How the ABO blood group system affect susceptibility and resistance to
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5902",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Interdisciplinary Expansions in Engineering and Design With the Power of Biomimicry",title:"Interdisciplinary Expansions in Engineering and Design With the Power of Biomimicry",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'People have been finding inspiration in nature in solving their problems, from the very beginning of their existence. In the most general sense, biomimicry, defined as "inspire from the nature," has brought together the engineers and designers nowadays. This collaboration creates innovative and creative outcomes that encourage people with their interdisciplinary relationships. Accordingly, the aim of this book is to bring together different works or developments on biomimetics in interdisciplinary relationship between different areas, especially biomimicry, engineering, and design. The twenty-first century has conceived many new and amazing designs. The book in your hands will surely be an important guide to take a quick look at the future possibilities.',isbn:"978-953-51-3936-2",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3935-5",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-3993-5",doi:"10.5772/65987",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"interdisciplinary-expansions-in-engineering-and-design-with-the-power-of-biomimicry",numberOfPages:194,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"074a748d02254c7c5643be52cb70be68",bookSignature:"Gulden Kokturk and Tutku Didem Akyol Altun",publishedDate:"March 28th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5902.jpg",numberOfDownloads:12579,numberOfWosCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitations:9,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:16,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:28,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 24th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 14th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 29th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 29th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 29th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"95921",title:"Dr.",name:"Gulden",middleName:null,surname:"Kokturk",slug:"gulden-kokturk",fullName:"Gulden Kokturk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/95921/images/7119_n.jpg",biography:"Assist. Prof. Dr. Gülden Köktürk is an electrical and electronic engineer in Dokuz Eylül University, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering in Izmir (Turkey). She has been working as a lecturer in Dokuz Eylül University since finishing her PhD degree. She obtained her graduate degree and PhD degree in Electrical and Electronic Engineering in 1987 and 1999, respectively. Her research interests are signal and image processing, biomedical image processing, sustainability in energy, biodesign, and biomimicry. Dr. Köktürk has published many scientific papers, conference presentations, and exhibitions. She is one of the founding members of the Turkish Biodesign Team (TBT), which is the first biodesign team of Turkey and has an interdisciplinary structure study between biomimetic, engineering, science, and design intersection. She continues to work on biodesign in science and engineering with her teammates.\n\nOther InTech publications \nBook chapter Wavelet Based Speech Strategy in Cochlear Implant by Gulden Köktürk in the book Cochlear Implant Research Updates edited by Cila Umat and Rinze Anthony Tange, ISBN 978-953-51-0582-4, InTech, April 4, 2012.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"198922",title:"Dr.",name:"Tutku Didem",middleName:"Akyol",surname:"Altun",slug:"tutku-didem-altun",fullName:"Tutku Didem Altun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/198922/images/7120_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Didem Akyol Altun is an architect in Dokuz Eylül University, Department of Architecture. She lives in Izmir (Turkey), a city located in the west of the country. She has been working at the Dokuz Eylül University as an instructor for 17 years now. She obtained her graduate degree in 2000 and PhD degree in Architecture in 2010. She deals with all areas of design and continues to work in the biomimetics, nature-inspired architecture, and design-engineering interface. She has many published scientific papers, conference presentations, exhibitions, awards from architectural competitions, and one TUBITAK (Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey) project coordinatorship. She is one of the founding members of the Turkish Biodesign Team (TBT), which is the first biodesign team of Turkey and has an interdisciplinary structure study between biomimetic, science, and design intersection. She continues to work on biodesign with her teammates.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"690",title:"Biomimetics",slug:"biomimetics"}],chapters:[{id:"58587",title:"Towards an Agile Biodigital Architecture: Supporting a Dynamic Evolutionary and Developmental View of Architecture",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72916",slug:"towards-an-agile-biodigital-architecture-supporting-a-dynamic-evolutionary-and-developmental-view-of",totalDownloads:1413,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Architecture and biology are fields of high complexity. Generative design approaches provide access to continuously increasing complexity in design. Some of these methods are based on biological principles but usually do not communicate the conceptual base necessary to appropriately reflect the input from biology into architecture. To address this, we propose a model for analysis and design of architecture based on a multistaged integrated design process that extends the common morphological process in digital morphogenesis with a typology-based ontological model. Biomimetics, an emerging field to strategically search for information transfer from biology to technological application, will assist in delivering a frame of reference and methodology for establishing valid analogies between the different realms as well as integration of the biological concept into a larger framework of analogy to biological processes. As the biomimetic translation of process and systems information promises more radical innovation, this chapter focuses on the dynamic perspectives provided by biological development and evolution to model the complexity of architecture. The proposed process was used to inform five parallel workshops to explore dynamic biological concepts in design. The potential of the process to investigate biomimetic processes in architecture is then discussed, and future work is outlined.",signatures:"Petra Gruber, Tim McGinley and Manuel Muehlbauer",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58587",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58587",authors:[{id:"201922",title:"Dr.",name:"Petra",surname:"Gruber",slug:"petra-gruber",fullName:"Petra Gruber"},{id:"203307",title:"Dr.",name:"Tim",surname:"McGinley",slug:"tim-mcginley",fullName:"Tim McGinley"},{id:"203308",title:"Ms.",name:"Manuel",surname:"Muehlbauer",slug:"manuel-muehlbauer",fullName:"Manuel Muehlbauer"}],corrections:null},{id:"58436",title:"Human Eye Behaviors Inform Systems Design for Inter-Building Communication",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72911",slug:"human-eye-behaviors-inform-systems-design-for-inter-building-communication",totalDownloads:1072,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Adaptive sensory environments optimize in real time to consistently improve performance. One optimization method involves communication between buildings to dramatically compound positive effects—but the way these buildings communicate, matters. To design such a communication framework, this chapter uses a biomimetic approach to derive lessons from the human eye and its focusing abilities. With each focusing action, coordination occurs as muscles move to expand and contract the eye’s lens to achieve varying focal distances. And when both eyes focus together, they are able to achieve stereopsis, a field of depth and perception not attainable with only the focus of one eye. By dissecting this collaboration between eye muscle coordination and stereopsis, this chapter uncovers how a communication framework between adaptive sensory environments can create indirect, yet powerful, collective occupant and building behaviors. For example, communicating adaptive sensory environments evoke greener occupant behaviors, which, in turn, bring added benefit to the natural environment. Communication framework aspects include gamification, social media, and augmented reality that blur the boundaries between built-environments in different ways. These “communication bridges” allow buildings to take on new symbiotic relationships with each other to harness and enhance how entire urban areas uplift quality of life.",signatures:"Maria Lorena Lehman",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58436",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58436",authors:[{id:"205780",title:null,name:"Maria Lorena",surname:"Lehman",slug:"maria-lorena-lehman",fullName:"Maria Lorena Lehman"}],corrections:null},{id:"58691",title:"Taking Inspiration from Flying Insects to Navigate inside Buildings",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72918",slug:"taking-inspiration-from-flying-insects-to-navigate-inside-buildings",totalDownloads:1224,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"These days, flying insects are seen as genuinely agile micro air vehicles fitted with smart sensors and also parsimonious in their use of brain resources. They are able to visually navigate in unpredictable and GPS-denied environments. Understanding how such tiny animals work would help engineers to figure out different issues relating to drone miniaturization and navigation inside buildings. To turn a drone of ~1 kg into a robot, miniaturized conventional avionics can be employed; however, this results in a loss of their flight autonomy. On the other hand, to turn a drone of a mass between ~1 g (or less) and ~500 g into a robot requires an innovative approach taking inspiration from flying insects both with regard to their flapping wing propulsion system and their sensory system based mainly on motion vision in order to avoid obstacles in three dimensions or to navigate on the basis of visual cues. This chapter will provide a snapshot of the current state of the art in the field of bioinspired optic flow sensors and optic flow-based direct feedback loops applied to micro air vehicles flying inside buildings.",signatures:"Julien R. Serres",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58691",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58691",authors:[{id:"201014",title:"Dr.",name:"Julien",surname:"Serres",slug:"julien-serres",fullName:"Julien Serres"}],corrections:null},{id:"58540",title:"Biomimetic Design for a Bioengineered World",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72912",slug:"biomimetic-design-for-a-bioengineered-world",totalDownloads:1380,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Biodesign can be explained as a method that includes various researches and applications related to taking inspiration from natural functions, systems, components, or processes in solving a problem. Accordingly, biodesign is commonly used in the design of artificial devices, structures, and buildings in the field of bioengineering. The recent developments in the field of biotechnology and bioengineering bring out various products that are designed in collaboration with different engineering disciplines. In this chapter, the possible use of bacteria, microalgae, and fungi for biomimetic design and the role of biomimicry for these designs will be briefly discussed.",signatures:"Irem Deniz and Tugba Keskin-Gundogdu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58540",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58540",authors:[{id:"204855",title:"Dr.",name:"Irem",surname:"Deniz",slug:"irem-deniz",fullName:"Irem Deniz"},{id:"204856",title:"Dr.",name:"Tugba",surname:"Keskin Gundogdu",slug:"tugba-keskin-gundogdu",fullName:"Tugba Keskin Gundogdu"}],corrections:null},{id:"59632",title:"Biomimetic Facade Applications for a More Sustainable Future",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73021",slug:"biomimetic-facade-applications-for-a-more-sustainable-future",totalDownloads:2777,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Mankind has often taken inspiration from the nature to solve problems since nature has sophisticated processes, refined for thousands of years. While manmade systems are unsustainable, natural processes embody sustainability principles; therefore, there are many things to learn from nature in order to solve design problems and create a more sustainable future. This is the promise of a biomimetic design approach. Another design approach is biodesign, and it also involves utilizing natural elements inside the design. The building façade is a problematic research area since it is at the intersection between living spaces and natural environment; thus it faces many problems especially regarding energy-air-water transition between indoors and outdoors. Application of key sustainability concepts in architecture such as energy requirements, form and structure, and sustainability considerations can be enhanced by learning from natural processes. This chapter looks at cutting-edge design principles, materials, and designs in building façades through the lens of biomimetics and biodesign. First, the design principles and then the materials and some cases are explained. The concepts of biomimicry and biodesign are in harmony with the concept of sustainability; however, to reach sustainable façade solutions, the sustainability principles should be at the core of the design problem definition.",signatures:"Ayça Tokuç, Fatma Feyzal Özkaban and Özge Andiç Çakır",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59632",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59632",authors:[{id:"200339",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ayça",surname:"Tokuç",slug:"ayca-tokuc",fullName:"Ayça Tokuç"},{id:"200342",title:"Dr.",name:"Feyzal",surname:"Ozkaban",slug:"feyzal-ozkaban",fullName:"Feyzal Ozkaban"},{id:"200536",title:"Dr.",name:"Özge",surname:"Andiç Çakır",slug:"ozge-andic-cakir",fullName:"Özge Andiç Çakır"}],corrections:null},{id:"58622",title:"Bio-inspired Adaptable Facade Control Reflecting User's Behavior",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72917",slug:"bio-inspired-adaptable-facade-control-reflecting-user-s-behavior",totalDownloads:1673,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The purpose of this research is to develop the process of methodology in designing adaptable façade. This study focuses on the processes of façade operation control for each resident’s unit according to the user’s lifestyle. This study aims to develop the design methods that are applicable to the adaptable facade, which is inspired by the design inspiration of the biomimicry. The ideal façade to increase comfort in internal space is an adaptable façade that can constantly respond to changes in the environments. This chapter attempts in active adoption of adaptable facade that makes it possible to respond to changing requirements and environments, eventually enabling the creation of customized services for users. This chapter explores the processes of designing an adaptable façade controlled by three rules inspired by the behaviors of flocks of birds. This chapter shows how adopted bird intelligence can produce various façade controls. Also, this chapter demonstrates biomimetic façade control that has been implemented by behavior-based design. Through this demonstration, this chapter identifies the potentials of biomimetic design in facade using rules of bird flocking as source of design inspiration. This study concludes that a behavior-based approach provides flexibly responding façade to environments increasing users’ quality of life.",signatures:"Hyunsoo Lee and Nayeon Kim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58622",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58622",authors:[{id:"220502",title:"Prof.",name:"Hyunsoo",surname:"Lee",slug:"hyunsoo-lee",fullName:"Hyunsoo Lee"},{id:"220507",title:"Ms.",name:"Nayeon",surname:"Kim",slug:"nayeon-kim",fullName:"Nayeon Kim"}],corrections:null},{id:"58676",title:"Switchable and Reversible Superhydrophobic Surfaces: Part One",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73022",slug:"switchable-and-reversible-superhydrophobic-surfaces-part-one",totalDownloads:1778,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, most of the methods used in the literature to prepare switchable and reversible superhydrophobic surfaces are described. Inspired by Nature, it is possible to induce the Cassie-Baxter−Wenzel transition using different external stimuli such as light, temperature, pH, ion exchange, voltage, magnetic field, mechanic stress, plasma, ultrasonication, solvent, gas or guest. Such properties are extremely important for various applications but especially for controllable oil/water separation membranes, oil-absorbing materials and water harvesting systems.",signatures:"Sabri Taleb, Thierry Darmanin and Frédéric Guittard",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58676",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58676",authors:[{id:"201524",title:"Dr.",name:"Thierry",surname:"Darmanin",slug:"thierry-darmanin",fullName:"Thierry Darmanin"},{id:"201530",title:"Dr.",name:"Sabri",surname:"Taleb",slug:"sabri-taleb",fullName:"Sabri Taleb"},{id:"201531",title:"Prof.",name:"Frédéric",surname:"Guittard",slug:"frederic-guittard",fullName:"Frédéric Guittard"}],corrections:null},{id:"58690",title:"Switchable and Reversible Superhydrophobic Surfaces: Part Two",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73020",slug:"switchable-and-reversible-superhydrophobic-surfaces-part-two",totalDownloads:1266,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this book chapter, most of the methods used in the literature to prepare switchable and reversible superhydrophobic surfaces are described. Inspired by Nature, it is possible to induce the Cassie-Baxter-Wenzel transition using different external stimuli such as light, temperature, pH, ion exchange, voltage, magnetic field, mechanic stress, plasma, ultrasonication, solvent, gas or guest. Such properties are extremely important for various applications but especially for controllable oil/water separation membranes, oil-absorbing materials, and water harvesting systems.",signatures:"Sabri Taleb, Thierry Darmanin and Frédéric Guittard",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58690",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58690",authors:[{id:"201524",title:"Dr.",name:"Thierry",surname:"Darmanin",slug:"thierry-darmanin",fullName:"Thierry Darmanin"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3587",title:"Biomimetics",subtitle:"Learning from Nature",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0ab0daea3f9b4d2228b70d2a47e8d362",slug:"biomimetics-learning-from-nature",bookSignature:"Amitava Mukherjee",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3587.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"5759",title:"Prof.",name:"Amitava",surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"amitava-mukherjee",fullName:"Amitava Mukherjee"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"42",title:"Advances in Biomimetics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"65af8330f495764de3acf1bf959143b5",slug:"advances-in-biomimetics",bookSignature:"Anne George",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/42.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"21288",title:"Prof.",name:"Anne",surname:"George",slug:"anne-george",fullName:"Anne George"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"251",title:"On Biomimetics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b41b2ea8322b21ee4f4423498d3a196e",slug:"on-biomimetics",bookSignature:"Assoc. 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Malaria is one of the prevalent infectious diseases globally. In malaria-endemic areas, a significant proportion of children harbor parasites without presenting signs of clinical malaria and are considered asymptomatic cases [1]. Moreover, in communities where children are repeatedly infected with malaria, one can question why some children die while others do not. Variant-specific immunity may help explain chronic low-grade malaria infection without clinical symptoms [2]. A better knowledge of the polymorphic host genes associated with resistance to clinical malaria and/or with high parasite densities might provide new insights into disease mechanisms, and suggest new approaches for prophylactic or therapeutic interventions [3, 4].
The ABO blood groups consist of A, B, and H carbohydrate antigens which can regulate protein activities during infection and antibodies against these antigens [9, 10, 11]. Several studies did try to establish an association between severe malaria and the ABO-blood group type [11, 12, 13], with some reporting significant associations on infection status and a particular ABO blood group [11, 13].
The relationship between ABO and malaria was first suggested more than 40 years ago [14]. Few studies have corroborated this hypothesis [8, 11, 14, 15], but some studies showed a weak association [2]. In India, for example, a significantly lower frequency of
This study aimed to investigate the association between the ABO blood group and malaria susceptibility among Fulani compared to other sympatric ethnic groups living in Burkina Faso.
We offer four perspectives in support of this investigation:
The prevalence of the ABO blood group, in both children and adults residing in the rural areas of Burkina Faso;
The current distribution of ABO groups and
Clinical outcomes during
For a long time ago, the ABO blood group system has been suggested to be associated with infectious diseases including malaria. ABO blood groups appear to protect against malaria, through loss of function due to a defective allele: the O phenotype of the ABO system seems to confer protection against
Gene (chromosome) | Protein | Mutation | Number of mutations | Variant | Reported Genetic Associations with Malaria | Mechanistic hypotheses proposed protective mechanism | Reference | Distribution | High-low Frequency |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ABO (9q34) O | Glycosyl transferase enzyme | Deletion of nucleotide 261 in exon 6 | major | ABO single nucleotide deletion (rs8176719)-Blood group O | O alleles protect against uncomplicated malaria and severe malaria. | Reduced | Rowe et al. (2007), Rowe et al. (1995), Udomsangpetch et al. (1993), MalariaGEN (2014), Ndila et al. (2018), Tishkoff SA, et al. (2004). Silvia N. Kariuki | South America, Africa, Western Europe | Near 100% in native South Americans to about 0.3% in some Asians |
How the ABO blood group system affect susceptibility and resistance to
The human ABO gene consists of seven exons that are more than 18 kb in length and genomic analysis has found over 70 alleles at this locus, suggesting that it is one of the polymorphic genes in humans [1]. The three main antigenic classes (A, B, and O) are all comprised of numerous alleles in both coding and non-coding sequences [1].
The O alleles share a one-nucleotide deletion in codon 87 of exon 6 resulting in a frameshift mutation and premature termination of the polypeptide [2, 3]. O alleles are the most common of the three allelic classes (about 0.6 worldwide) and have frequencies between 0.3 and 0.7 in most populations. The A alleles generally have frequencies between 0.2 and 0.3, and the B alleles have frequencies between 0.1 and 0.2 [4]. There is substantial evidence supporting the importance of allele O for protecting against malaria, based primarily on the consistency between the worldwide distributions of ABO variants and the historical presence of malaria. Uneke (2007) showed that the O allele, which is more frequent in malaria-endemic regions, is associated with greater resistance to malaria, in contrast to the A and B genotypes, which are less resistant [5]. Fry et al. [6] corroborated this finding through a study in three African populations showing a strong association of O individuals with resistance to severe malaria and a recessive effect in AO and BO individuals. Consequently, AO and BO would have the same susceptibility or sensitivity to malaria as AA and BB individuals; with AB genotype individuals being the most sensitive. The O allele is thought to protect against severe malaria through a mechanism of reduced reinitiation (
However, although the major O alleles share a one-nucleotide deletion, they differ in the number of nucleotide substitutions in both exons and introns. The O human alleles, although different from the O chimpanzee allele [8], are much older [1]. The most common O alleles, O01 and O02, are the result of separate mutations and are 1.15 and 2.5 million years old, respectively. In other words, assuming that the O allele protects from malaria, this protection may be a result of selection originally favoring O alleles for some other reason.
The study was conducted in four shrub-savanna villages located northeast (Barkoumbilen and Barkoundouba) and east (Bassy and Zanga) of Ouagadougou, the capital city of Burkina Faso (see Figure 1).
Study site in Burkina. The study was carried out in four rural villages of shrubby savannah areas of Burkina Faso: northeast (Nioniokodogo and Barkoundouba), and east (Bassy and Zanga) of the capital town Ouagadougou. Compounds of the various ethnic groups are represented as capital letters. Inset/smaller map represents the study site relative to the whole country.
In the northeast zone, the Mossi and Rimaibè communities inhabit the village of Barkoumbilen, while the Fulani and Rimaibè inhabit the village of Barkoundouba. The Fulani and Rimaibe are present in both villages, so the Rimaibe represent an optimal internal control for the study. The two villages are 5 km apart. In the eastern zone, Mossi and Fulani communities independently inhabit two villages, Zanga and Bassy, about 1(one) km apart.
Malaria transmission in the study areas is hyperendemic and seasonal, with a rainy season from June to October. The entomological inoculation rate (EIR) is estimated to be around 200–300 infecting bites per person per year and is comparable between villages [6]. The main malaria vectors are
The population of the study area is predominantly of the Mossi ethnic group, followed by the widespread Fulani, who are generally closely associated with the Rimaibe (a hybrid of the two in terms of customs and even genetics). All three populations live in similar houses. However, the Fulani group, while adopting the habits of the sedentary Mossi populations, has retained their pastoral activities so that their habitat is characterized by the presence of cattle herds.
The total population of the four villages was obtained from a general census and enrolled in a demographic monitoring process. Except for children under 6 months of age, the entire population was eligible for the study and was characterized/designated into two groups: participants aged 0.6 to 17 years and participants aged 18 years and older.
The study was conducted for two consecutive years and consisted of five cross-sectional surveys (see Table 2).
Total subject (n) | Grouped by ethnicity | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mossi n (%) | Fulani n (%) | Rimaibe n (%) | |||
559 | 163 | 209 | 176 | ||
380 (68.1) | 120 (73.2) | 147 (69.0) | 113 (62.4) | ||
178 (31.9) | 44 (26.8) | 66 (31.0) | 68 (37.6) | ||
224 (40.9) | 72 (44.2) | 90 (43.1) | 62 (35.2) | ||
324 (59.1) | 91 (55.8) | 119 (56.9) | 114 (64.8) | ||
40.5 (222) | 29.4 (48) | 52.6 (110) | 36.4 (64) | ||
26.6 (146) | 40.5 (66) | 13.4 (28) | 29.5 (52) | ||
25.5 (140) | 25.2 (41) | 28.7 (60) | 22.2 (39) | ||
7.3 (40) | 4.9 (8) | 5.3 (11) | 52.5 (21) | ||
59.2 (326) | 70.6 (115) | 47.4 (99) | 63.6 (112) |
Population demographic.
Four surveys during the high malaria transmission seasons: in the middle of August 2007 and 2008; and in the middle of November/December 2007 and 2008.
One survey in the middle of the low transmission/dry season: March 2008.
Community sensitization meetings were held during which information or explanations about the context of the study, its objectives, its methodological approach, and the associated ethical issues were provided. The signing of written informed consent was a requirement for all study participants, including the guardians of minor children.
Following consent, a clinical team of physicians and nurses examined all participants for clinical signs of malaria, measured weight, and axillary body temperature. Suspected malaria cases (T ≥ 37.5°C) were treated with artemether and lumefantrine.
During the first cross-sectional survey, a two (2) ml venous blood sample was collected from all participants in EDTA tubes.
Thick and thin blood smears were prepared and the hemoglobin level was measured by the HemoCue technique.
For each subject in this study, physical examination and capillary blood samples on slides and filter papers were collected. Slides were used for the diagnosis of malaria infection and the venous sampling was for the blood group characterization.
Blood slides were stained with Giemsa for microscope identification of the
Blood films were air-dried, the thin films fixed with methanol, and the slide stained with Giemsa. The slides were read by highly experienced laboratory technicians according to the site SOPs. Briefly, 100 high power fields were examined, and the number of malaria parasites/each species and stage was recorded. The number of parasites per microliter of blood was calculated assuming 200 white blood cells per high power field and a fixed white blood cell count of 8000/μL. A slide was considered negative if no parasites were found after the 100 HPF examination. Two independent microscopists read each slide and in case of discrepancy between the two readers, in terms of species, presence or absence of malaria parasites, or if the parasite densities differed by more than 30%, the slide was re-examined by a third laboratory technician. The arithmetic mean of the two closest readings was used as the final value of the parasite density. If there was no agreement after the third reading, the arithmetic mean of the three parasite densities was used.
DNA extraction from the buffy coat (about 1.5 ml in volume) was performed using Nucleon BACC2 Kits. Successful DNA extraction was checked on a 1% agarose gel stained with ethidium bromide. A total of 2235 DNA samples (about 50 μl in volume) were collected: 825 from Mossi, 877 from Fulani, and 533 from Rimaibè individuals. Samples were stored in screw cap tubes labeled with the study code. Samples were kept at −20°C in cryo boxes. The DNA samples were shipped to the WTCHG in Oxford, UK, in May 2008. The DNA samples of study participants were genotyped at the WTCHG in Oxford, UK.
Demographic variables collected during the census of the four villages include for each person; age, gender, father and mother ethnicity, village, compound, family members and sequential number within the family, and census code. Assignment of ethnicity has been performed with the assistance of local guides.
The census data file was anonymized (name identification has been removed for privacy protection) according to the study protocol which was approved by the ethical committee of Burkina Faso. Clinical data were matched to the census data with study enrolment codes. Case report forms (CRF) for cross-sectional surveys were verified by the supervisor of the clinical study before data entry. Similarly, parasitological data were verified by the lab supervisor before data entry. Data entry was conducted by a team of computer engineers at Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, and data files were validated by the database manager.
Data were entered into Microsoft Access. A Chi-square test was used to assess the difference between frequencies/associations between blood groups and
Two-sided
The National Ethics Committee of the Ministry of Health (in Burkina Faso) granted ethical clearance. The study was conducted in compliance with the International Conference on Harmonization, Good Clinical Practices, the Declaration of Helsinki, and applicable Burkina Faso regulatory requirements. Individual written informed consent was obtained from each participant, participant’s parents, or legally acceptable representative.
This study aimed to investigate
A total of 548 subjects (380 children and 178 adults) were included in this study: Mossi, n = 163 (29.7%), Fulani, n = 209 (38.2%), and Rimaibe, n = 176 (32.1%). Table 2 shows baseline demographic characteristics according to ethnicity. We did not find any significant difference among the three ethnic groups. The ABO blood group analysis in all children revealed that O antigen: 40.5% (222/548) was the most predominant, followed by A: 25.5% (140/548), B: 26.6% (146/548), and AB: 7.3% (40/548) antigens. Blood group O was not only the commonest blood type overall, but was higher in the Fulani (n = 110 (52.6%)) than Mossi (n = 48 (29.4%)) and Rimaibe (n = 64 (36.4%)).
The malariometric indices for each cross-sectional survey are summarized in Table 3. The prevalence of
Malaria indices | *survey number | Total | Ethnic Group | P-value | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mossi | Fulani | Rimaibe | F vs. M vs. R | F VS M | F vs. R | |||
Prevalence of Pf malaria Infection % (number positive/ total) | 1 | 283 (51.6) | 98 (60.1) | 91 (43.5) | 59 (52.7) | 0.08 | 0.025 | 0.30 |
2 | 236 (43.1) | 90 (55.2) | 54 (25.8) | 54 (48.2) | 0.002 | 0.003 | 0.00 | |
3 | 101 (18.4) | 33 (20.24) | 25 (12.0) | 26 (23.2) | 0.55 | 0.56 | 0.50 | |
4 | 272 (49.6) | 103 (63.2) | 69 (33.0) | 65 (58.0) | 0.0001 | 0.016 | 0.0001 | |
5 | 215 (39.2) | 87 (53.4) | 52 (24.9) | 47 (42.0) | 0.0056 | 0.0012 | 0.25 | |
Geometric mean of parasite density (p/μl) | 1 | 550 [441–687] | 865 [598–1252] | 374 [251–557] | 483 [331–708] | 0.021 | 0.001 | 0.316 |
2 | 313 [250–390] | 330 [228–478] | 297 [192–460] | 305 [211–441] | 0.932 | 0.634 | 0.050 | |
3 | 393 [289–536] | 230 [138–382] | 391 [195–780] | 572 [360–909] | 0.044 | 0.912 | 0.332 | |
4 | 264 [697–1040] | 685 [491–957] | 878 [578–1332] | 1030 [571–1414] | 0.253 | 0.036 | 0.51 | |
5 | 720 [563–920] | 791 [535–1167] | 523 [327–836] | 805 [520–1249] | 0.345 | 0.171 | 0.193 | |
Prevalence of clinical Pf cases % (number positive/total) | 1 | 52 (9.5) | 16 (9.8) | 18 (8.6) | 18 (10.2) | 0.98 | 0.88 | 0.78 |
2 | 13 (2.4) | 8 (4.9) | 4 (1.9) | 1 (0.1) | — | — | — | |
3 | 4 (0.7) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (0.5) | 3 (1.7) | — | — | — | |
4 | 31 (5.7) | 11 (6.7) | 9 (4.3) | 11 (6.3) | — | — | — | |
5 | 24 (4.4) | 13 (8.0) | 5 (2.4) | 6 (3.4) | — | — | — |
Malariometric indices according to the ethnicity group/survey.
Survey number.
1: First survey, the middle of high malaria transmission season (August 2008).
2: Second survey, the end of high malaria transmission season (Nov 2008).
3: Third survey, the middle of the dry low transmission season (March 2008).
4: The fourth survey, the start of the high transmission season (July 2008).
5: Fifth survey, the end of the high transmission season (November/December 2008).
The study showed that during the period of high transmission, there was an association between ethnicity and malaria infection (
Malaria indices | Survey number | Total | Ethnic group | P-value | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mossi | Fulani | Rimaibe | F vs. M vs. R | F VS M | F vs. R | ||||
Prevalence of Pf malaria Infection % (number) | O | 98 (60.1) | 27 (56.3) | 46 (50.9) | 29 (45.3) | 0.724 | 0.64 | 0.60 | |
Non-O | 65 (39.9) | 71 (61.7) | 45 (45.5) | 59 (52.7) | 0.172 | 0.05 | 0.41 | ||
Non-O | A | 4.7 (5) | 27 (38.0) | 31 (33.7) | 22 (23.4) | 0.55 | 0.70 | 0.44 | |
B | 4.7 (5) | 41 (57.7) | 6 (6.6) | 24 (22.5) | 0.001 | 0.02 | 0.003 | ||
AB | 9.3 (10) | 3 (38.0) | 8 (8.8) | 13 (13.8) | — | — | — | ||
Geometric mean of parasite density (p/μl) [positive/ total] | O | 521 [359–755] | 1020 [486–2146] | 434 [237–767] | 373 [202–689] | 0.07 | 0.07 | 0.71 | |
Non-O | 569 [431–753] | 811 [525–1253] | 323 [188–555] | 563 [343–923] | 0.01 | 0.025 | 0.19 | ||
Non-O | A | 568 [382–845] | 1005 [489–2068] | 316 [167–599] | 595 [295–1205] | 0.04 | 0.012 | 0.173 | |
B | 535 [337–851] | 691 [393–1218] | 136 [23–822] | 494 [194–1260] | 0.16 | 0.04 | 0.19 | ||
AB | 680 [226–1561] | 928 [−] | 664 [128–3437] | 642 [204–2018] | 0.90 | 0.50 | 0.92 | ||
Prevalence of clinical Pf cases % (number positive/total) | O | 20 (9.0) | 4 (8.3) | 9 (8.2) | 7 (10.9) | — | |||
Non-O | 32 (9.8) | 12 (10.4) | 9 (9.1) | 11 (9.8) | — | ||||
Non-O | A | 7 (5.0) | 3 (7.3) | 3 (5.0) | 1 (2.6) | — | |||
B | 19 (13.0) | 8 (50.0) | 5 (27.8) | 4 (22.2) | — | ||||
AB | 6 (15.0) | 1 (12.5) | 1 (9.1) | 46 (19.6) | — | ||||
Prevalence of Pf malaria Infection % (number) | O | 39 (17.6) | 10 (20.8) | 12 (10.9) | 17 (26.6) | 0.38 | 0.86 | 0.36 | |
Non-O | 62 (19.0) | 23 (20.0) | 13 (13.1) | 26 (23.2) | 0.85 | 0.98 | 0.88 | ||
Non-O | A | 27 (19.3) | 11 (26.8) | 8 (13.3) | 8 (20.5) | 0.72 | 0.83 | 1.00 | |
B | 26 (17.8) | 11 (16.7) | 3 (10.7) | 12 (23.1) | — | — | — | ||
AB | 9 (25.5) | 1 (12.5) | 2 (18.2) | 6 (28.6) | — | — | — | ||
Geometric mean of parasite density (p/μl) [positive/ total] | O | 345 [207–575] | 185 [75–454] | 434 [237–767] | 483 [203–1143] | 0.18 | 0.34 | 0.57 | |
Non-O | 393 [288–536] | 253 [130–492] | 443 [149–1317] | 641 [360–1124] | 0.12 | 0.19 | 0.88 | ||
Non-O | A | 275 [152–495] | 172 [62–476] | 477 [96.1–2375] | 284 [144–558] | 0.33 | 0.20 | 0.42 | |
B | 533 [267–1064] | 337 [112–1014] | 185 [2.20–15,628] | 979 [348–2752] | — | — | — | ||
AB | 936 [447–1962] | 876 [−] | 1215 [0.0–1.7e09] | 855 [302–2419] | 0.075 | 0.46 | 0.052 | ||
Prevalence of clinical Pf cases % (number positive / total) | O | 1 (0.5) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 1 (1.6) | — | — | — | |
Non-O | 3 (0.9) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (0.0) | 1 (1.8) | — | — | — | ||
Non-O | A | 1 (0.7) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (2.6) | — | — | — | |
B | 1 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (0.0) | — | — | — | ||
AB | 2 (5.0) | 0 (0) | 1 (9.1) | 1 (4.8) | — | — | — |
Malariometric indices according to the ethnicity and blood group/season.
F= Fulani; M= Mossi; R= Rimaibe; No-O = A + B + AB.
The subjects with Non-O blood (i.e. A, B, or AB) were less susceptible to malaria infection (
Blood group compared | All | Mossi | Fulani | Rimaibe |
---|---|---|---|---|
O vs. A | 0.028 | 0.17 | 0.12 | 0.49 |
O vs. B | 0.04 | 0.80 | 0.04 | 0.06 |
O vs. AB | 0.0067 | 0.90 | 0.11 | 0.13 |
O vs. (A + B + AB) | 0.011 | 0.56 | 0.59 | 0.49 |
O vs. A | 0.74 | 0.98 | 0.47 | 0.30 |
O vs. B | 0.91 | 0.34 | 0.18 | 0.57 |
O vs. AB | 0.53 | 0.71 | 0.52 | 0.33 |
O vs. (A + B + AB) | 0.000 | 0.58 | 0.52 | 0.29 |
O vs. A | 0.79 | 0.90 | — | 0.80 |
O vs. B | 0.84 | 0.65 | — | 0.87 |
O vs. AB | 0.85 | — | — | 0.73 |
O vs. (A + B + AB) | 0.86 | 0.72 | 0.94 | 0.91 |
O vs. A | 0.55 | 0.88 | 0.59 | 0.41 |
O vs. B | 0.28 | 0.34 | 0.53 | 0.27 |
O vs. AB | 0.08 | — | 0.27 | 0.47 |
O vs. (A + B + AB) | 0.55 | 0.58 | 0.69 | 0.09 |
The p values for the frequency of O and non-O blood group types between the three ethnic groups according to malaria infection and parasite density.
There was an association between the Non-O blood group of all ethnicities and malaria infections during high transmission. However, this association disappeared when the ethnic groups were considered separately (all ethnicities
This study revealed that blood group O represented the most observed phenotype among participants (40.5%), followed by blood group B (26.6%), then blood group A (25.5%), and finally the AB blood group, which is rarer (7.3%). These results are consistent with those of previous studies that reported a high frequency of group O phenotypes in areas endemic to malaria [5, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13].
Other studies have corroborated this evidence by the inverse relationship: they have reported a high prevalence of blood group A and a low prevalence of phenotypes of blood group O in colder regions where malaria is an exotic disease [5, 10, 14].
These results would confirm the hypothesis of a selective evolutionary advantage (survival) of
The results of this study according to ethnicity also showed that Fulani were less infected with malaria despite their way of life and living in the same conditions of hyperendemic transmission. These were comparable to observations in previous studies in Burkina Faso and West Africa [15, 16].
Like the study carried out in Gabon by Monbo et al. [17], this study showed a high prevalence of malaria infection in participants with blood group O compared to participants with blood groups A, B, or AB; and is in contrast to previous studies that suggested individuals of blood groups A, B, and AB is more susceptible to
Lower parasite densities in subjects of blood group O compared to non-O subjects were observed, but the differences were not statistically significant. These observations are in line with the conclusions of previous studies which have shown that patients with blood group O were associated with increased protection against parasitemia [18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23].
These results would suggest a protective effect of the O antigen against clinical malaria. However, other explanations, such as the anti-rosette formation effect associated with blood group antigens, should also be considered [24].
In any case, this study made it possible to establish the involvement of Fulani groups against malaria infection and parasitemia. It also revealed that for all ethnicities combined, there would be a statistically significant difference in susceptibility to malaria between participants of blood groups O and participants of other blood groups (A, B, and AB).
The absence of any statistically significant difference in susceptibility to malaria in an intra-ethnic blood group analysis could be due to a sample size effect. Hence, the need for in-depth and broader epigenetic studies to accurately capture the effects of ABO blood groups in susceptibility to Pf malaria is highlighted.
The study confirmed that the Fulani group is less susceptible to
Evidence of correlations between ethnicity and blood group at risk of malaria infection would support the idea that the presumed association between blood group and malaria infection depends on the demographic distribution and characteristics of the population studied. As a result, each region of the world has a characteristic ABO phenotypic distribution, making it urgent to fully understand the biology of malaria infection through detailed studies of the interactions between the ABO blood grouping system: A critical condition for saving lives in malaria-endemic regions.
The authors have declared no conflict of interest.
BEC wrote the manuscript and agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work.
AO and SBS read and approved the final manuscript and agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work.
The study received approval from the ethical committees of the Ministry of Health of Burkina Faso.
Groupe de Recherche Action en Santé
Group Sanguin (O, A, B, AB)
Red Blood Cells
World Health Organization
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The literature source was Web of Science and SSCI, SCI-EXPANDED, A&HCI, CPCI-S, CPCI-SSH, and ESCI indexes. Fifty-two articles were reviewed; however, 14 of them were not been included in the study. As a result, 38 articles were examined. Level of education, field of education, and material types of AR used in education and reported educational advantages of AR have been investigated. All articles are categorized according to target groups, which are early childhood education, primary education, secondary education, high school education, graduate education, and others. AR technology has been mostly carried out in primary and graduate education. “Science education” is the most explored field of education. Mobile applications and marker-based materials on paper have been mostly preferred. The major advantages indicated in the articles are “Learning/Academic Achievement,” “Motivation,” and “Attitude”.",book:{id:"6543",slug:"state-of-the-art-virtual-reality-and-augmented-reality-knowhow",title:"State of the Art Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Knowhow",fullTitle:"State of the Art Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Knowhow"},signatures:"Rabia M. Yilmaz",authors:[{id:"225838",title:"Dr.",name:"Rabia",middleName:null,surname:"Yilmaz",slug:"rabia-yilmaz",fullName:"Rabia Yilmaz"}]},{id:"63639",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81086",title:"Cooperative Learning: The Foundation for Active Learning",slug:"cooperative-learning-the-foundation-for-active-learning",totalDownloads:3491,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"The role of instructors is evolving from the presenter of information to the designer of active learning processes, environments, and experiences that maximize student engagement. The more active a lesson, the more students tend to engage intellectually and emotionally in the learning activities. Cooperative learning is the foundation on which many of the active learning procedures are based. Cooperative learning is the instructional use of small groups so that students work together to maximize their own and each other’s learning. Most of the active learning procedures, such as problem-based learning, team-learning, collaborative learning, and PALS, require that students work cooperatively in small groups to achieve joint learning goals. Cooperative learning is based on two theories: Structure-Process-Outcome theory and Social Interdependence theory. Four types of cooperative learning have been derived: formal cooperative learning, informal cooperative learning, cooperative base groups, and constructive controversy. There is considerable research confirming the effectiveness of cooperative learning. To be cooperative, however, five basic elements must be structured into the situation: positive interdependence, individual accountability, promotive interaction, social skills, and group processing.",book:{id:"6929",slug:"active-learning-beyond-the-future",title:"Active Learning",fullTitle:"Active Learning - Beyond the Future"},signatures:"David W. Johnson and Roger T. Johnson",authors:[{id:"259976",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Johnson",slug:"david-johnson",fullName:"David Johnson"},{id:"263004",title:"Dr.",name:"Roger",middleName:null,surname:"Johnson",slug:"roger-johnson",fullName:"Roger Johnson"}]},{id:"58060",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72341",title:"Pedagogy of the Twenty-First Century: Innovative Teaching Methods",slug:"pedagogy-of-the-twenty-first-century-innovative-teaching-methods",totalDownloads:8833,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"In the twenty-first century, significant changes are occurring related to new scientific discoveries, informatization, globalization, the development of astronautics, robotics, and artificial intelligence. This century is called the age of digital technologies and knowledge. How is the school changing in the new century? How does learning theory change? Currently, you can hear a lot of criticism that the classroom has not changed significantly compared to the last century or even like two centuries ago. Do the teachers succeed in modern changes? The purpose of the chapter is to summarize the current changes in didactics for the use of innovative teaching methods and study the understanding of changes by teachers. In this chapter, we consider four areas: the expansion of the subject of pedagogy, environmental approach to teaching, the digital generation and the changes taking place, and innovation in teaching. The theory of education, figuratively speaking, has two levels. At the macro-level, in the “education-society” relationship, decentralization and diversification, internationalization of education, and the introduction of digital technologies occur. At the micro-level in the “teacher-learner” relationship, there is an active mix of traditional and innovative methods, combination of an activity approach with an energy-informational environment approach, cognition with constructivism and connectivism.",book:{id:"5980",slug:"new-pedagogical-challenges-in-the-21st-century-contributions-of-research-in-education",title:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century - Contributions of Research in Education"},signatures:"Aigerim Mynbayeva, Zukhra Sadvakassova and Bakhytkul\nAkshalova",authors:[{id:"201997",title:"Dr.",name:"Aigerim",middleName:null,surname:"Mynbayeva",slug:"aigerim-mynbayeva",fullName:"Aigerim Mynbayeva"},{id:"209208",title:"Dr.",name:"Zukhra",middleName:null,surname:"Sadvakassova",slug:"zukhra-sadvakassova",fullName:"Zukhra Sadvakassova"},{id:"209210",title:"Dr.",name:"Bakhytkul",middleName:null,surname:"Akshalova",slug:"bakhytkul-akshalova",fullName:"Bakhytkul Akshalova"}]},{id:"59468",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74344",title:"Virtual and Augmented Reality: New Frontiers for Clinical Psychology",slug:"virtual-and-augmented-reality-new-frontiers-for-clinical-psychology",totalDownloads:2364,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"In the last decades, the applied approach for the use of virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) on clinical and health psychology has grown exponentially. These technologies have been used to treat several mental disorders, for example, phobias, stress-related disorders, depression, eating disorders, and chronic pain. The importance of VR/AR for the mental health field comes from three main concepts: (1) VR/AR as an imaginal technology, people can feel “as if they are” in a reality that does not exist in external world; (2) VR/AR as an embodied technology, the experience to feel user’s body inside the virtual environment; and (3) VR/AR as connectivity technology, the “end of geography’. In this chapter, we explore the opportunities provided by VR/AR as technologies to improve people’s quality of life and to discuss new frontiers for their application in mental health and psychological well-being promotion.",book:{id:"6543",slug:"state-of-the-art-virtual-reality-and-augmented-reality-knowhow",title:"State of the Art Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Knowhow",fullTitle:"State of the Art Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Knowhow"},signatures:"Sara Ventura, Rosa M. Baños and Cristina Botella",authors:[{id:"106036",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Baños",slug:"rosa-maria-banos",fullName:"Rosa Maria Baños"},{id:"227763",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura",slug:"sara-ventura",fullName:"Sara Ventura"},{id:"229056",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Botella",slug:"cristina-botella",fullName:"Cristina Botella"}]},{id:"64583",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81714",title:"Evaluating a Course for Teaching Advanced Programming Concepts with Scratch to Preservice Kindergarten Teachers: A Case Study in Greece",slug:"evaluating-a-course-for-teaching-advanced-programming-concepts-with-scratch-to-preservice-kindergart",totalDownloads:1422,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"Coding is a new literacy for the twenty-first century, and as a literacy, coding enables new ways of thinking and new ways of communicating and expressing ideas, as well as new ways of civic participation. A growing number of countries, in Europe and beyond, have established clear policies and frameworks for introducing computational thinking (CT) and computer programming to young children. In this chapter, we discuss a game-based approach to coding education for preservice kindergarten teachers using Scratch. The aim of using Scratch was to excite students’ interest and familiarize them with the basics of programming in an open-ended, project-based, and personally meaningful environment for a semester course in the Department of Preschool Education in the University of Crete. For 13 weeks, students were introduced to the main Scratch concepts and, afterward, were asked to prepare their projects. For the projects, they were required to design their own interactive stories to teach certain concepts about mathematics or physical science to preschool-age students. The results we obtained were more satisfactory than expected and, in some regards, encouraging if one considers the fact that the research participants had no prior experiences with computational thinking.",book:{id:"6936",slug:"early-childhood-education",title:"Early Childhood Education",fullTitle:"Early Childhood Education"},signatures:"Stamatios Papadakis and Michail Kalogiannakis",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"58060",title:"Pedagogy of the Twenty-First Century: Innovative Teaching Methods",slug:"pedagogy-of-the-twenty-first-century-innovative-teaching-methods",totalDownloads:8832,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"In the twenty-first century, significant changes are occurring related to new scientific discoveries, informatization, globalization, the development of astronautics, robotics, and artificial intelligence. This century is called the age of digital technologies and knowledge. How is the school changing in the new century? How does learning theory change? Currently, you can hear a lot of criticism that the classroom has not changed significantly compared to the last century or even like two centuries ago. Do the teachers succeed in modern changes? The purpose of the chapter is to summarize the current changes in didactics for the use of innovative teaching methods and study the understanding of changes by teachers. In this chapter, we consider four areas: the expansion of the subject of pedagogy, environmental approach to teaching, the digital generation and the changes taking place, and innovation in teaching. The theory of education, figuratively speaking, has two levels. At the macro-level, in the “education-society” relationship, decentralization and diversification, internationalization of education, and the introduction of digital technologies occur. At the micro-level in the “teacher-learner” relationship, there is an active mix of traditional and innovative methods, combination of an activity approach with an energy-informational environment approach, cognition with constructivism and connectivism.",book:{id:"5980",slug:"new-pedagogical-challenges-in-the-21st-century-contributions-of-research-in-education",title:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century - Contributions of Research in Education"},signatures:"Aigerim Mynbayeva, Zukhra Sadvakassova and Bakhytkul\nAkshalova",authors:[{id:"201997",title:"Dr.",name:"Aigerim",middleName:null,surname:"Mynbayeva",slug:"aigerim-mynbayeva",fullName:"Aigerim Mynbayeva"},{id:"209208",title:"Dr.",name:"Zukhra",middleName:null,surname:"Sadvakassova",slug:"zukhra-sadvakassova",fullName:"Zukhra Sadvakassova"},{id:"209210",title:"Dr.",name:"Bakhytkul",middleName:null,surname:"Akshalova",slug:"bakhytkul-akshalova",fullName:"Bakhytkul Akshalova"}]},{id:"61746",title:"Facilitation of Teachers’ Professional Development through Principals’ Instructional Supervision and Teachers’ Knowledge- Management Behaviors",slug:"facilitation-of-teachers-professional-development-through-principals-instructional-supervision-and-t",totalDownloads:3384,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"With the rise of global competition and the focus on teacher quality, teacher professional development is becoming increasingly crucial, and the stress and challenges for principals are more severe than ever. Teachers can improve their professional abilities through principals’ instructional supervision and their own knowledge-management (KM) behaviors to benefit students. Thus, this chapter analyzes the relationship among principals’ instructional supervision, teachers’ KM, and teachers’ professional development. The author believes that principals’ instructional supervision and effective KM can facilitate the professional development of teachers. The author also believes the readers can know the relationships among them, and teachers’ professional development can be improved through principal’s instructional supervision and teachers’ KM behaviors.",book:{id:"6674",slug:"contemporary-pedagogies-in-teacher-education-and-development",title:"Contemporary Pedagogies in Teacher Education and Development",fullTitle:"Contemporary Pedagogies in Teacher Education and Development"},signatures:"Chien-Chin Chen",authors:[{id:"232569",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Chien Chih",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"chien-chih-chen",fullName:"Chien Chih Chen"}]},{id:"75908",title:"From the Classroom into Virtual Learning Environments: Essential Knowledge, Competences, Skills and Pedagogical Strategies for the 21st Century Teacher Education in Kenya",slug:"from-the-classroom-into-virtual-learning-environments-essential-knowledge-competences-skills-and-ped",totalDownloads:519,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"As teachers in Kenya begin to migrate from the classroom to virtual learning spaces following COVID 19 pandemic, there is pressing need to realign Teacher Education to requisite Knowledge, competences, skills, and attitudes that will support online teaching. This chapter explores these needs using a combination of lived experiences and literature review that captured a meta-analysis of research trends on e-learning. While trends in Teacher Education indicate progression towards adoption of technology, there are disparities between the theory and practice. Evidence from recent research and reports; and the recollected experiences confirmed knowledge, competence, skills and pedagogical gaps in the implementation of online learning, that have been exacerbated by COVID-19. The researcher recommends that teacher education should sensitize and train teacher trainees on how to access, analyze and use new knowledge emerging with technology; they also should be coached on how learners learn with technology and on fundamentals of the communication process. Particularly the course on educational technology, should focus on how to create and manage online courses. The 5-stage E-Moderator Model and Universal Design for Learning (UDL) are recommended as effective pedagogical scaffold for online teaching.",book:{id:"10229",slug:"teacher-education-in-the-21st-century-emerging-skills-for-a-changing-world",title:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century - Emerging Skills for a Changing World"},signatures:"Catherine Adhiambo Amimo",authors:[{id:"333482",title:"Dr.",name:"Catherine Adhiambo",middleName:null,surname:"Amimo",slug:"catherine-adhiambo-amimo",fullName:"Catherine Adhiambo Amimo"}]},{id:"75224",title:"Decoding the Digital Gap in Teacher Education: Three Perspectives across the Globe",slug:"decoding-the-digital-gap-in-teacher-education-three-perspectives-across-the-globe",totalDownloads:589,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Educational use of technology is regularly assessed, and results often show a gap between educational policies and what is actually practiced. This chapter will help clarify how teacher educators experience the changing educational contexts due to the digital revolution, how their meaning-making shifts, and how outside forces influence those processes. The results are based on comparative international studies. Central for this study is practitioners’ professional digital competence, their attitudes towards digital technology and the use of digital technology in education. We found that the influence and contribution of digital practice is carried out quite differently across the globe. Our research questions were: How do practitioners experience teaching in a rapidly changing context? 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