Estimated crystallite sizes of CZO thin films using (002) crystal plane [10].
\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-partners-with-ehs-for-digital-advertising-representation-20210416",title:"IntechOpen Partners with EHS for Digital Advertising Representation"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-new-contract-with-cepiec-china-for-distribution-of-open-access-books-20210319",title:"IntechOpen Signs New Contract with CEPIEC, China for Distribution of Open Access Books"},{slug:"150-million-downloads-and-counting-20210316",title:"150 Million Downloads and Counting"},{slug:"intechopen-secures-indefinite-content-preservation-with-clockss-20210309",title:"IntechOpen Secures Indefinite Content Preservation with CLOCKSS"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-to-all-global-amazon-channels-with-full-catalog-of-books-20210308",title:"IntechOpen Expands to All Global Amazon Channels with Full Catalog of Books"},{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5406",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Nanofluid Heat and Mass Transfer in Engineering Problems",title:"Nanofluid Heat and Mass Transfer in Engineering Problems",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'In the present book, nanofluid heat and mass transfer in engineering problems are investigated. The use of additives in the base fluid like water or ethylene glycol is one of the techniques applied to augment heat transfer. Newly, innovative nanometer-sized particles have been dispersed in the base fluid in heat transfer fluids. The fluids containing the solid nanometer-sized particle dispersion are called "nanofluids." At first, nanofluid heat and mass transfer over a stretching sheet are provided with various boundary conditions. Problems faced for simulating nanofluids are reported. Also, thermophysical properties of various nanofluids are presented. Nanofluid flow and heat transfer in the presence of magnetic field are investigated. Furthermore, applications for electrical and biomedical engineering are provided. Besides, applications of nanofluid in internal combustion engine are provided.',isbn:"978-953-51-3008-6",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3007-9",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6698-6",doi:"10.5772/62719",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"nanofluid-heat-and-mass-transfer-in-engineering-problems",numberOfPages:284,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"d47e243d462589591986c11b07212df8",bookSignature:"Mohsen Sheikholeslami Kandelousi",publishedDate:"March 15th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5406.jpg",numberOfDownloads:12936,numberOfWosCitations:16,numberOfCrossrefCitations:16,numberOfDimensionsCitations:30,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:62,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 29th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 19th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 24th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 22nd 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 18th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"185811",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohsen",middleName:null,surname:"Sheikholeslami Kandelousi",slug:"mohsen-sheikholeslami-kandelousi",fullName:"Mohsen Sheikholeslami Kandelousi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185811/images/system/185811.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Mohsen Sheikholeslami works at the Babol Noshirvani University of Technology’s Department of Mechanical Engineering in\nIran. He is Head of the Renewable energy systems and nanofluid\napplications in heat transfer Laboratory at Babol Noshirvani University of Technology. His research interests are nanofluid, CFD,\nsimulation, mesoscopic modeling, nonlinear science, magnetohydrodynamic, ferrohydrodynamic, electrohydrodynamic, and heat\nexchangers. He has written several papers and books in various fields of mechanical\nengineering. He is the first scientist to develop a new numerical method (CVFEM)\nand he published the reference book with title: “Application of Control Volume\nBased Finite Element Method (CVFEM) for Nanofluid Flow and Heat Transfer”. He\nis also the first author of the following books: “Applications of Nanofluid for Heat\nTransfer Enhancement”, “Application of semi analytical methods for nanofluid flow\nand heat transfer”, “Hydrothermal Analysis in Engineering Using Control Volume\nFinite Element Method”, and “External Magnetic Field Effects on Hydrothermal\nTreatment of Nanofluid”, which are published in ELSEVIER. According to the\nreports of Thomson Reuters (Clarivate Analytics), he has been selected as a Web of\nScience Highly Cited Researcher (Top 0.01%) in 2016, 2017, and 2018.",institutionString:"Babol Noshirvani University of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"Babol Noshirvani University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"819",title:"Mechanics",slug:"mechanics"}],chapters:[{id:"52694",title:"Numerical Analysis of Three‐Dimensional MHD Nanofluid Flow over a Stretching Sheet with Convective Boundary Conditions through a Porous Medium",doi:"10.5772/65803",slug:"numerical-analysis-of-three-dimensional-mhd-nanofluid-flow-over-a-stretching-sheet-with-convective-b",totalDownloads:1565,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,signatures:"Stanford Shateyi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52694",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52694",authors:[{id:"16056",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanford",surname:"Shateyi",slug:"stanford-shateyi",fullName:"Stanford Shateyi"}],corrections:null},{id:"52541",title:"Cattanneo-Christov Heat Flux Model Study for Water-Based CNT Suspended Nanofluid Past a Stretching Surface",doi:"10.5772/65628",slug:"cattanneo-christov-heat-flux-model-study-for-water-based-cnt-suspended-nanofluid-past-a-stretching-s",totalDownloads:935,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,signatures:"Noreen Sher Akbar, C. 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\r\n\tUbiquitous computing is often mentioned as an application domain with blurry or even undefined rules, boundaries, and examples. Fortunately, there are several concepts, developments, and pieces of research that have been put forward into this book (data integration, distributed systems, data enhancement via blockchain or machine learning, etc.) which explain what ubiquitous computing is and how it can be used to everyone´s advantage. All these contributions are based on research works and developments involving areas of knowledge such as the Internet of Things, Autonomous Systems, Cyber-Physical Systems, and Wireless Sensor Networks. Among other topics, heterogeneous hardware integration, low capability distributed systems, microservices, security deployments for autonomous devices, or data mining procedures are fully mentioned and described here. In this way, this book provides a holistic view onto the field of ubiquitous computing and all its features, both related to the software and hardware, while at the same time offering knowledge from cutting edge projects that provide the backbone of the contents that have been included.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-690-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-689-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-691-7",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"adf308a0840ede98439d031a21ba73a6",bookSignature:"Dr. Ishwar Singh and Dr. Zhen Gao",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9977.jpg",keywords:"Distributed Systems, Data Formatting, Actuators, Communication Protocols, Hardware Integration, Machine Learning, Interfaces, Unmanned Vehicles, Digital Twins, UAVs, UGVs, AUVs",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 3rd 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 1st 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 30th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 18th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 19th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"7 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr.Ishwar Singh has an extensive history of leadership, program, and course development, at Mohawk College, in the McMaster-Mohawk Bachelor of Technology (B.Tech.) Partnership and in SEPT. At Mohawk College, he designed and developed the first-ever degree program in Process Automation, in addition, to jointly securing funding with two other colleagues to establish a Process Automation Applied Research Centre.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Gao has published over 100 journal and conference papers, 1 book,\r\nand 4 book chapters in areas of advanced robotics, automation, and artificial Intelligence. \r\nHe serves as the Editor-in-Chief of the International Journal of Intelligent Machines and\r\nRobotics; he is also the Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Robotic and Mechatronic Systems.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"333793",title:"Dr.",name:"Ishwar",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"ishwar-singh",fullName:"Ishwar Singh",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031TBdSQAW/Profile_Picture_1616070554137",biography:null,institutionString:"McMaster University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"McMaster University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"353808",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhen",middleName:null,surname:"Gao",slug:"zhen-gao",fullName:"Zhen Gao",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y0000364SnZQAU/Profile_Picture_1615808028038",biography:"Zhen Gao is an assistant professor in the School of Engineering Practice and Technology\r\n(SEPT) at McMaster University which he joined in July 2014. Since September 2020, he was\r\nappointed as Program Lead for a Master’s program in Systems & Technology which was focused\r\non Cyber Physical System. He has published over 100 journal and conference papers, 1 book,\r\nand 4 book chapters in areas of advanced robotics, automation and artificial Intelligence. Dr. Gao\r\nis the Associate Editor for the Conference Editorial Board of the IEEE Robotics and Automation\r\nSociety, 2021 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation. He was the sessional\r\nchair For 9th International Conference on Interactive, Collaborative, and Blended Learning, and\r\nfor International Conference on Interactive Mobile Communication, Technologies and Learning.\r\nDr. Gao served as the Program Committee Member for World Congress on Intelligent Control\r\nand Automation, International Conference on Information and Automation, IEEE Conference on\r\nRobotics and Biomimetics, IEEE International Conference on Real-time Computing and\r\nRobotics, IEEE International Conference on Automation and Logistics, and International\r\nConference on Intelligent Robotics and Applications, and IEEE Canadian Conference on\r\nElectrical and Computer Engineering. His current research interests include industrial\r\ncontrollers, advanced robotics and automation, artificial intelligence, neural network and pattern\r\nrecognition. He serves as the Editor-in-Chief of International Journal of Intelligent Machines and\r\nRobotics; he is also the Editor-in-Chief of Journal of Robotic and Mechatronic Systems.",institutionString:"McMaster University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"McMaster University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"9",title:"Computer and Information Science",slug:"computer-and-information-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"280415",firstName:"Josip",lastName:"Knapic",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280415/images/8050_n.jpg",email:"josip@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copy-editing and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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It is a white powder which is nearly insoluble in water. It crystallizes in two main forms, the hexagonal wurtzite and cubic zinc blende. The wurtzite structure with lattice parameters
Hexagonal Wurtzite crystal structure of ZnO [
ZnO is simple to synthesize; both chemical and physical techniques are used to produce excellent epitaxial films. The most commonly used techniques to grow epitaxial films of ZnO include electrodeposition, spray pyrolysis, sol–gel process, successive ionic layer adsorption and reaction (SILAR), RF sputtering, chemical bath deposition (CBD), spin coating, electron beam epitaxy, laser evaporation and ion beam sputtering, amongst others [7, 8]. Figure 2 illustrates the various synthetic techniques (chemical as well as physical) that are generally used to grow compound and alloys of ZnO. The choice of a particular technique would be guided by some factors such as the application intended for the synthesis, effectiveness of the technique and cost implication [10, 11]. ZnO has been identified as one of the semiconductors with the largest number of novel nanostructures such as nanocombs, nanorings, nanohelixes/nanosprings, nanobelts, nanowires, nanorods, nanotubes, nanocages, etc., with a wide range of technological applications [12, 13, 14, 15]. Novel applications of ZnO nanostructures include optical modulator waveguide, photonic crystals, surface acoustic wave filters, varistors, photodetectors, gas sensors, light-emitting diode, photodiodes and solar cells, amongst others [12].
\nBroad classification of thin film deposition techniques [
Photovoltaic (PV) application of ZnO nanostructures requires large internal surface area with porous and high surface roughness to support good penetration of electrolyte [13, 14]. Chemical techniques are very simple, much reliable and cost-effective for the synthesis of high-quality electrodes for PV application. Most especially, chemical bath deposition technique is very suitable for growing large area films of ZnO with fascinating properties for photoelectrochemical solar cells [15, 16]. This technique is suitable for growing ZnO nanostructures on many substrates including microscope glass and stainless steel [6].
\nIn several applications such as optoelectronics, ZnO can be used as a complement or alternative to some semiconductors such as GaN, and many researches are ongoing globally to further improve the properties of the semiconductor [10]. Trying to control the unintentional n-type conductivity and to achieve p-type conductivity are such famous research themes. Other approaches such as first-principles calculations based on density functional theory (DFT) are theoretical and, however, are useful to provide in-depth understanding of the role of native point defects and impurities on the unintentional n-type conductivity in ZnO [14, 17]. Acceptor doping in ZnO which will lead to stable p-type is not yet well known [18].
\nIt has been noted that wide application of ZnO in electronic devices has been limited by the lack of inadequate control over its electrical conductivity [10, 19]. Controlling the conductivity in ZnO can be achieved by means of band-gap engineering [10]. Introducing small concentrations of native point defects and impurities (dopants) (down to 10–14 cm−3 or 0.01 ppm) can significantly affect the electrical, structural, optical and morphological properties of the semiconductors [14, 18]. Therefore, understanding the role of native point defects (i.e. vacancies, interstitials and antisites) and the incorporation of impurities (doping) is the key towards controlling the conductivity in ZnO, which in effect alters the band gap, thus enhancing its performance [1].
\nBand-gap engineering of ZnO can also be achieved by alloying with MgO or CdO. The band gap of ZnO is increased with the addition of Mg, whereas the addition of Cd decreases the band gap, which is similar to the effects of Al and In in GaN [1, 18]. It is well known that MgO and CdO crystallize in the rock salt structure; however, alloys of Mg1 −
Doping implies the deliberate inclusion of impurities into the crystal structure of a semiconductor in order to improve its conductivity and modify some of its characteristics [19]. For elemental semiconductors such as silicon and germanium, the commonly used dopants include boron, aluminum and indium (trivalent elements) and phosphorus, arsenic and antimony (pentavalent element) [20]. In the process of doping, the dopant is integrated into the lattice structure of the semiconductor crystal. The number of valence electrons of the dopant defines the type of doping that would be achieved [20]. Doping a semiconductor with a trivalent element results into p-type doping, whereas using a pentavalent element produces an n-type doping as illustrated in Figure 3. For an n-doping, electrons are the majority charge carriers, while holes are the majority carriers in p-doping. The conductivity of a silicon crystal which is properly doped can be increased by a factor of 106 [1].
\n(a) N-doping with phosphorus and (b) p-doping with boron [
Compound semiconductors such as ZnO can also be doped with the same or similar dopants like copper and indium. There are reports in the literature on the modification of structural, morphological and optical properties of ZnO by doping with Al, Cu or In. Cu and In dopants have been confirmed to lower the band gap of ZnO appreciably [10, 18].
\nDoped semiconductors are electrically neutral. The terms n- and p-type doped do only refer to the majority charge carriers. Each positive or negative charge carrier belongs to a fixed negative or positive charged dopant as illustrated in Figure 4.
\nDoped semiconductor showing energy levels of (a) n-type doping (b) p-type doping [
Wide band-gap semiconductors such as ZnO and TiO2 (3.3 eV) are suitable for many semiconductor applications such as PEC solar cells due to their thermal, photo- and electrochemical stability and resistance against atmospheric corrosion [21]. However, the wide band gap in such semiconductors is a drawback on their light absorption capability because only photons below a threshold wavelength λg can be absorbed, since the solar spectrum has its maximum intensity at about 2.7 eV [19]. Previous investigations have confirmed that band gap in ZnO semiconductor can be controlled by doping with appropriate dopants [10]. This can also modify optical and structural properties of the semiconductor to meet pre-desired applications [19].
\nTransitional metals are good dopants; however, Cu and Al are prevalently studied as dopants for ZnO [18]. Cu is a highly conducting metal with conductivity higher than that of Al and can enhance green luminescence band through creation of localized states in the band gap of ZnO. It is also known that due to the high ionization energy and low formation energy of Cu, it can rapidly substitute Zn in ZnO lattice [22].
\nTyona et al. [10] investigated the effect of Cu doping on optoelectronic properties of chemically synthesized ZnO electrodes. These properties of Cu-doped ZnO nanostructures were influenced by various parameters such as growth conditions, Cu concentration and post-growth annealing. Cu concentration in ZnO was varied in the range of 1–5%. This quantity may be small; however, it produces significant physical changes in ZnO, and it is considered to be within a strict doping range of up to 10%. Beyond this range, such a reaction may be turning towards composite growth or alloys [10].
\nTheir experimental procedures showed that Zn(NO3)2.6H2O (SD Fine Chemicals) was used as the source of Zn2+ and CuCl2.2H2O (Chemco Fine, India) as the source of Cu2+, and NH3 solution (28%) (Thomas Baker) was the complexing agent. An aqueous solution of 0.1 M Zn(NO3)2.6H2O was prepared, and cupric chloride dihydrate (CuCl2.2H2O) was added. Aqueous NH3 solution (28%) was used as the complexing agent. The solution was maintained at a pH ≈ 11.5. Microscopic glass slides and stainless steel slides were used as substrates and immersed vertically in the solution using Bakelite holder at a bath temperature of 353 K. The substrates were coated with CZO thin films, well adherent to the substrates after 5 h, washed, dried in air and preserved in a vacuum desiccator. Further, as-deposited films were air annealed at 673 K for 2 h and characterized using the following techniques: X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns were obtained with Cu Kα (λ = 1.5406 Å) radiation from a Philips X-ray diffractometer, Philips PW1830, in the range 20–80°. The morphology of the CZO thin films was measured with the scanning electron microscope (SEM) using JEOL JSM-6360. Optical properties were studied using Shimadzu UV-1800 spectrophotometer in the range 300–800 nm. Contact angle meter (ramé-hart USA equipment) with CCD camera was used to measure the surface wettability of the films. PEC activities of CZO films were studied by forming cells with n-CZO (stainless steel substrate)/0.1 M Na2SO4/platinum/SCE, which were illuminated with an 80 mW/cm2 xenon arc lamp [10]. They analyzed their results under the following headings:
\nIn their results, they examined CZO film formation process by chemical bath deposition method under four steps of particle growth [10] as in Figure 5: (a) nucleation, (b) aggregation, (c) coalescence and, subsequently, (d) growth by stacking of the particles (Figure 5e). It is noted that during growth process, the diameter and density of ZnO nanorod are highly affected by the density of the nucleation sites and the pH value of the aqueous solution. Therefore, introducing Cu impurities into the reaction path would increase the nucleation density and hence enhance the growth rate, which, in turn, results in a coarsening and lateral aggregation of the nanorods [10]. This is apparently due to the fact that Cu2+increases the number of free metal ions in the solution which forms nucleation sites and the highly alkaline medium helps to speed up the release of chalcogenide ions in the solution which cause the increase in film growth rate. During nucleation, the heterogeneous reaction at the substrate surface takes place when molecule clusters begin to undergo rapid decomposition and particles combine to grow up to a certain thickness of the film [10]. For deposition of ZnO, Zn(NO3)2.6H2O was used as a source of Zn2+ ions. When ammonia was added to it, white precipitate of Zn(OH)2 occurred, and further Zn(OH)2 redissolved into the solution by addition of excess ammonia which results into formation of zinc tetra amino complex ([Zn(NH3)4]2+). The decomposition of [Zn(NH3)4]2+ releases Zn2+ ions, which reacts with OH− ions in the solution and results in the formation of Zn(OH)2 or ZnO particles. The possible reaction mechanism for the formation of ZnO thin films is as follows [10]:
\nThe schematic growth model for the formation of CZO thin films: (a) nucleation, (b) aggregation, (c) coalescence, (d) subsequent growth by stacking of the particles and (e) surface view of grown stacked nanostructures [
When the solution is heated to 353 K, the ionic product exceeds the solubility product, and precipitation occurred on the glass substrate and in the solution to form ZnO nuclei; thus, ZnO film is formed on the substrate by the following reaction [10]:
\nThe growth process of Cu-doped ZnO proceeded in a similar manner as that of undoped ZnO since doping is a physical process and does not significantly affect the chemical structure of the parent precursor, ZnO.
\nTheir CZO electrodes were characterized by X-ray diffraction which revealed that all the film samples were polycrystalline with hexagonal wurtzite structure with lattice constants a = 3.24982 Å and c = 5.20661 Å corresponding to those of the ZnO patterns from the JCPDS data card no: 00–036-1451. A strong preferential growth was seen along the Z-direction for the undoped ZnO and CZO films with 3% Cu concentration, which diminishes significantly for 1 and 5% Cu concentrations as illustrated in Figure 6. The decrease in intensity of the ZnO peaks upon incorporation of Cu impurities (i.e. Cu/Zn of 1%) was assigned to induce crystallographic defects on ZnO lattices by Cu dopant which reduced the crystalline quality of the film. They observed on the other hand that raising Cu content to 3% enhances the carrier concentration and mobility in the conduction band of the semiconductor [10], thereby lowering the amount of crystallographic defects in the film and increasing the crystalline quality of the film along the ZnO (002) plane [13]. Further increase in Cu content to 5% lowered the crystalline quality of the film sample significantly as indicated in Figure 6, which is an indication of more compressive strain in the films at higher doping level [1, 2].
\nXRD patterns of CZO with varying Cu concentrations: (a) 0%, (b) 1%, (c) 3% and (d) 5% [
Barna and Adamik structure zone model for polycrystalline metallic films [23, 24] explained the above-described phenomenon; thus as the Cu content in ZnO is raised, segregation occurred at the grain boundaries in the film, which give rise to shrinkage of crystallite sizes [23]. Therefore, 3% Cu concentration could be the optimum concentration of Cu in ZnO to provide the best crystalline quality film in CZO thin films. This observation slightly defers from an earlier report of Babikier et al. and Mkawi et al. [22, 25] even though they used different concentrations of Cu.
\nAnother interesting observation here is a shift in angular peak positions of 0.54° in (2θ) along the (002) plane in ZnO when Cu impurities were introduced. This may be assigned to difference in the ionic radii of Zn2+ and Cu2+ (which is higher for Zn2+ as compared to Cu2+) as Cu2+ substitutes Zn2+ on Zn sites in ZnO, the crystal lattice, thus causing shortening of the c-axis [23]. According to Shannon [24], the fourfold coordinated Zn2+ and Cu2+ cations have ionic radii of 0.074 and 0.057 nm, respectively, and stable electronic configurations of Zn2+ (3d10) and Cu2+ (3d9). The fourfold coordinated Cu1+ has ionic radius of 0.06 nm Cu1(3d10) [24].
\nThe mean crystallite sizes,
where λ, β and θ are the X-ray wavelength (λ = 1.54 Ǻ), full width at half maximum and diffraction peak angle, respectively. Their estimated crystallite sizes indicated a slight increase from 28 to 30 nm as depicted in Table 1.
\n% Doping of Cu | \nMean crystallite size (nm) | \n
---|---|
0 | \n28 | \n
1 | \n7 | \n
3 | \n30 | \n
5 | \n8 | \n
Estimated crystallite sizes of CZO thin films using (002) crystal plane [10].
In chemically synthesized ZnO thin film, as-deposited films may likely contain hydroxide and other impurities [25], so thermal annealing is necessary. Thermal annealing causes remarkable changes in the surface morphology of chemically synthesized thin films. Tyona et al. [10] reported the surface morphology of their CZO thin films which was studied using scanning electron microscope, JEOL JSM-6360. Figure 7a–d depicts the SEM micrographs, with undoped ZnO (as reference) and CZO thin films (as-deposited and annealed) with different Cu concentrations (0, 1, 3 and 5%). The SEM micrographs showed that the surface morphology of the films was affected by the concentration of the dopant. The crystallite size of the films decreases upon introduction of the Cu impurity as suggested by XRD study except for 3%. This behaviour could also be assigned to the difference in the ionic radii of Zn and the doping element, Cu. Further, with increasing Cu concentration (up to an optimum concentration of 3%), the microstructures of the film became denser as in Figure 7c. Figure 7a(i) and (ii) illustrates SEM micrographs of the undoped ZnO thin films (as-deposited and annealed) identified with randomly oriented nanorods of average diameter approximately 125 nm.
\nSEM micrographs of CZO thin films showing as-deposited and annealed samples for various Cu contents. (a) 0%, as-deposited and annealed. (b) 1%, as-deposited and annealed. (c) 3%, as-deposited and annealed. (d) 5%, as-deposited and annealed [
The micrograph of the as-deposited CZO (i.e. 1%) film as depicted in Figure 7b(i) showed surface morphology with well-defined nanorods grown randomly on the substrate as thin solid films of Cu-Zn(OH)2 with sparsely distributed needle-like images attached to some rods. Each rod is crystalline and indexed to hexagonal crystal structure, as seen in Figure 7b(i). The average diameter of the rods was of the order of ≈40 nm. After annealing at 673 K, the nanorods.
\nWere refined to CZO with nanorod morphology of average rod diameter of ≈30 nm and randomly oriented, leading to large surface area as depicted in Figure 7b(ii). Such novel morphology may find applications in photoelectrochemical solar cells, gas sensors and super capacitors [22].
\nFigure 7c(i) and (ii) represents the SEM micrographs of as-deposited and annealed CZO with Cu:Zn of 3%. The as-deposited film sample is identified with dense and vertically aligned nanorod morphology of varying rod sizes with average rod diameter of 120 nm and high porosity as well as high surface roughness. After post-annealing treatment at 673 K, the former nanorod morphology became fibrous, vertically aligned with well-defined and nearly uniform rod sizes (mean rod diameter of ≈112 nm) as depicted in Figure 7c(ii). This morphology is suitable for dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSCs) application.
\nThe SEM micrographs of CZO with Cu concentration of 5% are shown in Figure 7d(i) and (ii). As-deposited film samples, d(i), show densely oriented nanorods. After post-annealing treatment at 673 K, dense, uniformly oriented nanorods with fine structures were obtained as in d(ii). These observations agree with that observed by Chow et al. [2] using chemical synthesis of CZO thin films and are suitable for PEC solar cell application.
\nThe UV–Vis absorbance spectra measured in the work of Tyona et al. [10] is illustrated in Figure 8. The measurements were carried out in the wavelength range of 300–800 nm at room temperature, with undoped ZnO as reference. The spectra generally revealed low absorbance for all the film samples in the visible region especially the undoped ZnO and CZO samples with Cu concentrations of 1 and 5%, with harp absorption edge at about 395 nm. An enhancement in absorption was noticed in CZO with Cu:Zn of 3%; the band edge was shifted towards lower energy at 450 nm (Figure 8). This is an enhancement in optical absorbance induced by Cu doping.
\nAbsorption spectra of CZO thin film for different Cu concentrations: (a) 0%, (b) 1%, (c) 3% and (d) 5% [
The optical band gap energy (
where
Tauc plot from absorbance spectra of CZO thin film for different Cu concentrations: (a) 0%, (b) 1%, (c) 3% and (d) 5%. Inset shows the band gap trend of undoped and Cu-doped ZnO thin films [
The estimated
Optical transmittance showed variation over a wavelength range of 350–800 nm. Regardless of the Cu concentration, all films are highly transparent in the visible (400–800 nm) region. The transmittance of Cu-doped films showed moderately high values in the range of 60–90% in the visible region as shown in Figure 10. Upon incorporation of Cu impurities, the optical transmittance was found to decrease from 85% (undoped) to 78% (CZO, 1%); further increase in Cu concentration enhanced the transmittance value to 90%. At higher doping concentration (above 3%), the transmittance was observed to decrease with increased Cu concentration which may be adduced to decrease in crystalline quality of the Cu-doped film.
\nTransmittance spectra of CZO thin films with different Cu concentrations: (a) 0%, (b) 1%, (c) 3% and (d) 5% [
Surface wettability involves the interaction between liquids and solids in contact. The wetting behaviour of thin film is characterized by the value of contact angle, a microscopic parameter. The contact angle is an important parameter in surface science, and its measurement provides a simple and reliable technique for the interpretation of surface energies [10, 27]. The knowledge of contact angle of thin films is important for practical applications such as in DSSCs, super capacitors and gas sensing [10, 28].
\nTyona et al. [10] reported water contact angles of CZO thin films as illustrated in Figure 11a–d. The contact angles are observed to decrease from 71.3 to 15.2° upon doping. These results showed strong dependence of the contact angles on annealing temperature as well as Cu concentration. The water contact angles decreased (as compared with undoped sample Figure 11b) upon incorporation of Cu impurities up to optimal percentage impurity of 3% (Figure 11c) and further increase as the impurity concentration was increased beyond this level (Figure 11d). This implies that the porosity of the films increases upon thermal annealing at 673 K and with respect to increased concentration of Cu; thus, the water goes in to the pores and craves making contact angle hydrophilic [10, 28]. This means that the films would have large surface areas which for application such as DSSCs would mean better dye adsorption resulting to enhanced photo absorption. Also, lower values of contact angles are beneficial for electrolyte percolation through the porous film, which is very important for PEC solar cells. This result is in agreement with the earlier observations from XRD and SEM.
\nWater contact angles of CZO thin films showing as-deposited and annealed samples for various Cu concentrations: (a) 0%, (b) 1%, (c) 3% and (d) 5% [
Photoelectrochemical response of a solar cell is based on the junction between semiconductor and an electrolyte. The electrolyte plays an important role in PEC cell as a medium for charge transfer between the photoelectrode and counter electrode [10, 22].
\nThe photoresponses of the CZO thin films were studied by forming typical configuration cells, n-CZO (stainless steel substrate)/0.1 M Na2SO4/platinum/SCE. These PEC cells are easy to form, and many processing steps of p–n junction have been simplified or eliminated. Since the junction with liquid is formed spontaneously upon contact, irregular-shaped single crystal or thin films can be used [10, 17]. The solution-based measurements allowed us to quickly test the quality of CZO film electrode as a solar cell material [10, 17].
\nTyona et al. [10] reported the PEC performance of their CZO using current–voltage (I-V) characteristics of the annealed CZO thin films in the dark and under illumination with 80 mW/cm2 as illustrated in Figure 12a–c. The anodic photocurrent varied remarkably with the concentration of Cu in ZnO as reported with previous characterizations of the CZO. Figure 12b and c also represents the chopped light tests carried out in order to study the photosensitivity of CZO thin films. The photosensitivity confirmed that CZO absorber is an n-type material and is useful for the solar cell [10, 17]. The measured values of the PEC parameters with respect to Cu doping are shown in Table 2.
\nCurrent-potential (I-V) curves of CZO thin films showing current and potential in the dark and under illumination for (a) 1%, (b) 3% and (c) 5% Cu concentrations [
ZnO electrodes | \nPhotocurrent ( | \nPhotovoltage (Voc) [mV] | \nEfficiency | \nFill factor (FF) | \n||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Undoped | \n12.34 | \n388.0 | \n9.00 | \n230.0 | \n0.0030 | \n0.43 | \n
CZO (1%) | \n40.00 | \n774.0 | \n28.00 | \n631.0 | \n0.0220 | \n0.57 | \n
CZO (3%) | \n98.00 | \n796.0 | \n74.00 | \n667.0 | \n0.0620 | \n0.63 | \n
CZO (5%) | \n16.00 | \n768.0 | \n13.00 | \n52.0 | \n0.0009 | \n0.06 | \n
Values of I-V measurement from PEC cells of CZO thin films [10].
The photoelectrochemical measurement confirmed good photoactivities of the annealed CZO films prepared from simple CBD method. It is however observed that the photocurrent (short circuit current,
This chapter examines ZnO and its numerous nanostructures and also considered doping as a measure for engineering the properties of ZnO for pre-determined applications. The chapter has also extensively reviewed the effect of Cu doping on structural, morphological and optical properties and surface wettability of chemical bath deposited ZnO thin films at various concentrations of Cu in the range 1–5% for PEC solar cell application. The review indicated that there were slight changes in the lattice parameters of the CZO electrodes which occurred due to the successful substitution of Zn2+ by Cu2+ and also enhancement in crystalline quality of the films at 3% Cu concentration due to the reduction in crystallographic defects in the film. A review of SEM studies showed densely grown nanorods over the varied range of Cu concentration, with the CZO nanorods of 3% having the most dense microstructures with average diameter approximately 125 nm. The density and diameter of the nanostructures demonstrated dependence on the amount of Cu dopant. A review of optical properties demonstrated that the incorporation of Cu dopant into ZnO introduced a shift in absorption edge of approximately 60 nm into the visible band for the CZO nanorods with 3% Cu content which is a significant enhancement in the optical properties of the films. Also, optical energy band gaps decrease from 3.03 to 2.70 eV upon Cu doping. Surface wettability was adjudged hydrophilic for all the films, which implied high porosity, and the size of water contact angles show dependence on Cu content. Photoelectrochemical cell performance indicated an n-type photoactivity in sodium sulphate (Na2SO4) electrolyte which motivate to check its feasibility in solar cell applications.
\nI am grateful to Benue State University, Makurdi, for providing an enabling environment for this work.
\nI declare that there is no conflict of interest.
\nThe start-up process of a new entrepreneurial venture and until such time the entrepreneur decides to exit the business is a contentious issue. On the one hand, the entrepreneur is found working on a business plan intending to start an entrepreneurial venture. On the other hand, the entrepreneur is also found crafting a long-term business harvesting strategy. As contradicting as this may sound, this gives the entrepreneur a clear entrepreneurship roadmap which in many circumstances will be adjusted as the business owner responds to macro- and micro-environmental changes. Having a harvesting strategy upfront is critical for guiding the entity owner towards achieving the business mission. A business harvesting strategy could be characterised as the path to the finishing point at which the entrepreneur is expected to celebrate the sacrifices made, that is, effort, time and money. It is at that finishing point where the entrepreneur recovers the value-added into the business by selling either the firm in its entirety or partly in the form of assets. When this is done, the entrepreneur can start a new entrepreneurial venture or retire completely from the entrepreneurship career.
The significant contribution of entrepreneurship in our societies cannot be underestimated, especially on employment creation [1]. This is a key to addressing income inequalities leading to poverty reduction and economic growth [2]. As a result of this critical role, the campaign is mainly on establishing more entrepreneurial entities, and there is very little concern about harvesting an entrepreneurial entity [3]. There is very little empirical evidence on this subject from an African perspective [4]. However, it is important to note that entity harvesting is equally important as setting up a new entrepreneurial venture [5]. Resultantly, this chapter contributes to this gap in the literature by exploring this subject matter relying on primary data from SMEs in Sub-Saharan countries (Botswana, Eswatini, South Africa and Zimbabwe). The goal of this chapter is to explore the preferred entity harvesting options of SME owners in Sub-Saharan Africa and to determine why they prefer such options.
The next section will define business harvesting, followed by reasons for harvesting and a discussion on harvesting strategies available to entrepreneurs. The methodology used to gather primary data is explained, and a discussion of the findings is made. The chapter further outlines the implications of investigating small- and medium-sized entities (SME) harvesting practices, areas for further research.
After entity start-up, the entrepreneur invests time, effort and money with the intent of growing the business. The entrepreneur invests time, effort and money to make money from the firm in the future. Through such entrepreneurial efforts, the entity accumulates value and ends up attracting competition. In such instances, the business could be vulnerable to hostile takeovers, and harvesting the business provides the entrepreneur with maximum returns on the investment made. By definition, business harvesting is a systematic practice by which the entrepreneur recovers value gained by the entity through the selling of individual assets or the entire firm as a whole. Various reasons compel the entrepreneur to harvest the entity and the section to follow outlines some of them.
Factors beyond the control of the owner or entity management could influence the mentioned entity players to consider harvesting [6]. Macro-environmental factors such as the global pandemic similar to Covid-19 have seen most entrepreneurs harvesting their entities as most entities could not operate under the global lockdown, which has extended for at least 3 months in some countries. Owing to the global lockdown, supply chain networks have been severely affected. Firms that rely on imported raw materials have suffered the most as movement of non-essential goods are currently suspended globally. Some factors leading to business harvest include the untimely death of the entrepreneur, serious ill health, or poor mental health. Unrest in the labour market or loss of key expertise may force the entrepreneur to harvest the business. Generally, harvesting reasons are unique to each entrepreneurial entity [5].
Micro-environmental factors speak to reasons for harvesting the entity which the entrepreneur has significant control over. The first example relates to the goal of the entrepreneur [7]. Some entrepreneurs start an entity and work hard to grow the firm so that it becomes very attractive to competition and later sell the entity for a substantial profit. The second example for wanting to harvest the entity could be that the entrepreneur falls in the category of serial entrepreneurs [8]. These are individuals who start entrepreneurial entities but after running the entity for a given period, they develop other lucrative business ideas and sell the existing firm to raise the needed capital for the new entrepreneurial venture.
Succession is another micro-environmental reason for harvesting the existing entity and it is common in family business [7]. Under succession, the family business owner steps down and pass entity ownership to the next family member. When the family business is carefully run, through succession, the firm will pass from generation to generation and this may continue over many decades. Further, the entrepreneur may start a new entity hoping that this would afford him free space and more time to himself but only to find out later that business demands are far much greater than envisaged. Traditionally, the entrepreneur still has to balance both home and business demands. Unfortunately, the inability to find a middle point between these competing issues may drive the entrepreneur to the point of harvesting the business. However, not all entrepreneurs fail to balance home and business demands. Some entrepreneurs are good at what they do such that the entrepreneurial entity they have built can outlive their physical and mental strength. When this happens, entrepreneurs often choose retirement as they no longer have the physical and mental strength to keep up with both business and home demands. Resultantly, they recover the value added in the business in the form of cash which in this case could be equated to a retirement package.
Choosing between available business harvesting options may not be that easy for the entrepreneur. Each harvesting option has its advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, the entrepreneur must diligently make the difficult decision to pick the one that would yield maximum returns in line with sacrifices made in building the entity. The next section looks at harvesting strategies that an entrepreneur can exercise.
Several harvesting options exist and these range from buyouts, mergers, outright sale, employee share ownership scheme and an initial public offering. The paragraphs to follow elaborate on the mentioned harvesting strategies.
Buyouts or an outright sale of entity results in the establishment of a new independent entity owned and controlled by managers and sometimes by a private equity entity. Buyouts are generally in five types:
Leveraged buyout (LBO). LBO happens when a large portion of a publicly quoted entity is sold to a private equity firm. During the sale process, the private equity firm gains a larger number of shares.
Management buyout (MBO). In an MBO scenario, the current management of the entity raises funds to buy out the entity owner. In instances where the firm decides to divest in a subsidiary, the current management takes control of a significant amount of equity. As much as the management remains in control of the larger share of the voting equity, to ensure continued smooth flow of operations, that is, firm relations with customers, creditors and suppliers, the previous owner may retain ownership of an equity stake in the firm. This practice is common in family-owned businesses where a small number of managers take control of a portion of equity.
MBO can be extended to other managers or employees and at that point, it then becomes a management employee buyout (MEBO). In many instances, employees are factored in the equation because of the key expertise they possess. This is common where branches of the entity are geographically dispersed, and it becomes an issue of common sense to involve the branch manager in the MEBO to facilitate easy management control. From a business perspective, the success of the branch becomes of interest to the manager owing to stake ownership. MBO or MEBO is advantageous to the owner as it offers a quick exit. The big disadvantage is that the management may not possess similar entrepreneurial traits to those of the departing owner, leading to the downfall of the newly established business.
A management buy-in (MBI). External managers are granted the opportunity to buy equity in the firm. Often the challenge here is that the newcomers have no extensive knowledge of the existing business particularly regarding how it operates. In rare cases, newcomers may be from the same sector as the existing business and therefore come with valuable insights concerning technology, knowledge on the competition, and how to grow the business leading to its success.
A more advantageous scenario is a hybrid buy-in/management buyout (BIMBO), and this is where a portion if inside managers and a portion of outsiders both acquire a stake in the firm. This is advantageous in the sense that existing managers have profound knowledge on the operations of the firm, meaning there will be little disruptions. More importantly, the incoming managers bring valuable operational insights towards growing the existing business which may have been missing all along.
Investor-led buyout (ILBO). The entire entity or part thereof is purchased by a privately owned equity firm. Depending on the circumstances or the state of the acquired firm, new management can be brought to run the affairs of the newly acquired entity. This is normally done to safeguard the investments made, especially when the acquired firm is in a precarious position. Conversely, when the newly acquired firm’s affairs are in order, existing management is likely to be retained, or a mix of new management and existing management may be the one responsible for the acquired firm. Unfortunately, in an ILBO, existing managers occupying specific office positions in the firm are normally not given the option to purchase stocks.
Leveraged build-up (LBU). When the goal of a private equity firm is to generate profits from a buyout or buy-in investment, they practice leveraged build-up. This is where the newly acquired entity, as a result of buyout or buy-in, is used as an investment platform, where a series of acquisitions are continuously added to it, forming a large corporate group. This move brings with it the ability to lure skilled and experienced managers, who can exponentially grow the entity through further acquisitions.
Merging a business is a process where the smaller entity is absorbed, often by a larger entity mostly to provide an extra muscle on the weaknesses of the small entity and to maximise on its strengths. The outcome of a merger is a large and very competitive entity. The entrepreneur who intends to harvest the entity through merging with another firm focuses more on the price, structure and terms of the proposed deal. Where mergers occur, special attention is also given to issues about organisational culture, the coming together of different personnel into a single entity, and the coming together of different products under one firm. Other issues that need to be addressed are the fears of employees regarding downsizing or retrenchment that may be necessary to ensure the viability and success of the new entity. More important, operational and marketing issues need further attention considering that products and services may have become so diverse as a result of the merger. Management has to decide as to which products and services they will discontinue or continue offering based on each product/service’s cash inflow strength. Research and development initiatives and manufacturing methods are some of the issues that will require special attention. More importantly, the entity has to decide with regards to supply chain partners they would want to continue to be in business with. When supply chain partners have been decided, that also influences the distribution channels they will adopt to ensure a hustle-free logistics management process.
The entrepreneur who opts for an outright sale of his firm as the harvesting option sells the entire business to any person who is willing to pay for the asking price. The buyer could be a supplier interested in forward integration, or the customer who is interested in backward integration. Sometimes the buyer is completely a neutral player from another sector whose intentions are to spread and diversify the risk. Often, entrepreneurs shy away from selling the business to the competitor as this entails disclosing or providing access to trade secrets, which could backfire if the deal fails to materialise.
Various governments, particularly in developing countries, have been advocating for employee share ownership schemes as a means of maximising productivity and also as a means of fighting the inequality gaps as far as wealth distribution is concerned. In Africa, it is no secret that the majority of the wealth is controlled by a minority who are predominantly white. From the Africans’ point of view, this is gross injustice as they feel they are not benefiting from what is rightfully theirs (riches of Africa). To address this challenge, most African countries have crafted and legalised the employee share ownership scheme [9]. By definition, the employee share ownership scheme is a legalised route by which the employer can transfer some or all of the shares to employees who in turn assume ownership of the shares received [10]. By the end of the deal, employees develop a vested interest in the entity’s well-being and become motivated to participate strongly in the growth of the entity to realise as much wealth as they can. Through the ESOS, the entrepreneur harvesting the entity receives cash at different intervals on his way out. The advantage is that the management continues to run the entity at the same time benefiting from the scheme. The disadvantage is that this could also result in the loss of the entrepreneurial drive in the entity. Often, the ESOS is best suited for large corporations given the complications surrounding the structuring and mapping of the finances involved.
The entrepreneur who chooses initial public offering as a harvesting option enlist the entity on a public stock exchange and have its shares publicly traded [11]. As attractive as this is, the downside is that the entrepreneur now must account to several shareholders on issues related to entity growth and many other key issues shareholders may be interested in [12]. In other words, this could add more administrative issues to the entrepreneur that he/she may have not anticipated before choosing this harvesting option.
This research is exploratory and predominantly quantitative. However, open-ended questions were incorporated to solicit further insights concerning the subject in question. A self-administered questionnaire was designed from extant literature on the subject of entity harvesting. Qualitative data gathered from open-ended questions provided rich insights as to the SME owner’s preferred method of harvesting and motivations to harvest the business. A sample of 612 SMEs was approached in Botswana, Eswatini, South Africa and Zimbabwe (Sub-Saharan Africa). Opportunistic convenience sampling was carried out. In the absence of a trusted sampling frame, field workers approached SME owners who were willing to participate in this research. Field workers explained the goal of the research and participants’ rights with regards to research that is the right to terminate participation without questions asked, right not to answer questions that infringe on their privacy, anonymity and truthful presentation of their views. Having explained at length issues related to the rights of the participants, their consent was sought and obtained. Descriptive statistics were performed to make the meaning of quantitative data. Similarly, qualitative data obtained were grouped into themes and each theme was observed and monitored in terms of recurrence. Thus, the frequency distribution of each theme was established to determine how popular that theme was among SME owners.
The results presented in this section provide a detailed background of the business owner and the SME. These cover issues related to the age of the business, location of the business, industry or sector in which the business is operating, the ownership structure of the business, the business development stage and sales revenue growth. Further, this section presents findings concerning harvesting practices preferred by small businesses in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Data on the year of business establishment for the SMEs were gathered. The findings revealed that 40% of SMEs were between 5 and 10 years old whilst the other 40% were between 10 and 20 years old and 20% of the SMEs were established more than 20 years ago. Therefore, all the SMEs were in business for a considerable amount of time. This implies that the SME owners in question are fairly experienced business players. The findings with regards to the location of the SMEs reveal that that 20% of the SMEs were based in Gaberone, Botswana, 25% of the SMEs were based in Harare, Zimbabwe, 40% were based in Johannesburg, South Africa, and 15% of the SMEs were located in Mbabane, Eswatini. Data with regards to sector distribution of the SMEs revealed that 40% were in manufacturing, while mining, tourism, transport and logistics and retail sector were each represented by 15%, respectively. Data further revealed that 60% of the SMEs were registered as private companies, while partnerships and sole traders were both represented by 20%, respectively. The chapter further reveals that all SME owners who participated in this research are multiple business owners with 60% having total control and ownership of three operational SMEs, while 20% owned four operational SMEs and a further 20% being owners of two operational SMEs.
SME owners were further asked to identify the stage at which they thought their businesses occupied in the business life cycle (the SME at which they were found during fieldwork, that is, ignoring other SMEs they owned). The findings reveal that SMEs were at varying stages of the business life cycle with 20% being at the growth stage, while 40% were at the maturity stage and a further 40% already at their decline stage. A country analysis showing sales revenue growth in the past 12 months shows that SMEs in Botswana realised a more satisfactory movement (44%) followed by SMEs in Eswatini (42%) and SMEs in South Africa represented by 40%. Only 12% of SMEs in Zimbabwe registered satisfactory movement in sales revenue. This could be a reflector of the ongoing economic crisis that has affected the Zimbabwean economy for over a decade. As shown in Table 1, Zimbabwean SMEs further leads on the declining sales revenue option as 34% of SMEs registered a decline in sales revenue and 54% registering non-satisfactory movement in sales revenue in the past 12 months.
Country | Sales revenue movement in the past 12 months | % |
---|---|---|
Botswana | Satisfactory movement | 44 |
Non-satisfactory movement | 36 | |
A decline in sales revenue | 20 | |
Eswatini | Satisfactory movement | 42 |
Non-satisfactory movement | 28 | |
A decline in sales revenue | 30 | |
South Africa | Satisfactory movement | 40 |
Non-satisfactory movement | 40 | |
A decline in sales revenue | 20 | |
Zimbabwe | Satisfactory movement | 12 |
Non-satisfactory movement | 54 | |
A decline in sales revenue | 34 |
SMEs sales revenue growth by country.
SMEs were given a list of entity harvesting options and were asked to rank in order of preference to identify the harvesting option they would consider when the time of harvest has come. Findings are summarised in Table 2. They reveal that the majority of SMEs in Sub-Saharan Africa preferred the outright sale harvesting option, M = 4.6, SD = 0.89, followed by the management buy-in harvesting option, M = 4.4, SD = 0.89, mergers, M = 3.8, SD = 1.3, investor-led buyout, M = 3.6, SD = 1.67 and leveraged build-ups with M = 3.4, SD = 1.51 concluded the top five preferred SMEs entity harvesting options.
SME owners who identified outright sale as their preferred entity harvesting method cited unavailability of an heir to take over the business, desire to pursue other interest, business reaching its peak performance level, retirement reasons, uncertain business environment and unavailability of a working turnaround business strategy as factors that would drive them to consider an outright sale of the entity. Table 3 provides descriptive statistics summarising the observed frequencies of the mentioned reasons.
Harvesting option | Mean score | Standard deviation |
---|---|---|
Outright sale | 4.6 | 0.89 |
Management buy-in (MBI) | 4.4 | 0.89 |
Mergers | 3.8 | 1.30 |
Investor led buyout (ILBO) | 3.6 | 1.67 |
Leveraged build-ups | 3.4 | 1.51 |
Management buyout (MBO) | 3.0 | 1.41 |
Employ share ownership scheme (ESOS) | 2.8 | 1.30 |
SMEs preferred entity harvesting options in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Justification | Frequency (%) |
---|---|
Absence of an heir | 33 |
Desire to pursue other interests | 22 |
Business performance reached peak level | 18 |
Retirement plan | 12 |
Uncertain business environment | 9 |
Failure of a business turnaround strategy | 6 |
Reasons behind choosing the outright sale harvesting option.
The paragraphs to follow further expand on the findings outlined in Table 3.
Absence of an heir. In the absence of an immediate family member to take over the business, SME owners pointed out that it is rather wise for them to cash in on their businesses and enjoy the fruits thereof than to leave the business to a distant relative who never contributed towards the well-being of the entity.
Business performance is at peak. Other SME owners pointed out that they would consider an outright sale harvesting option when the entrepreneurial entity has reached its all high-performance mark. This move is advantageous considering that this is the point where the business will be very attractive to competition and other individuals or organisation interested in a takeover. Given this situation, the entrepreneur has more bargaining power and is more likely to receive a significant amount better than the firm’s asking price.
Desire to pursue other interests. The desire to pursue other interests in this research was found to be triggered by the failure of the current enterprise to bring forth the anticipated results. Although some SME owners are genuinely interested in pursuing other business avenues, SME owners pointed out that they would rather cash in on the business especially once signs and symptoms of decline are noticed. They argued that rarely does it pay to continue investing time, effort and money once the business has started showing negative signs of performance.
Conversely, not all SMEs were of the view that they would harvest the entity through outright sale when it is poorly performing. The findings also revealed that most entrepreneurs preferred harvesting their ventures on discovering new and exciting opportunities, which they viewed as more profitable than the existing one. In support, some respondents also argued that where an entrepreneur comes up with a more lucrative business plan that has been well evaluated, the less lucrative venture must be harvested to mobilise funds to finance the lucrative business opportunity. Some SME owners were also quick to emphasise that the culture among SME owners was such that as long as the venture is still viable, there is no reason for harvesting the entity.
Retirement plan. A few SME owners pointed out they would consider the outright sale as their harvesting strategy and completely retire from the entrepreneurial life. The outright sale harvesting option would provide them with enough funds to sustain them when they are no longer actively involved in business markets.
Uncertain business environment. A significant number of SMEs particularly those found in the mining sector pointed out that for them, their businesses are largely affected by ever-changing government policies around mineral ownership and the processes involved in the selling of the minerals. The SMEs in the mining sector felt that they are the least protected by regulations. Mining operations are severely threatened by artisanal miners who continuously invade mining shafts and plants. In all this chaos, SME owners blame governments for doing very little to protect SMEs in the mining sector and their employees. When the rule of law is compromised as is the case in the mining sector, an outright sale was the preferred harvesting strategy. This enables the entrepreneur to invest capital in countries where the rule of law is known to be uncompromised.
Failure of the business turnaround strategy. Unlike some other SMEs who would harvest once symptoms and signs of failure start being noticed, some prefer to try and resuscitate the firm. However, when these efforts fail, they then choose to practice the outright sale harvesting option. The disadvantage of this strategy is that the business may have hit rock bottom a long time ago without the owner noticing. As such, when the new buyer comes, he or she has more bargaining power and the entrepreneur may receive proceeds that are far below the market value of the entity.
The findings reveal that entity merger was the third preferred harvesting option, M = 3.8, SD = 1.30. A study conducted in India by Mantravadi and Reddy [13] found out that firm profitability levels behaved differently depending on the sector after the merger, with some having their profitability levels increasing yet others experienced a decline. Generally, mergers are known to result in improved profitability for firms that were experiencing a sharp decline in profits. It was therefore very much anticipated for SME owners in Sub-Saharan Africa to at least consider business merger as a harvesting method given its tremendous benefits which include, improved revenues and profitability, faster growth in scale and quicker access to markets, acquisition of new technology, elimination of competition and increased market share [4]. Also, through mergers, firms enjoy tax shields and investment savings.
In this research, SME owners who opted merging with other firms as a harvesting technique cited lack of operating and growth capital as the major reason.
Lack of operating and growth capital. SME owners pointed out that if the firm is experiencing liquidity challenges, merging with a financially stable firm is the only route to preserving the legacy of the founder and keep initial business ideas, products, or services for a reasonable time in the market. Some of the SME owners pointed out that they had undertaken this harvesting practice before. For the previous mergers to occur, SME owners pointed out that the underlying reason that led to those mergers was liquidity problems. However, family and friends played an influential role in choosing the harvesting option. Other SME owners pointed out that they consider a business merger as it is a welcome opportunity to come out of financial distress without having to approach banks for funding.
The research sought the respondents’ views on different types of buyouts they would consider as their harvesting options. The findings imply that buyout options are widely used by SMEs. Buyouts involve a transition from one set of owners to another where the previous owners lose control over the firm and the new ones pay a premium for shares that gives them a controlling interest in the firm. The results on the different types of buyouts as entity harvesting options preferred by SMEs owners show that management buy-in is the second most preferred entity harvesting option, M = 4.4, SD = 0.89.
The findings reveal that SME owners are willing to surrender their businesses to external management for considerable value than their internal ones. Investor-led buyout (ILBO) was identified as the fourth preferred entity harvesting option, M = 3.6, SD = 1.67. SME owners argued that if the business is taken over by some investor institutions and is rejuvenated, their peers judge them better than if the same happens with former employees. Leveraged build-ups (LBUs) were identified by SME owners as the fifth preferred entity harvesting option, M = 3.4, SD = 1.51, whereas management buyout (MBO) was the sixth preferred entity harvesting option, M = 3, SD = 1.41.
SME owners identified the unavailability of a successor, de-risking and entity owner poor health as major drivers for preferring various buyout entity harvesting options.
No suitable family member to take over the firm. Similar to the outright sale harvesting option, the MBI, ILBO, LBU and MBO entity harvesting options were identified as harvesting options by SME owners citing unavailability of a suitable family member to drive the firm forward when they quit. SME owners experienced displeasure in the idea that a distant relative would inherit the estate in case their close relatives are not business focused. Hence, SME owners preferred to settle for either the MBI, ILBO, LBU or MBO entity harvesting options.
De-risking. Some SME owners singled out the LBO entity harvesting option. They cited de-risking as their motivation for preferring this strategy. SMEs owners pointed out that the ILBO by design brings in the much-needed capital to fund business growth initiatives, in the process guaranteeing business continuity. In other words, a portion of SME owners is not interested in total entity harvesting but partial harvest.
Poor health. Some SME owners opted for the ILBO harvesting option citing deteriorating health conditions. In this case, the owner sells a division of a firm instead of the entire firm. Health failure means that the SME owner is no longer able to participate in business affairs daily. In certain instances, the entrepreneur remains hopeful that he or she would recover and be actively involved in the affairs of the entity and possibly buy out the investor. For the hopeful entrepreneur, it is better to have somebody taking care of the firm until the entrepreneur’s recovery point, and by design, the ILBO from the SME owner’s perspective, it provides this opportunity.
The research findings reveal that the ESOS is the least preferred entity harvesting options among SME owners, M = 2.8, SD = 1.30. SME owners who preferred this option pointed out that because they would have succeeded in building a strong performance-oriented culture, it was more strategically important for them to involve entity employees in the entity’s succession plans. From the SME owner’s perspective, having employees who are best performers to own a stake in the firm and participate in running the affairs of the entity would make it easier to pass on the performance-oriented culture to all incoming employees. This is critical in ensuring that the firm’s competitive advantage is sustained and the firm’s profitability abilities maintained for a foreseeable future.
The findings presented in this chapter indicate that both macro- and micro-environmental factors play a significant role concerning the SME owner’s preferred entity harvesting strategy. The majority of SME owners in Sub-Saharan Africa pointed out that they prefer an outright sale as an entity harvesting strategy. The results show that this decision is largely influenced by the absence of an heir (macro-environmental factor). SME owners have little control over this aspect and as much as business skills can be learned, people’s interest differs upon realising and accepting this reality, SME owners are left with the option of disposing of the entity and salvage the value they may have added to the firm.
The results further reveal that among buyout options, the ILBO is more popular with SME owners as it was more preferred compared to all other buyout options. The findings further reveal that SME owners are worried about the volatility, uncertainty, chaos and unpredictability of the business environment. From the findings, the majority of SMEs are either declining or static and very few are making significant profits as most economies are in a recession. The present circumstances do not help SME owners in Zimbabwe who have consistently braved the economic downturn for over a decade and with the global economy in recession owing to the Covid-19 pandemic, this situation will drastically affect preferred entity harvesting options, possibly from an outright sale to mergers including some of the buyout options.
Despite the global recession that is very likely to have a bearing on preferred entity harvesting options, SME owners are somewhat hopeful that their businesses can have a second life. This is why apart from an outright sale, they believe that through MBI and mergers, their entities or entity offerings are still relevant to the market. What also can be learned from the findings is that such decisions are not being made only in light of the bad economic situation but it appears they were made right from the start as part of the business plan and continue to be adjusted as the economic situation changes.
However, from findings, it has been observed that SMEs owners appear not ready to give current employees and management a chance to own shares and to run the business as a harvesting option. In contrast to extant literature which pointed out that the ESOS is meant to spread the wealth between entity employees and entity owners, the findings reveal that entity owners are utilising this strategy to secure entity profitability for a longer period by extending share ownership to best-performing employees who in turn will have the obligation to pass on the performance-oriented culture to newly recruited employees.
The chapter explained SME owner preferred entity harvesting strategies making use of primary data collected from four Southern African countries and to the author’s best knowledge, by the time of writing, this research is the first to adopt such a strategy. More importantly, this chapter calls for more research to be done in this area and advance the debate on SME owner business exit strategies as they are critical in guiding the owner in achieving the entity’s mission. Also, the findings presented in this chapter contribute significantly to the gap in extant literature in the Sub-Saharan Africa region and beyond.
The findings presented in this chapter point to the notion that the preferred SME owner entity harvesting strategies are largely reactionary. This means that SME owners respond to macro- and micro-environmental factors and by so doing they are more of spectators rather than influencers of the business environment. The only way SMEs can succeed in practicing their original entity harvesting plan without being reactionary is to work diligently and make sure that micro-environmental factors are aligned to their needs. As a result, business consultants, policymakers and business support institutions can help SMEs in training their employees to be the best performers and ensure that all employees with funds can participate in ESOS. Currently, the practice is that only best performing employees benefit from this initiative defeating the original purpose which it was designed for. Other training activities can be held to help SMEs with risk management skills which would help when the de-risking time comes. SME owner-preferred entity harvesting options are influenced by the unavailability of an heir to take over the reins of the entity. This affects mostly family-owned SMEs. It should be acknowledged that succession is not a short-term endeavour but a long-term issue. Therefore, the search and training for a potential successor should start early to ensure the continuity of the firm. The critical aspect of the succession plan is raising awareness among the current SME owner/managers to kick start the search and preparation for succession early. This will enable them to identify the needed support tools, measures and the relevant infrastructure to enhance the success chances of the incoming an heir. When this is done on time, the thinking is that succession plans would have less effect on the SME owner’s preferred entity harvesting strategy.
The research is exploratory and descriptive. Although this is a stepping stone in trying to answer complex questions around SME owner-preferred entity harvesting strategies, considering that this was a cross-country analysis, issues related to culture and economic outlook were not controlled to determine if they had a major bearing on entity harvesting strategies reported. The reader should, therefore, exercise caution in the interpretation and application of the findings.
Future research should focus on similar harvesting strategies to establish causal relationships and also identifying boundaries in which the SME owner’s choice of entity harvesting strategy is directly or indirectly influenced by country characteristics, age of the business and economic outlook. Given that this was an exploratory research, the author further advocates for more studies making use of both simple and complex multivariate statistical analysis to establish definite relationships on this phenomenon.
The chapter outlined SME owner-preferred entity harvesting strategies and determined why the given option is preferred. Relying on cross-country data, the chapter concludes that the majority of SME owners prefer the outright sale option when harvesting their entities. This option is mainly influenced by the absence of an heir to take over the reins of the business implying that most SMEs are family-owned businesses. The chapter also concludes that SMEs do prefer other entity harvesting strategies such as mergers and buyout which includes among them ILBO, MBI, LBU and MBO as well as employee share ownership schemes. Mergers and buyout options are largely influenced by deteriorating economic conditions among other factors. The chapter further concludes that SMEs also prefer ESOS as a harvesting strategy but solely to secure the entity’s competitive advantage and profitability for as long as they can. This is evident in their willingness to sell entity stake to best performing employees who in turn have the duty to pass on the performance-oriented culture to recruits. However, among all other harvesting strategies that SMEs do prefer, the IPO was not one of them. The reason could be that SMEs are still battling with issues related to entity control and autonomy.
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\n\nThe first step in obtaining funds for your Open Access publication begins with your institution or library. IntechOpen’s publishing standards align with most institutional funding programs. Our advice is to petition your institution for help in financing your Open Access publication.
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