after organic amendments (Table 4).

Items	Cabbage	Tomato	Okra	Cowpea (S)	Cowpea (K)	Pea
Conventional yield (t/ha)	41.00	37.40	9.26	8.00	10.26	7.30
Organic farming
First-year yield (t/ha)	25.42	23.63	5.27	4.64	7.50	4.96
Second-year yield (t/ha)	29.54	27.75	6.57	5.76	8.97	6.28
Third-year yield (t/ha)	34.75	33.00	83.23	7.04	9.40	7.15
Fourth-year yield (t/ha)	38.83	36.84	9.16	7.84	—	—

Table 3.

Average yield of different vegetables under organic farming against conventional yield.

Source: [59].

Treatment	Yield increase over control (%)
Control/no organic matter	—
100% Cowdung	140.61
100% Farm yard manure	138.46
50% Soil +50% Recommended dose	126.49
50% Soil +50% Water hyacinth	144.03
50% Soil +50% Cowdung	164.68
50% Soil +50% Farm yard manure	169.02
50% Water hyacinth +50% Cowdung	133.33
50% Water hyacinth +50% Farm yard manure	152.28
50% Farm yard manure +50% Cowdung	155.84

Table 4.

Effect of organic amendments on yield increase over control in eggplant.

Source: [62].

Though for one or few years organic transition from the conventional system might give lower yield, long-term organic culture produces significantly higher yield in vegetables. According to Singh et al. [59], the yield of vegetables produced by organic farming is either equal to or greater than that produced by conventional farming after 5–6 years of organic farming practices, with the soil fertility sufficiently recovered. According to Ramesh et al. [63], organic farming has the potential to boost productivity in irrigated areas. Rajendran et al. [64] too observed that although organic farming may have lower productivity in the first few years, by the 6th year, yields were comparable to those from inorganic farming (Table 5).

Year	Status	Yield (q/ha)
Conventional		10.00
2 year	Year of conversion	5.75
4th year	Organic	7.50
5th year	Organic	8.75
6th year	Organic	10.00

Table 5.

Yields of organic farming Vis-a-Vis conventional farming.

Source: [64].

6.2 Organic sources and vegetable productivity

Organic nutrient sources greatly influence vegetable yield. Soil amendment treatments consisted of combination of poultry compost, poultry litter, dairy compost, dairy manure, blood meal, feather meal, and Fertrell™ 5–5-3; poultry litter resulted in the highest yield in all the trials [65]. Thamburaj [66] found that applying oil cakes of margosa, castor, and groundnut (@0.2% W/W) reduces the intensity of root gall development in tomatoes. Studies showed that organically cultivation yielded 28.18 t/ha tomato, consonance with the recommended application of FYM and NPK (120:100:100 kg/ha). Reports also expressed that poultry manure and FYM in 50 kg N/ha produced maximum brinjal yield [67]. Combined manuring with FYM @ 25 t/ha + Biofertilizer (PSB + Azotobacter/Rhizobium) enhanced the yield of okra, cowpea, and bottle gourd by 27.5, 40.1, and 8.33%, respectively, in summer season compared to conventional system [59]. Okra responded with a greater yield to poultry manure @ 20 kg N/ha [68]. Singh et al. [59] noticed that the use of 20–30 t/ha FYM/NADEP compost, 7.5–10 t/ha vermicompost, or 7.5–10 t/ha chicken manure combined with bioinoculation of Azatobacter and PSB could guarantee a yield that is 20–35% higher than that of a conventional system. Even a combination of different biological fertilizers such as FYM @ 10 t/ha + vermicompost @ 3.5 t/ha or Farm yard manure @ 10 t/ha + chicken manure @ 2.5 t/ha or NADEP compost@ 10 t/ha + vermicompost @3.5 t/ha in addition to phyto-inoculation of Azatobacter and PSB was extremely efficient and generated yield comparable to the traditional inorganic method in cabbage, brinjal, broccoli, cauliflower, pea, bottle gourd, tomato, cowpea, okra crop, etc. It was noted, nonetheless, that various organic inputs behaved differently on various vegetable crops over various seasons. Howlader et al. [69] opined that poultry manure or cowdung at 5 t/ha contributed to superior yield in tomatoes (Table 6).

Treatment	Fruits plant^−1		Fruit yield (t ha^−1)
	2016–2017	2017–2018	2016–2017	2017–2018
100% Recommended dose	41.7	34.27	54.3	89.75
75% Recommended dose	38.9	31.98	51.9	86.30
100% Recommended dose + Cowdung @ 5 t ha^−1	45.0	35.54	65.2	94.93
100% Recommended dose + Poultry manure @ 5 t ha^−1	42.8	36.38	62.5	89.65
75% Recommended dose + Cowdung @ 5 t ha^−1	43.5	36.58	60.9	95.46
75% Recommended dose + Poultry manure @ 5 t ha^−1	43.2	34.91	57.1	91.02

Table 6.

Influence of organic amendments on tomato productivity.

Source: [69].

6.3 Soil fertility status

Accelerated accumulation of organic-C in organically manured fields is evident. Persistent application of organic manure enhances soil health and texture. During just 3 years, organic carbon and soil carbon stock in organic fields increased by 39 and 22.3%, respectively, compared to traditional systems [58]. With organic farming, 301.1 kg/ha/year of carbon was sequestered annually, compared to 42.6 kg/ha/year with conventional farming for cabbage. Because it enhances the physical and biological characteristics of the soil and serves as a nutrient store, organic carbon is a useful indication of soil quality. Singh and Upadhyay [70] opined that organic fertilization resulted in higher stock of organic-C as well as C sequestration rate in potato-based cropping systems. In addition, the available soil P and K levels markedly improved after organic fertilization [71]. Manjunath et al. [72] and Amanalluah [73] noted higher organic carbon accumulation and better uptake of nutrients under FYM-applied fields under the organic production system. Pulleman et al. [74] stated that soil organic matter content, C:N ratio, soil carbonates, N mineralization, etc., are positively influenced by organic farming along with other soil characters in the Netherlands (Table 7).

Depth (cm)	Farming system	Soil texture (%)			Carbonates (%)	C:N ratio	Organic matter (g/kg)	C mineralization (mg/kg)	Net N mineralization (mg/kg)
		Sand	Silt	Clay
0–10	Conventional	37.8	40.2	22.0	9.5	8.8	16.2	282	22.8
	Organic	29.7	43.6	26.7	9.1	9.2	24.9	490	32.8
10–20	Conventional	37.9	40.0	22.1	9.5	8.5	14.6	245	23.4
	Organic	29.6	43.7	26.7	9.6	8.7	23.2	437	47.2

Table 7.

Comparative soil characteristics in the organic and conventional arable system in the Netherlands.

Source: [74].

6.4 Soil health and microbial population

The elevated proportion of organic matter in organic farms transforms the soil into a living substrate by sustaining the micro-, meso-, and macro-fauna. Microbial performance such as dehydrogenase activity, alkaline phosphatase, and microbial biomass carbon was noted to be higher in organic matter-applied soils by 32, 26.8, and 22.4%, respectively, compared to inorganic farms [59]. Organically treated plots have more microbial populations, which aids in nutrient breakdown and boosts the availability of these nutrients to the vegetation. However, a direct impact from the microorganisms added through the manure is also feasible. In general, the increase in microbial biomass carbon in soils with organic manure addition was caused by an increase in the presence of carbon substrate that drives microbial development [75]. Likely, Manjunath et al. [72] recorded a higher growth of bacterial and actinomycetes in organic farm. In addition, Kumari et al. [76] found that the administration of organic manures increased the microbial community more than the recommended chemical fertilization. According to Singh et al. [77], an organic source of nutrients enhanced microbial activity and significantly improved dehydrogenase function. Hence, reintroducing useful microbes into the soil through organic farming enhances soil quality and vitality.

6.5 Quality characteristics of organic vegetables

Organically cultivated crops are well accepted for their higher content of vitamins, minerals, and phytochemicals (Table 8). Organically grown vegetables have improved quality, taste, and flavor mostly because of elevated dry matter, vitamin C, protein content, and quality, decreased free nitrates in vegetables, and reduced disease and storage losses. According to studies, the vitamin C content of organically grown cabbage, tomatoes, and cowpea grew by 17, 35, and 36%, respectively [59]. Vegetables grown organically also have superior physical characteristics. In comparison with an inorganic approach, the ascorbic acid, total phenol, and antioxidant content of peas improved by 31.8, 48.8, and 4.96%, respectively, under biological farming [70, 78]. Furthermore, organically produced vegetables have higher vitamin C, total carotenoids, flavonoids, phenolics, and higher nutrient concentrations, boosting human immune health [79]. Organically grown cucumbers had higher dry matter, sugar, and vitamin C [56]. Regarding vegetables (carrot, beetroot, lettuce, kale, leek, turnip, celeriac, and tomato), a trend has been observed for higher levels of iron and magnesium expressed in the nutritional quality and safety of organic food [80]. Additionally, β-carotene levels in organic and conventional foodstuffs have no noticeable differences [81]. Organically grown crops possess higher antioxidant properties, with individual antioxidant activity ranging between 18 and 69% higher in organic vegetables than in conventional ones [82]. Vegetables cultivated under compost fertilizing had higher Ca, Zn, and Fe contents on a fresh mass basis than plants produced using inorganic fertilizers and, finally, chicken manure [55, 83]. Hadayat et al. [84] found that potato, lettuce, tomato, carrot, and onion metal contents in conventional produce were slightly greater than in organic produce, especially for Cd and Pb.

Vegetables	Vit-C	Fe	Mg	P
Spinach	+52	+25	-13	+14
Carrot	−6	+12	+69	+13
Lettuce	+17	+17	+29	+14
Cabbage	+43	+41	+40	+22
Potato	+22	+21	+5	0

Table 8.

Vitamin and mineral nutrient contents of some organically produced vegetables.

Here, (+) and (−) indicate percent increase and decrease in nutrients in organic over conventional, respectively.

7. Organic farming in fruit crop improvement

7.1 Fruit yield and productivity

All living beings have the natural tendency to produce their off-springs. With the go of nature, plants send and preserve their formulated and uptaken nutrients to fruits as sink after use for normal growth. Organic nutrient supply significantly improves yield over control, but the organic yield is to some extent lower than conventional yield in most cases. The relative yield of fruit crops is about 72% (28% lower than) of conventional yield [85], and this phenomenon is comparatively worse than other crops. Among the temperate fruit crops, organically grown apples and strawberries yielded 69 and 59% of the synthetic chemical used on a farm, while the other fruit crops, namely grapes, melons, apricot, blackcurrant, cherry, kiwi, peach, and pear from Europe and Turkey, had 78% productivity in organic cultivation than that of conventional farming [85]. In mango, application of FYM (50 kg/plant) + Azospirillum culture (250 g/tree) + PSB @ 250 g/tree produced superior yield (52.00 fruits/tree, 14.70 kg/tree, 1.47 t/ha) over other organic treatment along with control [86], while Sau et al. [87] reported that different treatments of biofertilizer showed maximum fruit weight (237.12 g) and yield (42.14 kg plant⁻¹) (Figure 7). Again, a combination of FYM (10 kg), neem cake (1.25 kg), vermicompost (5 kg), wood ash (1.75 kg), triple green manuring with cowpea, and biofertilizers (AMF @ 25 g + Trichoderma harzianum @ 50 g + PSB @ 50 g + Azospirillum @ 50 g plant⁻¹) recorded the highest bunch weight (9.60 kg) and yield (23.99 t/ha) in banana [88]. In guava, among recommended fertilization (600 g urea, 2000 g superphosphate, and 1000 g muriate of potash), Jeevamrit @ 10 liter/tree, Azotobacter, and Azospirillum @ 100 g/tree treatments, the best yield was noted from trees fertilized with recommended dose of NPK (222.43 g/fruit, 62.73 kg/plant). In another experiment, 90% RDF + 10% FYM/Tree was recorded as the best treatment in terms of better growth and yield of guava among eight organic–inorganic combinations [89]. Raghavan et al. [90] observed the highest number of fruits (1281/tree), yield (30.01 kg/tree) having extended levels of total, and reducing sugar content (26.14 and 14.51%, respectively) after organic treatment in litchi.

Figure 7.

Effect of organic package on fruit yield of mango cv. Alphanso. Here, MC1: FYM @ 50 kg/plant, MC2: FYM @ 50 kg/plant + Azospirillum (250 g/tree) + PSB @ 250 g/tree, MC3: FYM @ 50 kg/plant + Azatobacter (250 g/tree) + PSB @ 250 g/tree, MC4: Vermicompost @ 50 kg/plant, MC5: Vermicompost @ 50 kg/plant + Azospirillum culture (250 g/tree) + PSB @ 250 g/tree, MC6: Vermicompost @ 50 kg/plant + Azatobacter (250 g/tree) + PSB @ 250 g/tree and MC6: Vermicompost @ 50 kg/plant + Azospirillum (250 g/tree) + PSB @ 250 g/tree + vermiwash.

7.2 Fruit mineral content

Organic fertilizers largely add a complex combination of nutrient elements in soil, so as in fruits of organically treated plants. Mineral contents of fruits were found to be higher in fruits produced under conventional systems in comparison with the fruits produced under organic systems [91]. Harhash and Ahmed [92] analyzed that the NPK content of mango fruits differed in different organic and chemical fertilizer treatments (Table 9). Easmin et al. [93] observed an increased mineral content of fruit with organic matter application in the papaya field.

Treatment	N (%)	P (%)	K (%)
100% mineral fertilizers (NPK) as control	1.93	0.26	1.63
50% NPK+ 100% plant compost (PC)	1.80	0.25	1.60
50% NPK+ 100% animal compost (AC)	1.93	0.28	1.70
100% plant compost (PC)	1.60	0.21	1.30
100% animal compost (PC)	1.70	0.22	1.50
50% plant compost +50% animal compost	1.60	0.20	1.40
50% (NPK+ plant compost+ animal compost)	2.50	0.34	2.05
100% (NPK+ plant compost+ animal compost)	2.88	0.39	2.50

Table 9.

Effect of organic and mineral fertilization on NPK contents on fruits of Ewaise mango.

Source: [92].

7.3 Fruit biochemical attributes

In general, organically produced fruits possess significantly higher total soluble solids (TSS) and lower titratable acidity (TA) in comparison with the conventionally produced fruits [94]. Compared to conventionally produced strawberries, which had 6.6% TSS and 0.99% TA, strawberries cultivated organically had a much higher TSS (7.1%) and lower TA level (0.93%) [95]. According to Leskinen et al. [96], levels of ascorbic acid in organically produced fruits were consistently higher than the levels in the conventionally grown ones. Nevertheless, Cayuela et al. [97] found no appreciable difference between strawberry fruits cultivated conventionally and organically in terms of ascorbic acid content. Again, organically grown fruits developed a significantly stronger color than conventionally grown ones [97]. The 6 kg OM/m² treatment produced strawberry fruits with the highest anthocyanin concentration (42.88 mg 100 g⁻¹ fruit fresh weight). Despite this, strawberry plants receiving the control treatment still had anthocyanin contents that were between 17.8 and 41.8 mg 100 g⁻¹, and values lower or higher than that should not be considered acceptable [98]. Azotobacter chorococcum + Azospirillum brasilense + AM (Glomus musseae) + Panchagavya [3%] exhibited superiority in fruit biochemical qualities like TSS (19.70° Brix) and total sugars (13.41%) along with prolonged shelf life of 10 days in mango [87]. Easmin et al. [93]; Sharma and Negi [99], and Rahman et al. [100] observed similar trends in fruit biochemical properties in papaya, strawberry, and banana, respectively (Table 10).

Treatment	Total sugar (%)	Reducing sugar (%)	Nonreducing sugar (%)	TSS (°Brix)	Titratable acidity (%)
FYM plus soil microbes	23.30	11.23	12.11	25.72	0.23
Improved compost	19.83	9.12	10.68	24.46	0.25
Vermicompost	21.25	10.36	10.92	25.15	0.22
Soil microbes	22.50	10.74	11.57	25.02	0.19

Table 10.

Effect of organic fertilizers on fruit biochemical properties of banana.

Source: [100].

7.4 Fruit organoleptic attributes

Organic production of fruit improves fruit quality, viz. fruit taste and color, keeping the quality of the fruits than conventionally produced fruits. Crops grown organically typically have higher sensory and long-term storage properties, according to Rembialkowska [101]. Several studies have conclusively shown that produce from organic farms tastes and smells better. More total sugars were present in organic fruits, which likely contributed to customers’ perceptions of a better flavor [101]. According to studies, strawberries that are grown organically have superior overall acceptance, flavor, sweetness, and appearance than those that are grown conventionally (Table 11) [103].

Treatment	Appearance	Flavor	Taste	Acceptability
FYM (10 kg) + NC (1.25 kg) + VC (5 kg) + Ash (6.6 kg)	3.17	2.83	3.27	3.07
FYM (10 kg) + NC (1.25 kg) + VC (5 kg) + Ash (14.20 kg)	3.25	3.18	3.28	2.67
FYM (15 kg) + NC (1.875 kg) + VC (7.5 kg) + Ash (2.36 kg)	3.22	3.16	3.11	3.07
FYM (15 kg) + NC (1.875 kg) + VC (7.5 kg) + Ash (9.94 kg)	3.55	3.20	3.80	3.80
N0 + P0 + K0 + Triple green manuring (TGM)	2.67	2.54	3.22	2.80
AMF(25 g) + Azospirillum(50 g) + PSB(50 g) + T. harzianum (50 g)	3.00	2.97	3.16	3.05
FYM (10 kg) + NC (1.25 kg) + VC (5 kg) + Ash (6.6 kg) + N0 + P0 + K0 + TGM	3.22	2.83	3.28	3.05
FYM (10 kg) + NC (1.25 kg) + VC (5 kg) + Ash (6.6 kg) + AMF(25 g) + Azospirillum(50 g) + PSB(50 g) + T. harzianum(50 g)	3.07	2.72	3.13	3.10
FYM (10 kg) + NC (1.25 kg) + VC (5 kg) + Ash (6.6 kg) + N0 + P0 + K0 + TGM	3.24	2.61	2.77	3.07
Poultry manure (10 kg) + Neem cake (1.875 kg)	3.33	3.63	3.33	3.13
200 g N + 50 g P + 200 g K	3.00	2.33	3.00	2.67
N0 + P0 + K0 or control	2.00	2.16	2.00	2.05

Table 11.

Effect of different organic manures and biofertilizers on fruit organoleptic quality of banana cv. Grand Naine (AAA) (1–4 scale basis).

Source: [102].

7.5 Soil health and microbial population

Organic manuring and composting have a significant and positive influence on microbial community and activity in the soil. Increased population of bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, and total diazotrophs were recorded by Reddy et al. [104] in organic fields compared to the conventional soils. By comparing the organic treatment to the synthetic fertilizer and control treatment, a significantly increased level of soil respiration and mineralizable nitrogen content were also observed. Significantly extended amount of soil respiration and mineralizable nitrogen content were also noted in organic treatment compared to synthetic fertilizer and control treatment. Similarly, Sau et al. [87] noticed that the application of organic manures along with biofertilizers substantially increased soil microbial population, which improved soil health as well as availability of other essential nutrient elements and thereby the growth and productivity of the tree (Table 12).

Treatment	Bacteria (cfu/g of soil)
Azotobacter chorococcum (AC) + Panchagavya 3%	2.6 × 10^6
Azospirillum brasilense (AB) + Panchagavya 3%	2.7 × 10^6
Glomus musseae (AM) + Panchagavya 3%	2.3 × 10^6
AC + AB + Panchagavya 3%	2.9 × 10^6
AC + AM + Panchagavya 3%	2.9 × 10^6
AB + AM + Panchagavya 3%	3.0 × 10^6
AB+ AM + Panchagavya 3%	3.1 × 10^6
Panchagavya 3%	2.6 × 10^6
N:P:K (1000:500:1000 g plant^−1 year^−1)	2.0 × 10^6

Table 12.

Effect of biofertilizers on soil bacteria of mango orchard (cv. Himsagar).

Source: [87].

8. Organic farming in spice crop improvement

8.1 Spices growth and productivity

Organic manures contain nutrients and small quantities of growth boosters. It corresponds to the fundamental factor that revitalizes the growth cycle by reducing the physical, chemical, and physiological imbalances. Application of soil, mine spoil, and coir pith vermicompost at the ratio of (1:1:1) and RDF as an integrated approach enhances the height of the plant, yield, and number of leaves compared to mine, spoil integrated with RDF. Integrated use of 50% N through vermicompost, 50% N, and 100% P and K through chemical fertilizers along with Azospirillum is found effective in increasing the bulb yield of onion. When Azotobacter is added to the various combinations, a marked rise in plant height and no. of leaves is observed as compared to the treatments with organic manures alone [105]. According to Somasundaram et al. [106], application of panchgavya at 3% improves yield in comparison with the sole application of RDF. According to Somasundaram et al. [106], panchgavya application at 3% increases yield compared to RDF’s single use. It was recorded that higher plant height, number of leaves, leaf area, flowers per plant, and flower weight were observed compared to cow dung extract, cow urine, and vermicast extract when vermiwash was used as a spray [107]. This indicates a major increase in the panchgavya spray on yield components @ 3 percent [108]. Vermicompost, when applied with vermiwash at 1:1, improves yield and plant height of chili [109]. Howlader and Gomasta [110] noted that chili yield is largely governed by applying cowdung and poultry manure as organic amendments besides chemical inputs. Kamal and Yousuf [111] measured taller turmeric plants (79.30 cm) with a maximum number of leaves (5.40), and leaf area (44.09) produced rhizomes which had the highest fresh and dry weight (256.21 and 40.35 g, respectively) after neem cake manuring in the field. Total yield (6.85 t ha⁻¹) was notably higher than control or organic fertilization (Table 13).

Treatment	Mother rhizomes plant^−1	Primary rhizomes plant^−1	Fresh rhizome yield (t/ha)	Cured rhizome yield (t/ha)
Cowdung (15 t/ha)	1.46	3.87	21.17	4.636
Poultry manure (7.0 t/ha)	1.81	4.80	27.30	5.18
Mustard cake (2.0 t/ha)	1.55	4.03	22.80	4.59
Neem cake (2.0 t/ha)	1.75	5.19	29.48	5.59
Control	0.43	2.27	14.84	2.38

Table 13.

Yield and quality of turmeric as influenced by different organic manures.

Source: [111].

8.2 Spices quality characters

Spices are largely used for their aroma and pungency present in them. These quality parameters are the reflection of the growing environment of the crop. Poultry manure followed by goat manure was significantly superior with regard to yield, nutrient uptake, and enhanced piperine and oleoresin content of black pepper [112]. Soeparjono [113] reported that bokashi: charcoal husk: coco pea media composition having the organic fertilizer concentration (4.5 cc/l) produced ginger with zingerone level (1.88%) and oleoresin level (1.57%). In sweet basil, recommended FYM (10 tha⁻¹) along with recommended NPK (160:80:80 kg ha⁻¹) recorded the highest essential oil content (0.48 and 0.45%) and essential oil yield (199.7 and 107.58 kg ha⁻¹) in the main crop and ratoon, respectively [114]. The addition of recommended FYM (10 t ha⁻¹) and N through FYM together with biofertilizers in the main crop and in the ratoon resulted in the highest proportion of methyl chavicol (63.78 and 59.67%, respectively) in sweet basil (Table 14).

Treatment	Essential oil content (%)		Methyl chavicol (%)
	Main crop	Ratoon	Main crop	Ratoon
FYM (10 t ha^−1) + 100% recommended N through FYM	0.42	0.32	60.07	50.23
FYM (10 t ha^−1) + 100% N through FYM + biofertilizer	0.45	0.41	63.78	59.67
FYM (10 t ha^−1) + 75% N through FYM	0.35	0.23	57.57	50.15
FYM (10 t ha^−1) + 75% N through FYM + biofertilizer	0.40	0.25	62.92	55.38
FYM (10 t ha^−1) + 50% N through FYM	0.35	0.22	56.08	43.28
FYM (10 t ha^−1) + 50% N through FYM + biofertilizer	0.34	0.21	59.67	51.22
NPK (160:80:80 kg ha^−1)	0.46	0.43	49.52	53.90
FYM 10 t ha^−1 + NPK (160:80:80 kg ha^−1)	0.48	0.45	52.62	44.17

Table 14.

Effect of different levels FYM, inorganic fertilizer, and biofertilizers on the oil content of sweet basil.

Source: [114].

9. Organic farming and agricultural sustainability

A growing human population’s desire for food, increased environmental dangers brought on by agriculture, and rising risks of food chain contamination and related health issues due to excessive use of agrochemicals are just a few of the factors drawing attention to modern agriculture worldwide. The fertility stability of the majority of soils is decreased by ongoing, intensive cropping without an equivalent addition of nutrients. Because of this, arable areas need increasingly more nutrients to produce the same amount of crop. Sustainable agriculture is a system that can generate plenty of food without diminishing the earth’s definite assets or contaminating its environment. Sustainable agriculture maintains long-term ecological efficiency without depleting its natural resource base or harming the health of its consumers. It includes management techniques for raising crops and animals. Thus, sustainable agricultural management includes preserving soil organic matter; choosing ecologically and locally suited crops; increasing agricultural and biological diversity; preventing land degradation; strengthening biogeochemical cycles; and safeguarding environmental health. The objective of sustainable development of agriculture is “to increase food and enhance food security in an environmentally sound way so as to contribute to sustainable natural resource management.” Therefore, sustainable agriculture has few key indicators: (a) economic viability, (b) social acceptance, (c) ecological safeguard, (d) environmental safety, (e) human and animal well-being, (f) technological appropriateness, (g) natural resource base, (h) product quality and quantity. Organic farming is a kind of composite culture system that fulfills all aspects of a sustainable agriculture system (Figure 8).

Figure 8.

Organic farming approach meeting the aspects of sustainable agriculture system.

10. Pathways and opportunities for future organic farming

The mounting environmental, economic, and social impacts of conventional agriculture call for a transformation of agriculture to more innovative farming systems. Transitioning to organics from conventional can be economically challenging and more information intensive. But once after transition, the net return per acre for organic compared to conventional farms is generally higher because of good yields and price premiums. Organic agriculture develops coinnovation among farmers, farm advisors, and scientists [115, 116] and enhances collaboration and communication between farmers as well as between farmers and consumers. The greatest way to manage waterways and create buffer zones between agriculture and nature conservation areas is through organic agricultural systems [8, 117]. Organic farming has room for growth: From 1% of the cropland today being organic to 10 to 20% by 2050 [9]. According to research, organic farming can produce an abundance of food at reasonable prices while also preserving the environment, boosting farm finances, and improving the health of farmers and farm workers. Consumers are seeking out organic and alternatively grown foods at grocery stores and farmers’ markets. Active participation of farmers, along with sound organic regulation and more multi-actor cooperation, will definitely help in achieving future organic sustainability.

Therefore, the holistic organic farming is summarized in Figure 9.

Figure 9.

Benefits, limitations, future opportunities, and threats of organic farming as a holistic approach to crop production.

11. Conclusion

Organic farming is a holistic production management system that promotes and enhances agroecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles, and soil biological activity, and consequently, it is an efficient and promising approach for sustainable agriculture within a circular and green economy. Organic farming responds positively to all sustainable agriculture and rural development objectives, helps maintain soil fertility, and improves crop production and socioeconomic conditions of the farmers. Global agriculture must minimize its negative impacts and achieve productivity gains if it is to be sustainable, foster rural development, and support peoples’ livelihoods. Besides the various benefits and strengths, organic food and farming systems can contribute to solving these challenges.