\r\n\tto cover major health conditions that may benefit from Tai Chi, including neurodegenerative diseases, cardiopulmonary rehabilitation, psychosocial benefits, chronic fatigue and fibromyalgias, osteoporosis ad bone metabolism, and other chronic degenerative conditions that plague modern health. We seek to include reviews of underlying basic science as well as clinical trial data that demonstrate that multiplicity of benefits of this ancient exercise form to advance evidence-based understanding of Tai Chi exercise as an adjunct treatment.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4d83cf3e19d5ba6dea45cba1386b5f27",bookSignature:"Dr. Wei-Zen Sun and Dr. Raymond Chang",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10125.jpg",keywords:"fibromyalgia, pain, balance, falling, cognition, dementia, Osteoporosis, Osteopenia, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, pulmonary rehabilitation, Tai Chi, Depression",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 29th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 31st 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 30th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 31st 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 30th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a year",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"310791",title:"Dr.",name:"Wei-Zen",middleName:null,surname:"Sun",slug:"wei-zen-sun",fullName:"Wei-Zen Sun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/310791/images/system/310791.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"National Taiwan University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null}],coeditorOne:{id:"310792",title:"Dr.",name:"Raymond",middleName:null,surname:"Chang",slug:"raymond-chang",fullName:"Raymond Chang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/310792/images/system/310792.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Institute of East West Medicine",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"177731",firstName:"Dajana",lastName:"Pemac",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/177731/images/4726_n.jpg",email:"dajana@intechopen.com",biography:"As a Commissioning Editor at IntechOpen, I work closely with our collaborators in the selection of book topics for the yearly publishing plan and in preparing new book catalogues for each season. This requires extensive analysis of developing trends in scientific research in order to offer our readers relevant content. Creating the book catalogue is also based on keeping track of the most read, downloaded and highly cited chapters and books and relaunching similar topics. I am also responsible for consulting with our Scientific Advisors on which book topics to add to our catalogue and sending possible book proposal topics to them for evaluation. Once the catalogue is complete, I contact leading researchers in their respective fields and ask them to become possible Academic Editors for each book project. Once an editor is appointed, I prepare all necessary information required for them to begin their work, as well as guide them through the editorship process. I also assist editors in inviting suitable authors to contribute to a specific book project and each year, I identify and invite exceptional editors to join IntechOpen as Scientific Advisors. I am responsible for developing and maintaining strong relationships with all collaborators to ensure an effective and efficient publishing process and support other departments in developing and maintaining such relationships."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. Mauricio Barría"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"51711",title:"Design, Assembly, and Fabrication of Two-Dimensional Nanomaterials into Functional Biomimetic Device Systems",doi:"10.5772/64127",slug:"design-assembly-and-fabrication-of-two-dimensional-nanomaterials-into-functional-biomimetic-device-s",body:'\nElegant and sophisticated structures and functionalities of nanoscale biological systems in nature have offered unique inspirations in the development of new concepts, diverse classes of nanomaterials, and various functional devices. The design and synthesis of bio-inspired materials with tailored properties for actuation, sensing, smart electronics, and highly efficient energy harvesting have enabled artificial devices to be endowed with bio-mimicking features, among which artificial muscle and electronic skin that can sense and respond to environmental changes by mimicking human ways have been widely considered as crucially important for new-generation biomimetic devices. In this regard, newly emerged versatile and high-performance two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials such as graphene and its derivatives have been explored and proven as promising candidates. In this chapter, we aim at highlighting the latest efforts toward design, synthesis, and applications of 2D nanomaterial-based functional biomimetic systems.
\nConnectedness of popular terms in biomimetics [1].
The term “biomimetics” was first coined during the 1950s to describe a biological approach to the needs of engineering science. Lepora et al. have recently attempted to make a connectedness of current popular terms in biomimetics (Figure 1) [1]. With such a connectedness, biomimetics now encompasses various disciplines of biomaterials that retain their strong connections to biomimetic. Biomimetic materials, or biomaterials, traditionally defined as materials used in medical devices, have been used since antiquity, but recently their degree of sophistication has been enhanced significantly. Biomimetic materials made today are routinely information rich and incorporate biologically active components derived from nature, and have found use in a wide variety of nonmedical applications [2]. Advancements in materials science, manufacturing process, and continual miniaturization of components have enabled biomimetic materials to have the ability of sensing, actuation, communication, and even computation [3]. Engineers have employed such intelligent materials to fabricate precise, predictable robotic devices and systems, which learned from studying biological systems are now culminating in the definition of a new class of machines that researches refer to as soft robots [4], which connects strongly with biomimetics (Figure 1).
\nSimilar to humans, such robots will, in addition to hard components such as bones, have soft bodies made of soft materials, and will be capable of soft movements and soft interactions with people (Figure 2). A recent trend in soft robotics is to simplify the typically computationally intensive, neutrally inspired control through smart morphological design and use of functional materials [5–7]. There is no doubt that soft biomimetic materials enable most of the automation of tasks beyond the capacities of current robotic technology. The full integration of biomimetic materials and devices into complete robotic systems is of significant interest in science and technologies, but is full of complex challenges.
\nAn anthropomimetic humanoid robot ECCE (Embodied Cognition in a Compliantly Engineered Robot) [8].
In a biomimetic material, biomimetic behaviors refer to changing the material properties of the underlying base material to actuating, sensing, and communicating. Some possible mechanisms involve changes of stiffness, volume and shape, electronic properties, or color (Figure 3). For example, inorganic nanowires such as single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT), ZnO, Cu, In2O3, and etc. offer new material basis and opportunities for flexible electronics that enables many biomimetic applications, including sensors, display devices, and logic gates [9]. All-dielectric meta-materials that can respond to both the electric and magnetic fields of light, support large optical chirality and anisotropy, have promising potential to be used in fabrication of biomimetic meta-surfaces [10]. Ionic polymer-metal composites show large deformation in the presence of low applied voltage and therefore have been widely used as highly active actuators and sensors [11]. Shape-memory polymers are an important class of stimuli-responsive soft materials for which shape-shifting behavior can be programmed, enabling the application as artificial muscles [12]. Overall, from inorganic to organic, from nanoscale to macroscale, various range of materials can be fabricated into designable biomimetic devices including electronic skins [13, 14], artificial muscles [15, 16], etc.
\nExamples of a biomimetic material working toward changing the crucial properties of the base material. Changes in (a) stiffness and (b) shape/volume could enable shape-changing actuation materials. Robotic skins could utilize changes in (c) electronic responses and (d) appearance to sense and communicate.
Particularly, due to their inherent flexibility and novel properties, 2D-layered nanomaterials as the in situ unit of biomimetic materials hold great promise in flexible and versatile biomimetic devices. Here we summarized the reported alternative 2D materials, and the description has been organized in an order according to their synthesis methods.
\nIn addition to graphene, micromechanical exfoliation has been extended to prepare other 2D inorganic materials. In fact, following this approach, individual crystal sheets from a variety of layered materials have been isolated. Monolayers of BN, MoS2, NbSe2, and Bi2Sr2CaCu2Ox have been prepared by rubbing a layered crystal against a substrate and leaving random flakes on it [17]. Among the resulting flakes, single layers were always found. This method leads to high crystal quality and macroscopic continuity, and is considered as one of the easiest and the fastest ways, as in the case of well-known graphene. However, a serious drawback is noticed: monolayers obtained by micromechanical exfoliation are in a great minority among accompanying thicker flakes. Despite allowing the first example of characterization of one-atom-thick monolayers, this is not a feasible procedure for large-scale production of 2D materials for technological applications. Therefore, in the last few years, new methods have been developed to approach scalable synthesis of 2D inorganic materials.
\nVapor deposition techniques have been most extensively explored due to their potential for high scalability and morphological control. By balancing the production cost and the above prerequisites, chemical vapor deposition (CVD) is the most promising route to produce large-area device-grade graphene. Normally, the procedure involves two steps: first, pyrolysis of a precursor to form carbon and disassociation of carbon atoms, and then the formation of the graphene. The pyrolysis to disassociate carbon atoms must be carried out on selected substrates to prevent the precipitation of carbon clusters during the gas phase. This leads to a problem and metal catalysts must be used to reduce the reaction temperature required for pyrolytic decomposition of precursors. During the reaction, the metal substrate not only works as a catalyst to lower the energy barrier of the reaction, but also determines the graphene deposition mechanism, which ultimately affects the quality of graphene [18]. Graphene growth has been demonstrated on a variety of transition metals such Ni, Pd, Ru, Ir, or Cu, and is also achievable on insulating SiC [19]. In a similar process, metal containing precursors [e.g., MoO3, WO3, or (NH4)2MoS4] are vaporized and reacted with chalcogen elements through vapor-solid reactions, leading to the growth of 2D materials beyond graphene on a substrate downstream [20]. Alternatively, 2D material bulk powders can also be used as the precursor directly [21]. For example, Feng et al. [22] employed a tree-zone furnace to synthesize large-area 2D MoS2(1−x)Se2x semiconductor alloys.
\nLiquid-phase exfoliation is Low-cost and scalable method which has been widely used for preparing individual sheets of 2D materials. Typically, this method requires homogeneous dispersion of 2D materials in diverse solvents or aqueous solutions. With the assistance of sonication, the weak van der Waals bonds between the layers are broken and individual layers are obtained. Shen et al. [23] have reported an effective strategy to exfoliate 2D materials in a high yield. In addition to the total surface tension, efficient solvents for liquid-phase exfoliation were found to be those which have a similar ratio of polar components to dispersive components of surface tension to the 2D materials. Mono- to few-layer graphene, WS2, MoS2 h-BN, MoSe2, Bi2Se3, TaS2, and SnS2 were prepared with low-toxic and low-boiling point solvents, such as 1:1 IPA/water for graphene, WS2, h-BN, and MoSe2; 1:4 IPA/water for Bi2Se3, and SnS2; 7:3 IPA/water for MoS2, acetonitrile for TaS2.
\nSmart advanced materials that are flexible, adaptable, multifunctional, and meanwhile “green” are essential for biomimetic approaches. Since it was first isolated in 2004 [24], graphene has attracted tremendous attention because of its extraordinary electrical, thermal, and mechanical properties [25–27]. It is not surprising that graphene leads to 2D material research and has developed rapidly to several important applications such as energy technologies [28, 29], electronics [30, 31], and biomedicine [32, 33]. Among these applications, graphene-based intelligent devices that can spontaneously detect and respond to external stimuli are of broad practical interest and importance. Inspired by the great success achieved through the research of graphene-based materials, the similar ideas and methodologies have also been extended to study other layered materials. This is well indicated by the number of new 2D inorganic nanomaterials blossomed in the past few years. In this section, we offer a brief overview of the successes reported on the biomimetic performance of 2D materials.
\nExperimental setup for measurements performed using the graphene CO2 gas sensor [35].
2D materials are usually good candidates for gas sensors due to their large surface-to-volume ratio and the associated charge transfer between gas molecules and the substrates [34]. Graphene has very high electron mobility at room temperature, and hence, its gas sensitivity is very high. Yoon et al. [35] fabricated a graphene-based CO2 gas sensor by mechanical cleavage and micromachining. The graphene sensor shows significant conductance changes when exposed to various concentrations of CO2 in air. The response time of the sensor is less than 10 s. The overall system is illustrated in Figure 4. They have shown the principle idea, but the sensing systems might need to be upgraded to wearable devices in order to meet the fashion applications. Late et al. [36] reported a comprehensive suite of sensing behavior of atomically thin-layered MoS2 structures in a transistor-like configuration. MoS2-based field emission transistor (FET) showed outstanding sensitive response to NH3, NO2, as well as water vapor at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. 2D material-based FET showed improved mobility and wearable capability, due to its nanoscale size and facile and precise testing systems. Kou et al. [34] reported first-principles calculations that examine the adsorption of several typical molecules, CO, CO2, NH3, NO, and NO2 on phosphorene. They determined their preferential binding positions and the corresponding binding energy. Their results show that the strength of binding is highly dependent on the extent of charge transfer between the adsorbed molecules and the phosphorene layer, which is similar to that observed in graphene and MoS2. However, the adsorption of gas molecules on phosphorene is notably stronger resulting in a more pronounced effect on the sensitivity.
\n\nMoS2-based FET biosensors, which provides high sensitivity and at the same time offers possibility for facile patterning and device fabrication [38].
Biosensors based on 2D material FETs have also attracted much attention, as they offer rapid, inexpensive, and label-free detection of biologically related signals. Development of 2D material FETs may bridge the technological gap between signal transduction, conditioning, processing, and wireless transmission in a wearable biosensing device, by merging plastic-based sensors that interface the skin with silicon-integrated circuits on a flexible circuit board for complex signal processing [37]. Sarkar et al. [38] demonstrated a FET biosensor based on MoS2. This sensor shows ultrahigh sensitivity (713 for a pH change of 1 unit) and wide operation range (pH of 3–9) (Figure 5). It also demonstrates specific detection of protein as well as an extremely high sensitivity of 196 even at 100 femtomolar concentration.
\n\nSchematic of device structure and fundamental characteristics of the all-elastomeric transparent stretchable gated sensor [42].
(a) Optical image of the single-atomic layer MoS2 flake. Blue and yellow spheres represent Mo and S atoms, respectively.(b) Polar plot of the second harmonic intensity from single-layer MoS2 as a function of the crystal’s azimuthal angle θ.(c) A typical flexible device with single-layer MoS2 flake and electrodes at its zigzag edges.(d) Operation scheme of the single-layer MoS2 piezoelectric device [43].
In addition to the examples described above, sensing platforms equipped or integrated with temperature, strain, and humidity sensors have attracted more and more attention due to their natural skin-like biomimetic sensing behavior [39–41]. Trung et al. [42] developed a very simple fabrication process to realize the all-elastomeric temperature sensor array. They integrated a strain sensor on a platform which can be attached as a patch to objects or human skin (Figure 6). Reduced graphene oxide (rGO) nanosheets embedded in a elastomeric polyurethane matrix were used as the temperature sensing layer. Notably, most function layers of the device are intrinsically transparent and stretchable.
\n\nWu et al. [43] reported an experimental observation of piezoelectricity in single-atomic-layer 2D MoS2 and explored its application in mechanical energy harvesting and piezotronic sensing (Figure 7). Cyclic stretching and releasing of odd-layer MoS2 flakes produced oscillating electrical outputs, which could convert mechanical energy into electricity. The strain-induced polarization charges in single-layer MoS2 can also modulate charge carrier transport at the MoS2–metal barrier and enables enhanced strain sensing. This study has demonstrated the potential of 2D nanomaterials for powering nanodevices, adaptive bioprobes, and tunable/stretchable electronics/optoelectronics.
\n\nIn short, these sensors have shown great potential for their adaptability to wearable skin electronics for recognition of human activity and environmental changes.
\nThe crumpling of materials is widely observed in various objects as small as biological membranes, in objects as thin as a piece of paper, and in systems as large as the Earth’s crust. 2D actuation systems responsive to electrochemical, light, and other external stimuli can convert different energy forms (electric, chemical, photonic, thermal, etc.) to mechanical energy that is potentially profitable for diverse applications ranging from robots, sensors to memory chips [15, 44]. Theoretically, Roger et al. [45] have studied the electrochemical actuation of monolayer graphene upon charge injection and ionic liquid (IL) electrolyte immersion. They have concluded that the electrostatic double layer could induce strains of more than 1% and its contribution to the overall strain was always equal to or higher than that of the quantum-mechanical strain (~0.2%) from charge injection of −0.1 e per C atom. Based on these theoretical predictions, GO is in principle an excellent material for actuators and artificial muscles.
\nZhang, et al. [46] performed molecular dynamics simulation to create a nanosized graphene origami box. By warping the top graphene layer downward and the bottom graphene layer upward, the cross-shaped cubic graphene nanocage could encapsulate nano objects such as biomolecules (Figure 8). This paradigm opens up a new avenue to control the 3D architecture of 2D-layered materials and provides a feasible way to exploit and fabricate the 2D nanosized actuators.
\nProgrammable graphene folding with designed morphology.(a) and (b) represent the initial and final configurations of a graphene nanocage, respectively.(c) Schematic illustrating rapid loss of H2O in GO and subsequent crumpling of GO nanosheets [46, 47].
Ma et al. [47] experimentally proved that GO in aqueous solution could be aerosolized and dried to produce crumpled nanopaper-like sheets, which are similar to the graphene nanocage. They used online size selection and aerosol mass analysis to determine the fractal dimension (D) of crumpled GO nanosheets. D is able to be tuned by altering solvent conditions. Typically, a 10% acetone mixture increases D to 2.68 ± 0.02 from 2.54 ± 0.04. Calculations of the confinement force indicate that crumpling of GO nanosheets is driven by the capillary force associated with rapid loss of the solvent.
\nSimilarly, a fluidic motion of
Similar approaches could also be applied to magadiite [49] and layered potassium hexaniobate [50]. Novel photoactivated artificial muscle model units could be obtained as they reported. For example, as seen in Figure 9, it is clearly observed on a cross-cut section of the layered hybrid film that upon photoirradiation of a layered hexaniobate intercalated with a polyfluoroalkyl azobenzene derivative, a very large magnitude lateral movement (sliding) of the nanosheets was reversibly induced. By applying this strategy, organic/inorganic hybrid nanosheets reversibly and horizontally slide on a macroscale upon on/off photoirradiation, which results in vertically shrinking and expansion of the interlayer spaces in the layered hybrid structure. The sliding movement of the structure on such a giant scale is the first example of an artificial muscle model unit having remarkable similarity to that in natural muscle fibrils.
\nSchematic diagram of the niobate nanosheet sliding movement and interlayer distance change induced by photochemical trans–cis isomerization of the azobenzene molecules [50].
Emotional (or feeling) communication skills are natural behavior in biological systems. However, similar communication between humans and autonomous robots is a tremendous challenge to be achieved.
\nAppearance and texture identification in an artificial skin allows creating and broadcasting emotional cues, which may facilitate the acquisition of the robot’s emotional behavior. The fabrication of a network consisting of mechanically flexible sensors is the key to achieve artificial intelligence that comes into direct contact with humans for biomedical applications such as prosthetic skin. To mimic the interaction behavior such as tactile sensing properties of natural skin, large arrays of pixel sensors on a flexible and stretchable substrate are usually required [51]. The integration of 2D materials in FET arrays as the dielectric layer leads to a new type of active sensing devices which not only have high sensitivity but also enable to initiate responsive interactive behavior. In this context, there are several cases reported. For example, Wang et al. [52] integrated various electronic, sensor, and light-emitting components (involving both organic and inorganic materials) on a thin plastic substrate (Figure 10). This work demonstrated a possibly practical technology platform serving as a flexible user-interactive system that could not only detect and spatially map external stimuli such as pressure, but also respond with a seamlessly integrated display. The responsive pressure profile is instantaneously visible without the need of sophisticated data acquisition circuits and electronic boards on such systems. Such approach based on integration of 2D functional materials into a flexible thin film device could lead to an emerging and hot research topic, i.e., electronic skin, or e-skin.
\n(a) Cross-sectional schematic showing one pixel of the interactive e-skin device, consisting of various components.(b) Schematic of the e-skin circuit matrix.(c) Photograph of an integrated device showing that light is locally emitted when the device surface is touched.\n(d) PDMS slabs with C, A, and L shapes are prepared and used to apply pressure onto the sensor array.(e) Green, blue, and red color interactive e-skins are used to spatially map and display the pressure [52].
As described above, the development of integrated intelligent devices is essential to the realization of biomimetic systems. In this section, we discuss the two most promising classes of biomimetic devices: e-skins and artificial muscles based on 2D materials.
\nThe skin, as the largest organ in the human body, is mechanically self-healing and can provide a variable degree of touch sensitivity. Mimicking the functions of natural skins is therefore widely accepted to be very important in the future for robots used by humans in daily life for numerous applications. Thus, the development of an artificial skin, also known as electronic skin (e-skin) that is flexible and stretchable [51–54], sensitive enough to perceive touch [55–57], and yet able to heal itself following damage [58, 59] is in high demand in robotic applications.
\nReal-time current curves of the sensor pad during a finger touch/remove cycle on its surface [60].
(a) Schematic of the hybrid e-skin and its pressure sensitivity.(b–e) Cross-sectional FESEM images of the hybrid e-skin showing microscopic structures and the boundary between functional layers. Scale bars are 30 μm, 5 μm, 3 μm, and 500 nm, respectively.(f)Photographs of the hybrid e-skin. Scale bar is 2 cm [59].
Hou et al. [60] designed and fabricated a novel reduced graphene oxide foam (rGOF) that is free-standing, flexible, and elastic. As shown in Figure 11, the rGOF shows temperature sensitivity based on thermoelectric effects in the graphene with assistance of its good electrical properties. The rGOF can respond rapidly to finger pressure owing to the finger heating effects. As a proof of concept, the authors also produced rGOF pressure sensor pad that can locate finger pressure points and measure the pressure level. Most importantly, all sensing abilities of this device can operate by itself without the need of any additional power supply.
\n\nHou et al. [59] also presented the first self-healing, mechanically strong and stretchable, self-activated pressure-sensing device based on rGO. The device is composed of various functional components including piezoelectric and electrically conductive layers as well as a healing substrate Figure 12. Poly(N,N-dimethylacrylamide), poly(vinyl alcohol), rGO, and polyvinylidene difluoride are employed in this hybrid device. It is suggested that preparing flexible and porous hybrid foams with interconnected 3D networks is a practical way to fabricate stretchable and self-healing thin film e-skin.
\n\nIn order to improve the texture resolution of e-skin, FET technology is usually involved in the design and fabrication of sensors. Mannsfeld et al. [51] reported an organic thin film pressure sensor, which employs a key organic FET structure consisting of a thin, regularly structured rubber. The dielectric capacitance in organic FET devices directly depends on the output current, which enables the sensing of an applied pressure. This device provides high sensitivity in both medium- and low-pressure regimes. Besides, unprecedentedly fast response and relaxation times (≪1 s) are also reported.
\nSun et al. [61] reported a piezopotential-powered active matrix strain sensor arrays which combined coplanar gate graphene transistors and piezoelectric nanogenerators. The strain sensor demonstrated excellent performances including a high sensitivity (gauge factor = 389) and a minimum detectable strain as low as 0.008%. Excellent device durability was also observed after 3000 bending-releasing cycles. This transparent and conformal strain sensor could be mounted onto a human hand for continuous monitoring of hand movements.
\nIn addition to graphene, other 2D nanomaterials, such as MoS2, WS2, and vanadium disulfide (VS2), have also been recently explored for effective conversion of environmental stimuli into electric signals.
\nFor example, The VS2 nanosheets with a quasi-two-dimensional electronic structure are very promising building block material for high moisture responsiveness. Intriguingly, the structural characteristics and calculation results indeed revealed theoretical feasibility to achieve VS2 material in ultrathin structures with only a few atomic layers. Feng et al. [62] synthesized ultrathin VS2 nanosheets and assembled them into a highly cooriented structure, which had a maximum resistance response of almost two orders of magnitude toward moisture. Using VS2 nanosheets as the sole functional material, a new concept, flexible touchless positioning interface based on the spatial mapping of moisture distribution was demonstrated (Figure 13). This moisture-based positioning interface provides a new conceptual approach to practical real-time moisture mapping matrix or noncontact control interfaces for advanced man-made interactive systems.
\nFlexible touchless positioning interface based on the spatial mapping of moisture distribution [62].
Artificial muscles or biomimetic actuators are a type of devices that can operate on a certain source of energy, such as electric current, pressure and chemical energy, and transform the energy into motion. To build a self-folding structure, active materials that convert other forms of energy into mechanical work to enable folding and unfolding operations are required. Previous research on active materials has mainly focused on polymers, including gels [63], liquid crystalline polymers [64], shape memory polymers (SMPs) [65], and conjugated polymers [66]. These materials can respond to environmental stimuli including pH, temperature, solvent, humidity, electricity, and light to change their shapes or/and other physical properties.
\nAlthough polymer-based actuators have value in certain context, they still face a number of practical challenges. For example, the actuation behavior of shape memory polymers is restricted by the number of temporary shapes that can be memorized in each cycle, and the ability to tune the transition temperature for shape changes. A disadvantage of another example, polymer multilayers, is their poor stability, because the multiple components do not expand/shrink uniformly which can cause interface problems. Some other demos have typically employed a circuit connection, but they are not favored for remote control applications.
\nIn order to address the above-mentioned issues, Mu et al. [67] developed a series of graphene monolayer (GM) papers with a gradient-reduced graphene oxide/graphene oxide structure. In the gradient GM paper, the GO region could readily desorb/adsorb water molecules in response to environment stimuli including changes in humidity, temperature, or light, leading to shrinking/swelling of the GO sheets. On the contrary, the rGO is inert to water molecules. Considering the excellent photothermal properties of rGO and GO [68], as well as its high flexibility and mechanical robustness, a rGO/GO hybrid paper holds great potential for photo-thermoresponsive actuator applications. Mu et al. exploited these properties to yield GM paper with reversible, fast (~0.3 s), powerful (7.5 × 105 N/kg force output), and controllable mechanical deformation and recovery, in response to moisture, heat, and light. The response of this water-driven actuator to multiple stimuli allows the artificial muscles and electric generators to be fabricated. Furthermore, it was found that with a programmed dual-gradient (vertical and lateral) structure, a self-folding all-graphene origami was also developed to demonstrate three types of capability: (i) producing predesigned shapes, (ii) walking, and (iii) turning a corner (Figure 14) [69].
\n(a) I. Illustration of the mask-assisted filtration process, scale bar is 2 cm; II. Cross-sectional SEM images of different regions of the actuator, scale bar is 1 μm; III. CA measurement of the opposite surfaces of the actuator.(b) Schematic representations of the structures and mechanisms of the actuator paper.(c) Time profiles of self-folding movements of a cross-shaped piece of paper with and without NIR light irradiation.(d) Optical images showing artificial/robotic hand holding an object driven by light irradiation.(e) Optical images showing the “micro robot” walking and turning on a map driven by light irradiation [69].
The hydration-triggered actuation of GO materials opens up a new possibility to synthesize graphene-based actuators responsive to changes in environmental water and/or relative humidity. Cheng et al. [70] designed and fabricated the region-asymmetric graphene/graphene oxide (G/GO) fiber actuators in virtue of the laser positioning reduction of the freshly spun GO fibers. The graphene-based fiber actuators display complex and well-controlled motion and deformation in a predetermined manner in response to moisture changes. This work offers a strategy for producing region-asymmetric G/GO fibers which can be deformed deliberately and can walk as a single-fiber robot along a channel. The fiber-based actuator with such a unique structure provides a new platform for the development of the wearable devices such as smart textiles.
\nDifferently, the mechanisms based on ionic liquid (IL) electrolyte immersion have also been reported for graphene-based actuators. Lu et al. [71] showed that IL could be inserted to separate the layers of paralleled graphene nanosheets. The rGO–IL with 66.7 wt% of IL displayed a 98% variation in the thickness upon a 2 V electrical voltage stimulation.
\nAlternatively, graphene can be used as electrodes [73], fillers [74, 75], and conductive substrates [72] for actuators rather than being as the solo functional material. These have been well reviewed elsewhere. We next focus on other 2D materials themselves in biomimetic actuation applications. However, the successful examples are still very few up to date.
\nYang et al. [76] tailored magnetic, optical, and electrical properties of ReSe2 nanosheets by local strain engineering through formation of ReSe2 wrinkles on elastomeric substrates. Local strain induced by generation of wrinkles could perform several actions: (1) to modulate the optical gap as evidenced by red-shifted photoluminescence peaks, (2) to enhance light emission, (3) to induce magnetism, and (4) to adjust electrical properties. Their work not only shows how to create materials with vastly different properties at the nanoscale, but also enables a wide range of applications based on 2D materials, including strain sensors, stretchable electrodes, flexible field-effect transistors, artificial-muscle actuators, solar cells, and other spintronic, electromechanical, piezoelectric, photonic devices.
\nYang et al. [77] analyzed electromechanical coupling effects in suspended doubly clamped single-layer MoS2 structures, by which they designed suspended-channel FETs and vibrating-channel nanoelectromechanical resonators. In direct current gating scenario, signal transduction processes (such as deflection, electrostatic actuation, mobility, straining on bandgap, carrier density, and their intricate cross-interactions) have been analyzed with considering the strain-enhanced mobility (by up to 4 times), in order to determine the transfer characteristics.
\nYuan et al. [78] reported synthesis of monolayer perovskite-like KCa2Nb3O10 nanosheets, and therefore they were able to study the size-dependent properties of these nanosheets as monolayer nanosheet seed layers to grow functional thin films for piezo-microelectromechanical systems (piezo-MEMS). Their results implied that larger Ca2Nb3O10 nanosheets can be useful for constructing scale-up piezo-MEMS devices, such as microactuators.
\nOver the past 5 years, advances in 2D material fabrication, 3D assembly, and biological analysis have accelerated development of soft materials in biomimetic applications. In the future, integration of other sensor components can be predicted using a similar platform to enable more sophisticated human-surface interfacing. Additional circuits, sensors (e.g., strain gauges, thermal flux sensors), and actuators (LEDs, pacing/ablation electrodes) have been designed with these design considerations in order to enable conformal integration with soft and curvilinear organs (Figure 15) [39, 79]. We believe that these 2D material-based biomimetic platforms would find a wide range of applications in automotive control panels, interactive input devices, robotics, and medical and health monitoring devices.
\nBio-integrated flexible and stretchable systems: schematic illustration of bio-integrated electronics in development today across a broad range of biomedical applications. Minimally invasive and implantable devices include electrophysiological sensors (ECoG, ECG), angioplasty tools, prosthetic eye/skin, and optoelectronic nerve stimulator, etc. Wearable bioelectronics include physiological sensors (pressure, strain, temperature sensors) integrated with transdermal drug delivery devices and data storage devices. Continuous monitoring and real-time feedback therapy are performed in conjunction with the wireless communication. Energy supply module is an essential component to bioelectronics systems for mobile and personalized healthcare [34, 38, 73, 76, 77].
Neutron activation system is a diagnostic measuring the absolute neutron flux and fluence on the first wall [1]. It utilizes pneumatic post method to send a sample of material close to the plasma, where it gets activated by neutrons. This sample is then retrieved back with the same pneumatic post technique and the activation of the sample is measured with gamma-gay spectrometers [2]. The main goal of the ITER neutron activation system (NAS) is to evaluate the total neutron production rate from all over the plasma. The measurement accuracy depends on the position and profile of the plasma and the material in front of the irradiation end. It is required to minimize the amount of material and its density variation across the field of view between the plasma and the irradiation end. Due to the radiation and thermal environment of the ITER in-vessel, however, the measurement from ITER NAS cannot avoid the strong influence from in-vessel materials such as the diagnostic first wall, blanket modules, and divertor cassettes that are located near the irradiation ends. A number of irradiation positions located above and below the plasma as well as on high-field side and low-field side has been selected for the ITER NAS to compensate the strong influence from in-vessel materials such as the diagnostic first wall, blanket modules, and divertor cassettes.
ITER NAS measures gamma radiation from samples activated by fusion neutron flux. Encapsulated samples are transferred between irradiation ends and counting station by the driving of nitrogen (or helium) gas. Tubes of diameter 12.7 mm will be used for the transfer lines of the capsule.
NAS consists of the pneumatic transfer system and the counting system (Figure 1) Cheon et al. [3]. The pneumatic transfer system includes gas supply, transfer station, transfer line, irradiation ends, counter ends, and disposal bin. It is the subsystem related with the transfer of the encapsulated samples from the loading to the disposal. The PLC-based control system will be harnessed for the accurate operation of the system. The counting system consists of gamma-ray detectors, electronic devices such as high voltage supplies and amplifiers, and tool for neutron source strength evaluation. It is the system for the evaluation of the parameters of the NAS by counting gamma-rays from the activated samples [4].
The scheme of neutron activation system for ITER.
Due to the large size and the elongated shape of ITER plasma, multiple positions for the irradiation ends in toroidal section are required for highly reliable measurements. At present, four irradiation end locations per toroidal section (A, B, C and D in Figure 2) are planned for ITER NAS considering reliability of the measurement and redundancy of the system.
Distribution of irradiation ends in a toroidal section and allocated port numbers.
Transfer tubes of the NAS should be bent many times to reach the irradiation ends from the transfer station. To avoid capsule stuck problem around tube bends, there should be a minimum bending radius of the tube in designing tube route. All bends of the tube should have larger radius than this minimum bending radius. Assuming the capsule of OD 8 mm and L 30 mm, and the tube of ID 9 mm, the minimum bending radius of the tube is about 100 mm. The current design value of the minimum bending radius is 150 mm, with the safety factor 50% applied.
Current port allocation for the NAS is #11 and #18 for the upper port, #11 and #17 for the equatorial port, and #12 and #18 for the lower ports. For points A and B, the irradiation ends will be located inside the port plugs. Other irradiation ends will be installed on the vacuum vessel wall with the pipelines routed through the lower level ports [5]. Allocated ports and port numbers for the irradiation locations are shown in Figure 2. Total number of the irradiation ends which will be installed is 12.
Transfer station distributes capsules to the appropriate locations such as irradiation end, counting station, or disposal bin. It consists of capsule loader and distribution machine ‘carousel.’ When capsule is loaded on the carousel from the loader, the platter inside the carousel rotates to place capsule to the point connected to the designated place. The capsule loader and the carousel are separated by the air lock system to prevent the leakage of the driving gas. At every transfer line ends the air cushion technique, which will be implemented to prevent capsule breakage.
Counting station locates outside the bioshield of ITER where neutron flux effect on the detectors is negligible. Detectors such as HPGe or NaI will be used to count gamma-rays from the activated samples. The required parameters for the NAS such as neutron fluence will be evaluated from the gamma spectrum considering the location of the irradiation end, sample material and its mass, and irradiation and cooling time.
NAS is supposed to provide reliable and robust measurement data because it will be used for the calibration of other neutron diagnostics. From the point of reliability and robustness of the measurement, optimum location of the irradiation end is where the activation coefficient is insensitive to any environmental changes during the plasma operation and measurement, such as geometrical change of the surrounding material, plasma movement, and slight movement of irradiation end location. The geometrical changes of the irradiation end surrounding material can be happened due to the thermal expansion, vibration, distortion, and so on. Thus, location far away from plasma without any scattering material can be the best place for the irradiation end.
However, materials between the plasma and irradiation end cannot be avoided in real situation. If the location of the irradiation end is far away from the plasma, too much material in-between will increase the measurement uncertainty. On the other hand, if the location of the irradiation end is very close to the plasma, plasma movement will increase the measurement uncertainty as well. So we should find a location where the effect of the plasma movement and the effect of the material are the modest. Normally, an irradiation end without any surrounding material nearby is chosen as the location in given position (by the port location, for example). If the effect of the plasma movement is very significant, compensation of the measurement can be necessary: (1) by using plasma location information from other diagnostics or (2) by measuring simultaneously in the opposite location vertically or radially.
However in ITER, where the radiation environment is extremely harsh, it is very difficult to avoid material around the irradiation end. Instead, we will try to find geometry of the surrounding material, whose impact on the measurement is minimized, with the help of neutron transport calculation.
The irradiation end in the upper port is selected as the object of the investigation because it is one of the locations inside the port plug, where the effect of the geometry change of the surrounding material is less severe than other locations. Most of the in-vessel irradiation ends are located between the blanket shields, where is vulnerable to the geometrical change. The activation coefficients of various samples with and without DFW material have been compared around the irradiation end (see Figure 4 for instance). The effect of the geometry of the cutout in DFW was investigated to find a design: (1) whose absolute value of the activation coefficient is similar with the one without DFW material and (2) whose response to the plasma movement is not so severe.
Activation coefficients of three samples, that is, silicon, copper, and titanium at the upper port irradiation end were calculated using FISPACT and MCNP code. Objective nuclear reactions are 28Si(n,p)28Al, 63Cu(n,2n)62Cu, and 48Ti(n,p)48Sc.
Figure 3 shows the MCNP model for the calculation. The cutout of DFW was designed to have a toroidal and poloidal angle of view as large as possible, while minimizing the amount of material in front of the irradiation end to the plasma direction, in order to minimize errors from the plasma movement and neutron transport calculation. Initial values for each dimension are:
Depth: 130 mm.
Poloidal angle: 105°.
Toroidal angle: 60°.
Toroidal width: 30 mm.
MCNP model for calculation: (left) side view and (right) front view.
Calculated activation coefficients are shown in Figure 4. When there is no DFW material (upper line) and when there is a cutout in DFW material (lower line). Absolute values of the activation coefficient are reduced by about 10% when the irradiation end is surrounded by DFW material. In spite of the DFW surrounding the response of the irradiation end to the vertical movement of plasma is almost the same with the one without DFW except for the absolute value shift. However, clear decrease of the activation coefficient can be identified when plasma moves outward radially. This can introduce additional error about 2.5% by ±10 cm radial movement of plasma.
Comparison of plasma movement effect with and without DFW.
Effect of the toroidal width of the cutout was investigated, and the result is shown in Figure 5. The width was increased from the initial value (30 mm) up to the geometrical maximum (170 mm) and the activation coefficient of 63Cu(n,2n)62Cu reaction was investigated by moving the plasma position in the radial direction. The absolute values of the activation coefficients become closer as the width of the cutout increases. The differences between the ‘No-DFW material’ case are about 10, 2, and 0.8%, when the widths are 30, 100, and 170 mm, respectively, when the plasma is kept at its central place. Also the response to the plasma movement is improved by increasing the width. It is easily identified the response of the irradiation end become more insensitive to the plasma movement as the size of the width increases. Slops of the linearly fit equations of the calculated activation coefficients are 9.2, 3.8, and 2.2 (×10−34) per 1 cm plasma movement, when the widths are 30, 100, and 170 mm, respectively. Calculated maximum errors according to this equation are 0.8 and 1.4%, when the plasma movement values are ±5 cm and ± 10 cm, respectively.
Toroidal width effect on activation coefficients of 63Cu(n,2n)62Cu response by radial plasma movement.
The effect of the DFW cutout design on the measurement accuracy was investigated. The initial design values are proved to be proper except the toroidal width. It is recommended the toroidal width of the cutout to be as large as possible. The recommended design of the DFW cutout is shown in Figure 6. By making a cutout according to the design recommended by this calculation, we can imitate as much as possible the response of the ideal irradiation end, where there is no surrounding material nearby.
Image of DFW cutout for NAS.
Measurement accuracy of NAS with 12 irradiation ends is estimated using MCNP calculations. The response of each irradiation location is evaluated by changing the location and the profile of the neutron source (see Figure 7).
Evaluation of the effect of neutron source position and broadening.
The evaluated result of the neutron source displacement effect (Figure 8) shows that the upper port is the best position for the irradiation due to its lowest sensitivity. The induced error due to the vertical displacement can be even lower when it is compensated with the measurement at divertor position, as long as the irradiation end at divertor is well characterized during the plasma operation. It is estimated that induced error from the neutron source displacement can be ~ ± 1% even without compensation from other diagnostics, from the simultaneous measurement from the upper and divertor position, when the displacement range is within ±20 cm vertically and radially. The equatorial port position can be used for backup when the data are compensated from other diagnostics.
Evaluation of the effect of neutron source position.
The effect of neutron source broadening (Figure 9) on the measurement, which cannot be estimated during the in-vessel calibration, was evaluated. The result also indicates that the upper port is the best position because it has the lowest effect from the neutron source broadening, and shows good characteristic of depending only on the vertical broadening. It is interesting to note that the equatorial port position shows symmetric measurement with the upper port position. Therefore, the simultaneous measurements from the upper and equatorial port position are expected to provide the total neutron production with the broadening error of ~1% without compensation from other diagnostics, when the profile peaking factor is in the range of 3 < α < 7.
Evaluation of the effect of neutron source broadening.
The calculations show that with the combination of the measurements from the upper port, equatorial port, and divertor region can provide relatively good evaluation of the total neutron production in the plasma. In spite of the low reliability of the measurement from the inboard midplain position, it is reasonable to keep this irradiation ends, as they are the only ones capable of providing the absolute value of the neutron flux coming to the inboard side.
Thermal analysis has made significant impact on the design of the NAS front-end components (Figure 10). All NAS components installed inside the vacuum vessel shall follow the design guideline SDC-IC (Structural Design Criteria for ITER In-vessel Components), which requires the maximum temperature of the components to be less than about 500°C. According to the simple thermal analysis on the irradiation end in the upper port, the temperature of the irradiation end is found to exceed 500°C when the irradiation end protrudes only by 6 cm from the actively cooled diagnostic shield module (DSM) inside (but not touching) the diagnostic first wall (DFW) that has a full depth of 60 cm. Similarly, all in-vessel irradiation ends located inboard side of the vacuum vessel are found to exceed 500°C, when there is no active cooling of the irradiation end structures. The temperature could be below 500°C only when the forced circulation of He gas with the velocity higher than 10 m/s is provided for the in-vessel transfer line during the plasma operation, which can be problematic when the gas blowing with such velocity fails, for example, when the capsule touches the irradiation location and plugs the hole for the gas circulation. In order to resolve the thermal issue, the design is updated to cool down all in-port irradiation ends by attaching the cooling jacket around the irradiation end structure, where coolant can be supplied from the in-port coolant manifold.
Calculated temperature of NAS irradiation ends.
Port plug irradiation ends mainly consist of two transfer lines which are composed of coaxial or parallel tubes (Figure 11). Most components will be fabricated with SS316L except the capsule monitoring cabling, which consists of MgO mineral insulated (MI) cables and Al2O3-based electrical feedthrough. The front part of the irradiation end is enclosed with the coolant housing, which is connected with the coolant tubing. Two guiding rings are attached on the outside of the coolant housing for the smooth insertion of the irradiation end into the DSM. The feedthroughs will be welded on the closure plate of the port plugs.
Port plug transfer line in EP11.
Transfer station consists of many moving components such as a servo-motor, linear actuators and many solenoid or gas-driven valves. Pneumatic properties of the transfer system for transferring capsule are as below:
Pressure of gas in reservoir: ~8 bars max.
Pressure of driving gas: 1–8 bars
OD of sample transfer tube: 12.7 mm
Thickness of sample transfer tube: 1.25 mm
OD of retrieving gas tube: 12.7 mm
Thickness of retrieving gas tube: 1.25 mm
Diameter of capsule: ~8 mm
Length of capsule: ~20 mm
Samples will be transferred to the designated position by the action of distribution machine ‘carousel’ (Figure 12). Rotating platter inside the carousel will transfer sample to the loading position which are connected to the designated position. When the samples are ready, the valves behind are opened to shoot them to the designated positions. Before arriving at the designated position, the speed of them will be slowed down to prevent breakage. A Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) will control the operation of the transfer system. Figure 9.4.2 is a current design of the carousel.
Design of sample distribution machine ‘carousel’.
Counting station measures gamma-rays from the activated samples. It consists of gamma-ray detector, signal processing electronics such as high voltage supply, preamplifier, amplifier, and multichannel analyzer, and data analyzing software. Many gamma-ray detectors such as gas chambers, scintillators, and semiconductor detectors are commercially available. Among these detectors, NaI detectors and HPGe detectors are the most commonly used ones for neutron activation analysis, but other types of detector can be also considered. Appropriate detectors will be chosen for the proper operation of ITER NAS considering state of the art.
The NAS system has been designed for determining the total neutron yield during the DT operation. The system must provide also time-resolved measurements of the global neutron source strength and evaluation of the fusion power. Measurement of absolutely calibrated neutron flux and fusion power will be performed.
Various tools are used for carrying out the analysis:
MCNP v.5 (Monte Carlo N-Particle) transport code is used for the calculation of neutron fluxes and neutron energy spectra at the designated locations for the irradiation.
FENDL-2.1 (Fusion Evaluated Nuclear Data Library) is used as the material database for the MCNP calculation
FISPACT-2007 is used for the inventory of neutron induced activation of the sample materials.
EAF-2007 (European Activation File) is used for the source of cross-section data for FISPACT-2007
Lite series (A-lite, B-lite, and C-lite) 40° sector ITER geometrical model with a fusion plasma neutron source is used for the MCNP calculation.
An irradiation location at midplane inboard region is selected for the calculation of neutron flux and spectrum with MCNP code. The flux of this location is the second strongest among seven poloidal irradiation locations. Two tallies are designated for the irradiation ends, one is very close to the first wall, and the other is behind the blanket module very close to the vacuum vessel wall. Both are located at the cross point of horizontal and vertical gap centers of four blanket modules. Tally 15 is located near the inner VV wall whereas Tally 25 is facing the plasma. Figure 13 shows two tally locations. Si, Al, Ti, Fe, Nb, and Cu have been selected as sample materials for the investigation [6]. Samples are assumed to be a foil type with the diameter of 7 mm and the thickness of 0.1 mm.
Tally locations in the Alite model.
Figure 14 shows the calculated neutron spectra at two tallies. Total neutron fluxes at tally 15 and tally 25 are 5.45 × 1013 and 5.9 × 1014 s−1 cm−2 respectively, assuming 500 MW of fusion power. In spite of the heavy blanket modules structure in front of the irradiation end, the spectrum of tally 15 shows clear 14 MeV neutron peak. This is due to the blanket modules acting as a collimator that absorbs scattered neutrons. Calculated neutron flux and spectrum are used for input data of FISPACT for the calculation of the sample activity.
Neutron spectra at tally 15 and tally 25.
As one of the requirements of the ITER NAS is to measure time-integrated neutron fluence to the first wall for all discharge duration, it is desirable for samples to be irradiated as long as possible time within the discharge time. Thus, the activities of various samples are calculated with the irradiation of 1000 s, and the result is shown in Figure 15 D-T fusion power of 500 MW is assumed for the flux calculation.
Activation by irradiation of 1000 s (a) tally 15, (b) tally 25.
Another requirement is to provide supplementary neutron flux data with a crude temporal resolution of about 10 s, when necessary for a backup or calibration of other flux measurement systems, such as Microfission Chambers (MFC) and neutron flux monitors (NFM). Thus, the activities of various samples are calculated with the irradiation of 10 s, and the result is shown in Figure 16.
Activity by irradiation of 10 s (a) tally 15, (b) tally 25.
The activation desired for a sample should be similar to that provided by a standard source used for absolute calibration of the gamma-ray detectors. A typical maximum value for modestly safe handling would be 100 μCi. Figure 17 shows the fusion power needed to create 100 μCi samples assuming 10-s irradiation and 20-s cooling at a irradiation location D.
Fusion power needed to create 100 μCi samples by the 10-s irradiation and 20-s cooling (left) at tally 15, and (right) at tally 25.
Assuming the mass of samples to be from a few milligrams to a few grams, the fusion power that NAS can cover ranges from a few hundred watts to gigawatts by using various sample materials at different irradiation end locations. This measurement range satisfies the required measurement range both of the neutron flux and the fusion power.
Figure 18 shows the fusion power needed to create 100 μCi samples assuming 1000-s irradiation and 1000-s cooling at an irradiation location D. This result also shows that the NAS can measure neutron fluence in a long pulse operation condition of ITER. Si is not an appropriate sample material for the long time irradiation because the activity of Si saturates when the irradiation is much longer than the half-life of Si.
Fusion power needed to create 100 μCi samples by the 1000-s irradiation and 1000-s cooling (left) at tally 15, and (right) at tally 25.
The ITER neutron activation system that has been briefly presented in the earlier sections is under development by the Korean Domestic Agency of ITER. Despite the challenges driven by ITER’s unprecedented thermal, electromagnetic and nuclear loads, those driven by high activation in full-power operation leading to very limited personnel access and the highest safety and reliability requirements [7], despite all these aspects, the presented NAS design proves to be suitable to satisfy ITER’s measurement requirements.
IntechOpen aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. We uphold a flexible Copyright Policy, guaranteeing that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their Work.
',metaTitle:"Publication Agreement - Monograph",metaDescription:"IntechOpen aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our authors. For that matter, we uphold a flexible copyright policy meaning that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and authors retain exclusive copyright to their work.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/publication-agreement-monograph",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"When submitting a manuscript, the Author is required to accept the Terms and Conditions set out in our Publication Agreement – Monographs/Compacts as follows:
\\n\\nCORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\\n\\nSubject to the following Article, the Author grants to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright, and any extensions or renewals of that term, the following:
\\n\\nThe foregoing licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Publication Agreement for any reason.
\\n\\nThe Author, on his or her own behalf and on behalf of any of the Co-Authors, reserves the following rights in the Work but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Work as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\\n\\nThe Author, and any Co-Author, confirms that they are, and will remain, a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\\n\\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Work and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process, including all published versions, is retained by the Author and any Co-Authors.
\\n\\nSubject to the license granted above, the Author and Co-Authors retain patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Work.
\\n\\nAll rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the specific approval of the Author or Co-Authors.
\\n\\nThe Author, on his/her own behalf and on behalf of the Co-Authors, will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Work as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Work arising from the translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits as determined by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nAUTHOR'S DUTIES
\\n\\nWhen distributing or re-publishing the Work, the Author agrees to credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Author guarantees that Co-Authors will also credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Work.
\\n\\nThe Author agrees to:
\\n\\nThe Author will be held responsible for the payment of the agreed Open Access Publishing Fee before the completion of the project (Monograph/Compacts publication).
\\n\\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of issue of the invoice. The Author or whoever is paying on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\\n\\nThe Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Work worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen, at its request, the original copies of such consents for inspection or the photocopies of such consents.
\\n\\nThe Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from those who might recognize themselves or be identified by others, for example from case reports or photographs.
\\n\\nThe Author shall respect confidentiality during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Author and Co-Authors are confidential and are intended only for the recipients. The contents of any communication may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\\n\\nAUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\\n\\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm and warrant that the Work does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Work contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy.
\\n\\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm that: (i) the Work is their original work and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Work has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors have not assigned, and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign, any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\\n\\nThe Author and Co-Authors also confirm and warrant that: (i) he/she has the power to enter into this Publication Agreement on his or her own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) has the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Work to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licences in this Publication Agreement. If the Work was prepared jointly by the Author and Co-Authors, the Author confirms that: (i) all Co-Authors agree to the submission, license and publication of the Work on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) the Author has the authority to enter into this biding Publication Agreement on behalf of each Co-Author. The Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each Co-Author.
\\n\\nThe Author agrees to indemnify IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses, as well as all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of, or in connection with, any breach of the agreed confirmations and warranties. This indemnity shall not apply in a situation in which a claim results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\\n\\nNothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\\n\\nTERMINATION
\\n\\nIntechOpen has the right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Author and/or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (being a private individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (as a corporate entity) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for, or enters into, any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\\n\\nIn the event of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Author of the decision in writing.
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\\n\\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen, at its discretion, agrees to publish the Work attributing it to the Author and Co-Authors.
\\n\\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen agrees to provide publishing services which include: managing editing (editorial and publishing process coordination, Author assistance); publishing software technology; language copyediting; typesetting; online publishing; hosting and web management; and abstracting and indexing services.
\\n\\nIntechOpen agrees to offer free online access to readers and use reasonable efforts to promote the Publication to relevant audiences.
\\n\\nIntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors against third parties, for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements. In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Work, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement that is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\\n\\nIntechOpen has the right to include/use the Author and Co-Authors names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Work and has the right to contact the Author and Co-Authors until the Work is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nMISCELLANEOUS
\\n\\nFurther Assurance: The Author shall ensure that any relevant third party, including any Co-Author, shall execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\nThird Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\\n\\nEntire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by, or on behalf of, the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (known as the "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of any fraudulent pre-contract misrepresentation or concealment.
\\n\\nWaiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\\n\\nVariation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall have effect unless it is in writing and signed by the parties, or their duly authorized representatives.
\\n\\nSeverance: If any provision, or part-provision, of this Publication Agreement is, or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted. Any modification to, or deletion of, a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\nNo partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for, or on behalf of, any other party.
\\n\\nGoverning law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim, including non-contractual disputes or claims arising out of, or in connection with it, or its subject matter or formation, shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of, or in connection with, this Publication Agreement, including any non-contractual disputes or claims.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2018-09-11
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'When submitting a manuscript, the Author is required to accept the Terms and Conditions set out in our Publication Agreement – Monographs/Compacts as follows:
\n\nCORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\nSubject to the following Article, the Author grants to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright, and any extensions or renewals of that term, the following:
\n\nThe foregoing licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Publication Agreement for any reason.
\n\nThe Author, on his or her own behalf and on behalf of any of the Co-Authors, reserves the following rights in the Work but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Work as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\n\nThe Author, and any Co-Author, confirms that they are, and will remain, a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Work and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process, including all published versions, is retained by the Author and any Co-Authors.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, the Author and Co-Authors retain patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Work.
\n\nAll rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the specific approval of the Author or Co-Authors.
\n\nThe Author, on his/her own behalf and on behalf of the Co-Authors, will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Work as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Work arising from the translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits as determined by IntechOpen.
\n\nAUTHOR'S DUTIES
\n\nWhen distributing or re-publishing the Work, the Author agrees to credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Author guarantees that Co-Authors will also credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Work.
\n\nThe Author agrees to:
\n\nThe Author will be held responsible for the payment of the agreed Open Access Publishing Fee before the completion of the project (Monograph/Compacts publication).
\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of issue of the invoice. The Author or whoever is paying on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\n\nThe Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Work worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen, at its request, the original copies of such consents for inspection or the photocopies of such consents.
\n\nThe Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from those who might recognize themselves or be identified by others, for example from case reports or photographs.
\n\nThe Author shall respect confidentiality during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Author and Co-Authors are confidential and are intended only for the recipients. The contents of any communication may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\nAUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm and warrant that the Work does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Work contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy.
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm that: (i) the Work is their original work and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Work has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors have not assigned, and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign, any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors also confirm and warrant that: (i) he/she has the power to enter into this Publication Agreement on his or her own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) has the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Work to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licences in this Publication Agreement. If the Work was prepared jointly by the Author and Co-Authors, the Author confirms that: (i) all Co-Authors agree to the submission, license and publication of the Work on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) the Author has the authority to enter into this biding Publication Agreement on behalf of each Co-Author. The Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each Co-Author.
\n\nThe Author agrees to indemnify IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses, as well as all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of, or in connection with, any breach of the agreed confirmations and warranties. This indemnity shall not apply in a situation in which a claim results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\nNothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\nTERMINATION
\n\nIntechOpen has the right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Author and/or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (being a private individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (as a corporate entity) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for, or enters into, any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn the event of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Author of the decision in writing.
\n\nIntechOpen’s DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen, at its discretion, agrees to publish the Work attributing it to the Author and Co-Authors.
\n\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen agrees to provide publishing services which include: managing editing (editorial and publishing process coordination, Author assistance); publishing software technology; language copyediting; typesetting; online publishing; hosting and web management; and abstracting and indexing services.
\n\nIntechOpen agrees to offer free online access to readers and use reasonable efforts to promote the Publication to relevant audiences.
\n\nIntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors against third parties, for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements. In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Work, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement that is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\nIntechOpen has the right to include/use the Author and Co-Authors names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Work and has the right to contact the Author and Co-Authors until the Work is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\nMISCELLANEOUS
\n\nFurther Assurance: The Author shall ensure that any relevant third party, including any Co-Author, shall execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\nThird Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\nEntire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by, or on behalf of, the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (known as the "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of any fraudulent pre-contract misrepresentation or concealment.
\n\nWaiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\n\nVariation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall have effect unless it is in writing and signed by the parties, or their duly authorized representatives.
\n\nSeverance: If any provision, or part-provision, of this Publication Agreement is, or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted. Any modification to, or deletion of, a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\nNo partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for, or on behalf of, any other party.
\n\nGoverning law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim, including non-contractual disputes or claims arising out of, or in connection with it, or its subject matter or formation, shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of, or in connection with, this Publication Agreement, including any non-contractual disputes or claims.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2018-09-11
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5763},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5227},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1717},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10365},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15784}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118187},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasnoeditors:"0",sort:"dateendthirdsteppublish"},books:[],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:14},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:28},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9668",title:"Chemistry and Biochemistry of Winemaking, Wine Stabilization and Aging",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c5484276a314628acf21ec1bdc3a86b9",slug:"chemistry-and-biochemistry-of-winemaking-wine-stabilization-and-aging",bookSignature:"Fernanda Cosme, Fernando M. Nunes and Luís Filipe-Ribeiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9668.jpg",editors:[{id:"186819",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"Cosme",slug:"fernanda-cosme",fullName:"Fernanda Cosme"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7847",title:"Medical Toxicology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db9b65bea093de17a0855a1b27046247",slug:"medical-toxicology",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Tomohisa Ogawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7847.jpg",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8620",title:"Mining Techniques",subtitle:"Past, Present and Future",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b65658f81d14e9e57e49377869d3a575",slug:"mining-techniques-past-present-and-future",bookSignature:"Abhay Soni",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8620.jpg",editors:[{id:"271093",title:"Dr.",name:"Abhay",middleName:null,surname:"Soni",slug:"abhay-soni",fullName:"Abhay Soni"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9660",title:"Inland Waters",subtitle:"Dynamics and Ecology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"975c26819ceb11a926793bc2adc62bd6",slug:"inland-waters-dynamics-and-ecology",bookSignature:"Adam Devlin, Jiayi Pan and Mohammad Manjur Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9660.jpg",editors:[{id:"280757",title:"Dr.",name:"Adam",middleName:"Thomas",surname:"Devlin",slug:"adam-devlin",fullName:"Adam Devlin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9122",title:"Cosmetic Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"207026ca4a4125e17038e770d00ee152",slug:"cosmetic-surgery",bookSignature:"Yueh-Bih Tang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9122.jpg",editors:[{id:"202122",title:"Prof.",name:"Yueh-Bih",middleName:null,surname:"Tang",slug:"yueh-bih-tang",fullName:"Yueh-Bih Tang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9043",title:"Parenting",subtitle:"Studies by an Ecocultural and Transactional Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6d21066c7438e459e4c6fb13217a5c8c",slug:"parenting-studies-by-an-ecocultural-and-transactional-perspective",bookSignature:"Loredana Benedetto and Massimo Ingrassia",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9043.jpg",editors:[{id:"193200",title:"Prof.",name:"Loredana",middleName:null,surname:"Benedetto",slug:"loredana-benedetto",fullName:"Loredana Benedetto"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9731",title:"Oxidoreductase",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"852e6f862c85fc3adecdbaf822e64e6e",slug:"oxidoreductase",bookSignature:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9731.jpg",editors:[{id:"224662",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmoud Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Mansour",slug:"mahmoud-ahmed-mansour",fullName:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5221},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9668",title:"Chemistry and Biochemistry of Winemaking, Wine Stabilization and Aging",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c5484276a314628acf21ec1bdc3a86b9",slug:"chemistry-and-biochemistry-of-winemaking-wine-stabilization-and-aging",bookSignature:"Fernanda Cosme, Fernando M. Nunes and Luís Filipe-Ribeiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9668.jpg",editors:[{id:"186819",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"Cosme",slug:"fernanda-cosme",fullName:"Fernanda Cosme"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7847",title:"Medical Toxicology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db9b65bea093de17a0855a1b27046247",slug:"medical-toxicology",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Tomohisa Ogawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7847.jpg",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8620",title:"Mining Techniques",subtitle:"Past, Present and Future",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b65658f81d14e9e57e49377869d3a575",slug:"mining-techniques-past-present-and-future",bookSignature:"Abhay Soni",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8620.jpg",editors:[{id:"271093",title:"Dr.",name:"Abhay",middleName:null,surname:"Soni",slug:"abhay-soni",fullName:"Abhay Soni"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9660",title:"Inland Waters",subtitle:"Dynamics and Ecology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"975c26819ceb11a926793bc2adc62bd6",slug:"inland-waters-dynamics-and-ecology",bookSignature:"Adam Devlin, Jiayi Pan and Mohammad Manjur Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9660.jpg",editors:[{id:"280757",title:"Dr.",name:"Adam",middleName:"Thomas",surname:"Devlin",slug:"adam-devlin",fullName:"Adam Devlin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9122",title:"Cosmetic Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"207026ca4a4125e17038e770d00ee152",slug:"cosmetic-surgery",bookSignature:"Yueh-Bih Tang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9122.jpg",editors:[{id:"202122",title:"Prof.",name:"Yueh-Bih",middleName:null,surname:"Tang",slug:"yueh-bih-tang",fullName:"Yueh-Bih Tang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8098",title:"Resources of Water",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d251652996624d932ef7b8ed62cf7cfc",slug:"resources-of-water",bookSignature:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran, Muhammad Salik Javaid, Aftab Sadiq",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8098.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"167917",title:"Dr.",name:"Prathna",middleName:null,surname:"Thanjavur Chandrasekaran",slug:"prathna-thanjavur-chandrasekaran",fullName:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8415",title:"Extremophilic Microbes and Metabolites",subtitle:"Diversity, Bioprospecting and Biotechnological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"93e0321bc93b89ff73730157738f8f97",slug:"extremophilic-microbes-and-metabolites-diversity-bioprospecting-and-biotechnological-applications",bookSignature:"Afef Najjari, Ameur Cherif, Haïtham Sghaier and Hadda Imene Ouzari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8415.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196823",title:"Dr.",name:"Afef",middleName:null,surname:"Najjari",slug:"afef-najjari",fullName:"Afef Najjari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9731",title:"Oxidoreductase",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"852e6f862c85fc3adecdbaf822e64e6e",slug:"oxidoreductase",bookSignature:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9731.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"224662",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmoud Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Mansour",slug:"mahmoud-ahmed-mansour",fullName:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"832",title:"Agriculture Engineering",slug:"earth-science-agriculture-engineering",parent:{title:"Earth Science",slug:"earth-science"},numberOfBooks:1,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:54,numberOfWosCitations:35,numberOfCrossrefCitations:14,numberOfDimensionsCitations:49,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"earth-science-agriculture-engineering",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"480",title:"Evapotranspiration",subtitle:"From Measurements to Agricultural and Environmental Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4735bbf66c0f21af0b4ac128140bd3fd",slug:"evapotranspiration-from-measurements-to-agricultural-and-environmental-applications",bookSignature:"Giacomo Gerosa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/480.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"43539",title:"Dr.",name:"Giacomo",middleName:"Al.",surname:"Gerosa",slug:"giacomo-gerosa",fullName:"Giacomo Gerosa"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:1,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"22702",doi:"10.5772/23470",title:"Greenhouse Crop Transpiration Modelling",slug:"greenhouse-crop-transpiration-modelling",totalDownloads:3780,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,book:{slug:"evapotranspiration-from-measurements-to-agricultural-and-environmental-applications",title:"Evapotranspiration",fullTitle:"Evapotranspiration - From Measurements to Agricultural and Environmental Applications"},signatures:"Nikolaos Katsoulas and Constantinos Kittas",authors:[{id:"52150",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantinos",middleName:null,surname:"Kittas",slug:"constantinos-kittas",fullName:"Constantinos Kittas"},{id:"54858",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Nikolaos",middleName:null,surname:"Katsoulas",slug:"nikolaos-katsoulas",fullName:"Nikolaos Katsoulas"}]},{id:"22690",doi:"10.5772/18352",title:"Daily Crop Evapotranspiration, Crop Coefficient and Energy Balance Components of a Surface-Irrigated Maize Field",slug:"daily-crop-evapotranspiration-crop-coefficient-and-energy-balance-components-of-a-surface-irrigated-",totalDownloads:2787,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"evapotranspiration-from-measurements-to-agricultural-and-environmental-applications",title:"Evapotranspiration",fullTitle:"Evapotranspiration - From Measurements to Agricultural and Environmental Applications"},signatures:"José O. Payero and Suat Irmak",authors:[{id:"16997",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose O.",middleName:null,surname:"Payero",slug:"jose-o.-payero",fullName:"Jose O. Payero"},{id:"84779",title:"Dr.",name:"Suat",middleName:null,surname:"Irmak",slug:"suat-irmak",fullName:"Suat Irmak"}]},{id:"22696",doi:"10.5772/17060",title:"Evapotranspiration and Crop Water Stress Index in Mexican Husk Tomatoes (Physalis ixocarpa Brot)",slug:"evapotranspiration-and-crop-water-stress-index-in-mexican-husk-tomatoes-physalis-ixocarpa-brot-",totalDownloads:2840,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"evapotranspiration-from-measurements-to-agricultural-and-environmental-applications",title:"Evapotranspiration",fullTitle:"Evapotranspiration - From Measurements to Agricultural and Environmental Applications"},signatures:"Rutilo López- López, Ramón Arteaga Ramírez, Ignacio Sánchez-Cohen, Waldo Ojeda Bustamante and Victor González-Lauck",authors:[{id:"27133",title:"Dr.",name:"Rutilo",middleName:null,surname:"López",slug:"rutilo-lopez",fullName:"Rutilo López"},{id:"29809",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramón",middleName:null,surname:"Arteaga Ramírez",slug:"ramon-arteaga-ramirez",fullName:"Ramón Arteaga Ramírez"},{id:"29810",title:"Dr.",name:"Victor",middleName:null,surname:"González Lauck",slug:"victor-gonzalez-lauck",fullName:"Victor González Lauck"},{id:"29811",title:"Dr.",name:"Ignacio",middleName:null,surname:"Sánchez Cohen",slug:"ignacio-sanchez-cohen",fullName:"Ignacio Sánchez Cohen"},{id:"83440",title:"Dr.",name:"Waldo",middleName:null,surname:"Ojeda-Bustamante",slug:"waldo-ojeda-bustamante",fullName:"Waldo Ojeda-Bustamante"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"22691",title:"(Evapo)Transpiration Measurements Over Vegetated Surfaces as a Key Tool to Assess the Potential Damages of Air Gaseous Pollutant for Plants",slug:"-evapo-transpiration-measurements-over-vegetated-surfaces-as-a-key-tool-to-assess-the-potential-dama",totalDownloads:2271,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"evapotranspiration-from-measurements-to-agricultural-and-environmental-applications",title:"Evapotranspiration",fullTitle:"Evapotranspiration - From Measurements to Agricultural and Environmental Applications"},signatures:"Giacomo Gerosa, Angelo Finco, Simone Mereu, Antonio Ballarin Denti and Riccardo Marzuoli",authors:[{id:"43539",title:"Dr.",name:"Giacomo",middleName:"Al.",surname:"Gerosa",slug:"giacomo-gerosa",fullName:"Giacomo Gerosa"},{id:"45008",title:"Dr.",name:"Simone",middleName:null,surname:"Mereu",slug:"simone-mereu",fullName:"Simone Mereu"},{id:"45009",title:"Dr.",name:"Angelo",middleName:null,surname:"Finco",slug:"angelo-finco",fullName:"Angelo Finco"},{id:"45010",title:"Dr.",name:"Riccardo",middleName:null,surname:"Marzuoli",slug:"riccardo-marzuoli",fullName:"Riccardo Marzuoli"},{id:"109857",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Ballarin Denti",slug:"antonio-ballarin-denti",fullName:"Antonio Ballarin Denti"}]},{id:"22693",title:"Evapotranspiration and Transpiration Measurements in Crops and Weed Species by the Bowen Ratio and Sapflow Methods Under the Rainless Region Conditions",slug:"evapotranspiration-and-transpiration-measurements-in-crops-and-weed-species-by-the-bowen-ratio-and-s",totalDownloads:2582,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"evapotranspiration-from-measurements-to-agricultural-and-environmental-applications",title:"Evapotranspiration",fullTitle:"Evapotranspiration - From Measurements to Agricultural and Environmental Applications"},signatures:"J. Pivec, V. Brant and K. Hamouzová",authors:[{id:"27554",title:"Dr.",name:"Jan",middleName:null,surname:"Pivec",slug:"jan-pivec",fullName:"Jan Pivec"},{id:"41370",title:"Dr.",name:"Václav",middleName:null,surname:"Brant",slug:"vaclav-brant",fullName:"Václav Brant"},{id:"41371",title:"Dr.",name:"Kateřina",middleName:null,surname:"Hamouzová",slug:"katerina-hamouzova",fullName:"Kateřina Hamouzová"}]},{id:"22699",title:"The Impact of Seawater Salinity on Evapotranspiration and Plant Growth Under Different Meteorological Conditions",slug:"the-impact-of-seawater-salinity-on-evapotranspiration-and-plant-growth-under-different-meteorologica",totalDownloads:2762,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"evapotranspiration-from-measurements-to-agricultural-and-environmental-applications",title:"Evapotranspiration",fullTitle:"Evapotranspiration - From Measurements to Agricultural and Environmental Applications"},signatures:"Ahmed Al-Busaidi and Tahei Yamamoto",authors:[{id:"27042",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Busaidi",slug:"ahmed-al-busaidi",fullName:"Ahmed Al-Busaidi"},{id:"34401",title:"Prof.",name:"Tahei",middleName:null,surname:"Yamamoto",slug:"tahei-yamamoto",fullName:"Tahei Yamamoto"}]},{id:"22706",title:"The Evapotranspiration in Climate Classification",slug:"the-evapotranspiration-in-climate-classification",totalDownloads:7626,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"evapotranspiration-from-measurements-to-agricultural-and-environmental-applications",title:"Evapotranspiration",fullTitle:"Evapotranspiration - From Measurements to Agricultural and Environmental Applications"},signatures:"Antonio Ribeiro da Cunha and Edgar Ricardo Schöffel",authors:[{id:"30377",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio Ribeiro Da",middleName:null,surname:"Cunha",slug:"antonio-ribeiro-da-cunha",fullName:"Antonio Ribeiro Da Cunha"},{id:"46598",title:"Dr.",name:"Edgar Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"Schöffel",slug:"edgar-ricardo-schoffel",fullName:"Edgar Ricardo Schöffel"}]},{id:"22690",title:"Daily Crop Evapotranspiration, Crop Coefficient and Energy Balance Components of a Surface-Irrigated Maize Field",slug:"daily-crop-evapotranspiration-crop-coefficient-and-energy-balance-components-of-a-surface-irrigated-",totalDownloads:2787,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"evapotranspiration-from-measurements-to-agricultural-and-environmental-applications",title:"Evapotranspiration",fullTitle:"Evapotranspiration - From Measurements to Agricultural and Environmental Applications"},signatures:"José O. Payero and Suat Irmak",authors:[{id:"16997",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose O.",middleName:null,surname:"Payero",slug:"jose-o.-payero",fullName:"Jose O. Payero"},{id:"84779",title:"Dr.",name:"Suat",middleName:null,surname:"Irmak",slug:"suat-irmak",fullName:"Suat Irmak"}]},{id:"22687",title:"Spatial and Temporal Variation in Evapotranspiration",slug:"spatial-and-temporal-variation-in-evapotranspiration",totalDownloads:2325,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"evapotranspiration-from-measurements-to-agricultural-and-environmental-applications",title:"Evapotranspiration",fullTitle:"Evapotranspiration - From Measurements to Agricultural and Environmental Applications"},signatures:"Jerry L. Hatfield and John H. Prueger",authors:[{id:"29632",title:"Dr.",name:"Jerry",middleName:null,surname:"Hatfield",slug:"jerry-hatfield",fullName:"Jerry Hatfield"},{id:"37516",title:"Dr.",name:"John",middleName:"H.",surname:"Prueger",slug:"john-prueger",fullName:"John Prueger"}]},{id:"22692",title:"Evapotranspiration Partitioning Techniques for Improved Water Use Efficiency",slug:"evapotranspiration-partitioning-techniques-for-improved-water-use-efficiency",totalDownloads:1957,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"evapotranspiration-from-measurements-to-agricultural-and-environmental-applications",title:"Evapotranspiration",fullTitle:"Evapotranspiration - From Measurements to Agricultural and Environmental Applications"},signatures:"Adel Zeggaf Tahiri",authors:[{id:"27245",title:"Dr.",name:"Adel",middleName:null,surname:"Zeggaf Tahiri",slug:"adel-zeggaf-tahiri",fullName:"Adel Zeggaf Tahiri"}]},{id:"22697",title:"Evapotranspiration Partitioning in Surface and Subsurface Drip Irrigation Systems",slug:"evapotranspiration-partitioning-in-surface-and-subsurface-drip-irrigation-systems",totalDownloads:1735,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"evapotranspiration-from-measurements-to-agricultural-and-environmental-applications",title:"Evapotranspiration",fullTitle:"Evapotranspiration - From Measurements to Agricultural and Environmental Applications"},signatures:"Hossein Dehghanisanij and Hanieh Kosari",authors:[{id:"27340",title:"Dr.",name:"Hossein",middleName:null,surname:"Dehghanisanij",slug:"hossein-dehghanisanij",fullName:"Hossein Dehghanisanij"},{id:"119429",title:"MSc.",name:"Hanieh",middleName:null,surname:"Kosari",slug:"hanieh-kosari",fullName:"Hanieh Kosari"}]},{id:"22698",title:"Saving Water in Arid and Semi-Arid Countries as a Result of Optimising Crop Evapotranspiration",slug:"saving-water-in-arid-and-semi-arid-countries-as-a-result-of-optimising-crop-evapotranspiration",totalDownloads:2031,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"evapotranspiration-from-measurements-to-agricultural-and-environmental-applications",title:"Evapotranspiration",fullTitle:"Evapotranspiration - From Measurements to Agricultural and Environmental Applications"},signatures:"Salah El-Hendawy, Mohamed Alboghdady, Jun-Ichi Sakagami and Urs Schmidhalter",authors:[{id:"30212",title:"Dr.",name:"Salah",middleName:"El-Sayed",surname:"El-Hendawy",slug:"salah-el-hendawy",fullName:"Salah El-Hendawy"},{id:"59897",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:"Altabei",surname:"Alboghdady",slug:"mohamed-alboghdady",fullName:"Mohamed Alboghdady"},{id:"65293",title:"Dr.",name:"Jun-Ichi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakagami",slug:"jun-ichi-sakagami",fullName:"Jun-Ichi Sakagami"},{id:"91262",title:"Prof.",name:"Urs",middleName:null,surname:"Schmidhalter",slug:"urs-schmidhalter",fullName:"Urs Schmidhalter"}]},{id:"22700",title:"Modelling Evapotranspiration of Container Crops for Irrigation Scheduling",slug:"modelling-evapotranspiration-of-container-crops-for-irrigation-scheduling",totalDownloads:2832,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"evapotranspiration-from-measurements-to-agricultural-and-environmental-applications",title:"Evapotranspiration",fullTitle:"Evapotranspiration - From Measurements to Agricultural and Environmental Applications"},signatures:"Laura Bacci, Piero Battista, Mariateresa Cardarelli, Giulia Carmassi, Youssef Rouphael, Luca Incrocci, Fernando Malorgio, Alberto Pardossi, Bernardo Rapi and Giuseppe Colla",authors:[{id:"32277",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Bacci",slug:"laura-bacci",fullName:"Laura Bacci"},{id:"32299",title:"Dr.",name:"Piero",middleName:null,surname:"Battista",slug:"piero-battista",fullName:"Piero Battista"},{id:"32300",title:"Dr.",name:"Giulia",middleName:null,surname:"Carmassi",slug:"giulia-carmassi",fullName:"Giulia Carmassi"},{id:"32301",title:"Dr.",name:"Giuseppe",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"giuseppe-colla",fullName:"Giuseppe Colla"},{id:"32302",title:"Dr.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"Incrocci",slug:"luca-incrocci",fullName:"Luca Incrocci"},{id:"32303",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Malorgio",slug:"fernando-malorgio",fullName:"Fernando Malorgio"},{id:"32304",title:"Prof.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Pardossi",slug:"alberto-pardossi",fullName:"Alberto Pardossi"},{id:"32305",title:"Mr",name:"Bernardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rapi",slug:"bernardo-rapi",fullName:"Bernardo Rapi"},{id:"43795",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Teresa",middleName:null,surname:"Cardarelli",slug:"maria-teresa-cardarelli",fullName:"Maria Teresa Cardarelli"},{id:"83348",title:"Dr.",name:"Youssef",middleName:null,surname:"Rouphael",slug:"youssef-rouphael",fullName:"Youssef Rouphael"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"earth-science-agriculture-engineering",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/books/two-dimensional-materials-synthesis-characterization-and-potential-applications/design-assembly-and-fabrication-of-two-dimensional-nanomaterials-into-functional-biomimetic-device-s",hash:"",query:{},params:{book:"two-dimensional-materials-synthesis-characterization-and-potential-applications",chapter:"design-assembly-and-fabrication-of-two-dimensional-nanomaterials-into-functional-biomimetic-device-s"},fullPath:"/books/two-dimensional-materials-synthesis-characterization-and-potential-applications/design-assembly-and-fabrication-of-two-dimensional-nanomaterials-into-functional-biomimetic-device-s",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()