\r\n\tSince the banning of use of lead in the electronics/microelectronics we observe that the average life of electronic gadgets is reduced in recent times (which were quite high earlier). Early failure of various consumer electronic gadgets has been often linked with the absence of a good lead free solder material which can withstand various service exposed conditions. Hence it has become a challenge to the researchers to optimize properties of environment friendly lead free solder material that is capable of withstanding high temperature and high level of stress thus exhibits high reliability and simultaneously enhance the service life of the electronic gadgets. Hence, the need to fill in several knowledge gaps related to reliability and reliability prediction of lead-free solder alloys is realized.
\r\n\tThis book shall discuss the cutting age research in the field of lead free solder and its processing, characterizations and further developmental aspects.
Multinodular goiter (MNG) is a clinicopathological entity characterized by an increased volume of the thyroid gland with formation of nodules. Goiter is defined as a thyroid gland weighing over 20-25g or with a volume of over 19ml in women and 25ml in men. [1-2] Gross examination of a MNG specimen with full-blown features would reveal a heterogeneous formation of solid and cystic nodules. A solid nodule can be adenoma, as defined by possession of a well-formed capsule, or more commonly a hyperplastic nodule, which lacks a complete encapsulation. Cystic lesions can be colloid cysts or hemorrhagic cyst from a degenerated nodule. Lymphocytic infiltration and fibrous deposition among the follicular parenchyma is a common microscopic observation seen in about 10% of cases. [3, 4]
MNG is endemic in regions with low iodine level in the soil, such as countries in the mountainous areas in South-East Asia, Latin America and Central Africa. The World Health Organization reported a worldwide iodine deficiency rate of 9. 8 – 56. 9% and total goiter prevalence of 4. 7 – 37. 3% by year 2003. [5] The Whickham study conducted in the 1970s found 15. 5% of participants had a palpable goiter with a female to male ratio of 4. 5 to 1. [6] In the iodine-deficient Danish population, the goiter prevalence is 9. 8 – 14. 6%. [7] And in the iodine sufficient areas of Framingham, Massachusetts and Connecticut, the goiter prevalence is 1 – 2%. [8-10] By ultrasound screening, the prevalence of nodular goiter worldwide ranges between 15 – 22. 6%. [11] Thyroid nodules are more commonly diagnosed in women, with incidence increasing with age and plateauing by the age of 60. Other risk factors for developing thyroid nodules and increased thyroid volume include number of childbirths, smoking and increased body mass index. [12-13]
The pathogenesis of MNG encompasses processes of diffuse follicular hyperplasia, focal nodular proliferation and eventual acquisition of functional automaticity. The development of MNG is a result of long-term exposure of the thyroid gland to proliferative stimuli, such as iodine deficiency, goitrogens and inborn error of thyroid hormone synthesis. All of the above results in insufficient thyroid hormone production and stimulate pituitary secretion of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH).
TSH is a glycoprotein with stimulatory effect on the trophic and iodine metabolism pathway in the thyroid follicular cells. TSH binding to the cell membrane G protein-coupled receptor activates the cAMP and phospholipase C signalling pathways, which in turn upregulates the process of iodine uptake and organification, thyroglobulin synthesis, iodotyrosine coupling and iodothyronine (T3, T4) secretion, leading to a short-term response in thyroid hormone production. [14] In the long-term, TSH also stimulates proliferation of follicular cells to increase the functional mass of thyroid gland. Clinically, TSH stimulation results in enlargement of thyroid gland, increased radio-iodine uptake and increased T4 and T3 levels. (Figure 1)
Regulation of thyroid hormone production
Nodule formation is postulated to be the result of both an inherent and acquired heterogeneity in proliferative and functional upregulation of the follicular cells. The thyroid follicular cells are inherently heterogeneous with regard to thyroid hormone production and proliferation in response to TSH stimulation, such that under intermediate level of stimulation, a subpopulation of follicular cells outgrows other cells and expand into macroscopic nodules. [15] On the other hand, follicular cells acquiring activating somatic mutations in the cell proliferation pathways can expand clonally to form a nodule. About 60 – 70% of nodules form by the later mechanism and are monoclonal in origin. Somatic mutations leading to constitutive activation of TSH receptors are found in about 60% of autonomously functioning nodules. The remaining 40% of functioning nodules are TSH receptor mutation negative with poorly understood genetic mechanism behind.
An adenoma with reduced iodine uptake is scintigraphically detected as a “cold nodule”. A defective iodine transport (membrane expression of sodium / iodine symporter protein) and iodine organification is implicated in the hypofunctionality. However, the molecular event accounting for the proliferative advantage is yet to be identified. [16] Unlike thyroid carcinomas, which also manifest as cold nodules in scintigraphy, BRAF and ras mutation are uncommon in benign cold adenoma. [17, 18] Recently, oestrogen was shown to stimulate growth of thyroid progenitor cells while simultaneously inhibiting the expression of sodium / iodine symporter mRNA, providing a possible explanation of growth / function dissociation in cold thyroid adenomas. [19]
Although the majority of thyroid nodules are benign, about 5-10% of nodules may harbour a cancerous focus. In addition, it is known that about 6% of goiter patients eventually develop thyroid cancer, especially from MNG to thyroid cancer, suggesting a possible progression from benign thyroid lesions to malignant disease. [20] More recently, one group has identified a germline missense mutation (1016C>T) in TITF-1/NKX2. 1 encoding a mutant TTF-1 protein (A339V), which may contribute to predisposition for MNG patients to papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC), further highlighting a causal link between these two diseases. [21] Ectopic expression of the A339V mutant protein in a normal rat thyroid PCCL3 cell line results in a significant up-regulation of cellular proliferation of these thyroid cells and promotes their TSH-independent growth, which was in part attributed to activated Stat3 survival signal in these cells.
The natural history of MNG is nodular growth and acquisition of autonomy. Yet not all patients with nodular goiter will progress to develop compressive or thyrotoxic complications that indicates treatment intervention. The reported incidence rate of nodule growth is 39% of patients over a period of 5 years in the North America, 2 – 56% of patients over 2 – 5 years in European countries and 21% over 11 years in Japan. Nodule with cystic component is less likely to grow than solid nodules. Patient’s age, gender or nodule size and function at presentation did not predict subsequent growth of nodules. Based on cross-sectional studies, the age-related increase in thyroid volume in patients with MNG is 4. 5% per year. [16, 22]
Functional autonomy develops in long-standing MNGs. Thyroid autonomy in euthyroid nodular goiters, as determined by presence of TSH suppression by thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) stimulation tests and failure of T3 suppression of radio-iodine uptake, was shown to precede development of biochemical and overt hyperthyroidism. Up to 40% of euthyroid goiters harbour areas of autonomy.
Transition to overt hyperthyroidism in euthyroid MNGs occurs at an incidence rate of 9 – 10% over a period of 7 – 12 years. Development of hyperthyroidism is more likely in patients with autonomously functioning nodules of larger than 3cm and an autonomous goiter volume of 16ml. Hyperthyroidism can be induced by exposing an autonomous gland to excessive iodine, such as the iodine-containing amiodarone. [23–25]
Clinical evaluation of MNG aims at establishing diagnosis and clinical stage of disease, stratifying risk of occurrence of malignancy, identifying indications for thyroid ablation and addressing patient’s concern.
Diagnosis of MNG is usually straight forward with the readily evaluable location of the thyroid gland. Clinically inconspicuous MNG are usually documented by imaging studies covering the neck and thoracic inlet performed for unrelated indications. MNGs with predominant retrosternal component are difficult to diagnose with patients undergoing prolonged investigations for symptoms of exertional or recumbent dyspnoea that mimic asthma, congestive heart failure or obstructive sleep apnoea. The tell-tail clue leading to thoracic inlet imaging and diagnosis of retrosternal goiter is frequently a flow-volume loop spirometry suggesting extra-thoracic airway obstruction or chest X-ray showing a mediastinal shadow causing tracheal deviation. Symptoms arising from airway irritation, compression and dragging by the goiter should be noted and addressed in patient counselling for treatment indications. Physical findings of nodule consistency and mobility, cervical lymphadenopathy, tracheal deviation, retromanubrial extension, thoracic outlet obstruction and thyrotoxicosis are determined. When thyrotoxicosis is suspected, the differential diagnosis of Grave’s disease with nodules should be considered and the signs specific to Grave’s disease, including ophthalmopathy and pre-tibial myxoedema be documented.
Serum thyroid stimulating hormone and free serum thyroxine levels are measured to determine the functioning status of the nodular goiter. A suppressed TSH level is commonly found in long-standing MNGs in which functional autonomy has developed. Hypothyroidism, on the other hand, may suggest Hashimoto thyroiditis and measurement of anti-thyroperoxidase antibody titre helps to confirm the diagnosis.
Thyroid scintigraphy using iodine-123 or technetium-99m is recommended for patients with suppressed serum TSH level to determine the relative iodine uptake of a nodule in contrast to its adjacent thyroid tissue. A hyperfunctioning nodule that can account for the thyrotoxicosis carries low risk of malignancy and further investigation is not required. An index nodule that is iso-or hypofunctional against the rest of thyroid gland has a reported malignancy risk of 3% to 15% and should be investigated with fine needle aspiration cytology (FNAC). [26-29]
Evaluating for risk of malignancy in MNG follows the same approach as in solitary thyroid nodules. Demographical risk factors include age of < 20 or > 60 years, male gender, history of head and neck irradiation, history of multiple endocrine neoplasia or family history of thyroid cancer. Suspicious symptoms include progressive enlargement, recent onset of voice change, airway irritation and compression. Objective physical findings of hard and fixed nodule, size > 4cm, cervical lymphadenopathy and vocal cord paralysis all points to features of local-regional invasion and prompts investigation for definitive diagnosis. If the rarer entity of medullary carcinoma is suspected from a positive family history or features of multiple endocrine neoplasia (type 2), spot serum calcitonin level should be measured as a screening test. A 33% risk of malignancy is reported in avid nodules detected by fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography (18FDG-PET), so such nodules should also undergo cytological evaluation. [30]
Use of ultrasound as routine clinical examination has compensated for the lack of sensitivity and precision of neck palpation alone in determining the number and size of nodules. Fifty percent of patients with single palpable thyroid nodule will demonstrate additional nodules when ultrasound exam is performed. More importantly, nodules with high risk features of malignancy, including irregular margin, lack of circumferential halo, heterogenous echogenecity, increased vascularity and presence of microcalcification, can be selected for cytological sampling.
FNAC is an accurate, safe, simple, and cost-effective investigation in the evaluation of nodular goiter. Diagnostic performance of FNAC is enhanced by ultrasound guidance in the identification of nodules with high risk features for aspiration. In complex cystic lesions, ultrasound guidance also allows positioning of needle to the solid component while avoiding acellular cystic area. Availability of pre-operative diagnostic information has increased diagnostic yield of thyroidectomies while reducing the number of surgeries performed for suspected malignancy by 35 – 75%. [31–33]
A review of diagnostic performance of FNAC reported a sensitivity of 65 – 98% and specificity of 72 – 100% for the detection of thyroid carcinoma. In general, the relative frequencies of FNAC findings in thyroid nodules are benign in 69%, suspicious 10%, malignant 4% and non-diagnostic in 17%. [34] In the “non-diagnostic” category, repeating FNA under ultrasound guidance will produce satisfactory specimen in 50% of the cases. The risk of malignancy in nodules with non-diagnostic cytology is 2 – 9%, and such lesions should be closely monitored or excised for histological evaluation. The category of “suspicious” cytology includes findings of follicular and Hurthle cell neoplasm. Differentiation between adenoma and carcinoma cannot be made because histological evidence of capsular or vascular invasion cannot be obtained from cytological examination. In patients referred for surgery for suspicious cytology, 20 – 30% are proven to have carcinoma on final pathology. [35-36] Molecular markers upregulated in thyroid carcinomas are being evaluated for their diagnostic value. Detection of protein markers (Galectin-3, HBME-1, cytokeratin-19, telomerase) by immunocytochemistry, gene mutations (BRAF, RAS, RET/PTC rearrangement, PAX8-PPARγ) by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), microRNAs by reverse transcriptase PCR, or multi-gene assays. [37] Yet a test with sufficient sensitivity that allows exclusion of malignancy in an indeterminate cytological category is still awaited. [38]
MNG is benign disease with slow progression and at different stage of its natural history presents with different clinical problems. The clinical problem at earlier stage of disease before gross enlargement of the thyroid gland is usually a concerning dominant nodule, while later in the course patients tends to present with the mass effect of a voluminous goiter or hyperthyroidism. The indications of treatment include suspected or confirmed malignancy, thyrotoxicosis, goiters giving rise to compressive, irritative symptoms or cosmetic concern. Only the management of benign non-toxic MNG is discussed in the following text.
Asymptomatic non-toxic MNG with malignancy being ruled-out should be observed clinically or with ultrasound surveillance for nodule growth. TSH suppression by levothyroxine was shown to prevent increase in nodule size but nodule growth resumed after cessation of therapy. Long-term TSH suppression with levothyroxine is not recommended because of the increased risk of cardiac arrhythmia and osteoporosis associated with chronic subclinical hyperthyroidism. [39-40]
Evidence of significant mass effect of a nodular goiter, including symptoms of recumbent or exertional dyspnoea and signs of tracheal deviation and thoracic inlet obstruction, prompts amelioration by radio-iodine or surgery.
131I radio-iodine is effective in reducing volume of euthyroid MNG with a response rate of 80%. Volume reductions at 1 to 3 years are up to 40 – 60% respectively, with half of volume reduction occurring within 3 months of treatment. The efficacy of radio-iodine is proportional to the absorbed radiation dose, which in turn depends on the goiter volume and functioning status. Therefore, in goiters with less than 20% radioactive iodine uptake, conventional 131iodine therapy is not recommended as an unacceptably high dose of radioactivity would be required to achieve satisfactory goiter volume reduction. Pre-treatment with rhTSH before 131iodine administration can stimulate radioactive iodine uptake and was shown by randomized controlled trials to increase goiter volume reduction by 35 – 56%. rhTSH-augmentation may therefore extend the application of 131iodine therapy in euthyroid multinodular goiters by reducing the radioactive dose requirement, especially in goiters with low radioactive iodine intake. [41] Adverse effects of radio-iodine include radiation thyroiditis in 3%, transient thyrotoxicosis in 5% and later hypothyroidism in 22 – 58% in 5 – 8 years after therapy. For large goiters, radio-iodine is probably an inferior option due to incomplete volume reduction, requirement of higher radiation dose and, transient post-treatment increase in thyroid volume leading to risk of airway compression.
Surgery provides instantaneous relief of pressure effects and cosmetic concern of MNG. Subtotal thyroidectomy carries low risk of recurrent laryngeal nerve injury and hypoparathyroidism but results in a recurrence rate up to 40% in the long term. Total thyroidectomy can achieve a negligible recurrence rate [42] and carries low complication rate in specialized centers, with < 1% risk of permanent recurrent laryngeal nerve injury or hypoparathyroidism, even in the elderly population where massive goiters are more common. [43] Due to the loss of normal tissue plane and anatomical relationship between the thyroid tissue, recurrent laryngeal nerve and parathyroid glands, reoperating on a previously explored surgical field carries a 3-to 10-fold increase in risk of permanent recurrent laryngeal nerve damage or hypoparathyroidism, rendering sub-total thyroidectomy the less preferred option. [44] Total thyroidectomy has an added advantage in case of incidentally diagnosed thyroid carcinoma, which is diagnosed in about 10% of MNG specimens [45], that completion thyroidectomy is avoided. Other forms of thyroid resection, namely hemithyroidectomy or hemithyroidectomy with contralateral subtotal resection (Dunhill’s operation) may have merits in the management of selected patient group, such as those with predominantly unilateral disease and without pre-operative suspicion of malignancy. Hemithyroidectomy has the advantage of preserving thyroid function in 65 – 88% of cases and avoiding life-long thyroxine replacement. [46-47] A summary of management of MNG is schematically presented in Figure 2.
TRH, thyrotropin releasing hormone; TSH, thyroid stimulating hormone; Tg, thyroglobulin; NIS, sodium-iodine symporter; TPO, thyroperoxidase; DIT, di-iodotyrosine; MIT, monoiodotyrosine.
Management of a multinodular goiter (MNG)
For improving efficiency, an increasing number of devices are operated at high-voltage levels to reduce losses in power transmission and power conversion. In the case of energy and power systems for electrical vehicles (EVs), a high-efficiency electrical device can be achieved using a high-voltage design. State-of-charge (SoC) and state-of-health (SoH) define the capability and reliability of a high-voltage battery, respectively. To determine these two parameters instantaneously, it is required to develop a simple, training-free, and easily implemented scheme. Based on an equivalent-circuit model (ECM), the electrical performance of a battery can be formulated into a state-space representation. Besides, underdetermined model parameters can be arranged linearly so that an adaptive control approach can be applied [1]. However, electric shock may be harmful to passengers if insulation failure occurs. As insulation resistance in EVs varies with the operation environment and the reliability of the dielectric material [2], an online insulation-fault detection method is required to ensure that the insulation resistance stays within safe limits before startup or during the operation of high-voltage systems.
To ensure electrical safety in high insulation resistance, insulation inspection technologies have been widely applied in distribution networks [3, 4, 5] and EVs [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13]. To analyze the dynamic insulation signals, the monitoring circuit is conventionally modeled by using two individual resistors connected with a DC high-voltage line to the earth ground. The basic concept used in estimating these two resistance values is to connect an additional circuit bridge composed of resistors and switches to obtain the differential current loops and corresponding voltages [8, 9, 10, 11], but the resistance can only be measured if no current is conducted. As a result, these methods are barely suitable even for offline detection. A more practical approach for online detection is to continuously inject an excitation pulse signal into the negative terminal through a capacitor. The insulation resistance value can be acquired by analyzing the time-constant or the amplitude of the voltage waveform [12, 13]. However, parasitic or stray capacitance generally occurs in insulation loops, and causes considerable estimation error if they are ignored in the circuit model. In this chapter, we employ one typical capacitance in the monitoring circuit and propose a new adaptive algorithm for estimating both the resistance and capacitance values.
To follow the process illustrated by Sottile and Tripathi [14], the high-voltage system we consider in this chapter could be an EV driving system that is powered by a high-voltage battery or a UPS that stores electricity to provide emergency power. As illustrated in Figure 1, a high-voltage system consists of a high-voltage battery pack, an inverter, a converter, an AC load, and an AC source. The DC sides of the inverter and converter are connected in parallel with the high-voltage battery pack. The AC side of the inverter is connected to a two-phase or three-phase load. In other cases, the AC side of the converter could be connected to a two-phase or three-phase source. Here, to consider an EV power system, we assume the AC load to be a traction motor driven by an inverter, with the converter acting as a charger that converts AC power from the grid or generator to DC power for charging the battery pack. In a UPS or a renewable energy system, however, both the AC load and source have the same grid network. Moreover, the inverter must be properly controlled to deliver power in phase with the grid power waveform.
Proposed insulation monitoring circuit.
The DC power line of the circuit connected to the high-voltage system is electrically isolated from the enclosure, i.e., the ground or chassis. Thus, we can determine the insulation status by measuring or estimating the resistance between the node on the positive-voltage line (+) or negative-voltage line (−) and the node with the equivalent electric potential to the ground. The electrical insulation in such a high-voltage system can be simply modeled by a resistor and a stray capacitor in a parallel connection, as shown in Figure 1, where Rp/Rn and Cp/Cn denote the positive/negative-line resistance and capacitance of the high-voltage system, respectively. We note that stray capacitance, which has been essentially ignored in previous studies, may yield considerable error in the RC circuit of the voltage waveform. In this work, we consider this higher-order dynamic response in our estimation model, and thus expect a more accurate result. To address this situation, our proposed insulation monitoring circuit, powered by the low-voltage battery Vs, has two outputs that are connected to the positive and negative nodes of the high-voltage system, as shown in Figure 1. In the monitoring circuit, we programmed an MCU (micro-control unit) to generate a PWM (pulse-width modulation) signal with a random duty-width sequence d(t), which can be obtained by the PRBS (pseudo random binary sequence) method, which is widely used in systematic identification processes to fully excite the system dynamics. One example of a PWM signal is that shown in Figure 2, where d(t) denotes the time-varying duty of the PWM, T is the time period, and Vw(t) is the PWM output with ON and OFF voltage levels. The isolated PWM circuit generates random magnitude voltages in response to the random duty cycle sent from the MCU. Several topologies can achieve isolation and multiple-voltage generation on demand. For example, a photo-coupler provides electrical isolation and regulates the time for charging the output capacitor Cf, as illustrated in Figure 3(a). We use the diode D1 between the Rf and the external R to prevent any indirect connection to the ground via the Rf when the photo-coupler is turned ON. More specifically, we impose an R + Rf insulation resistance for the system when the coupler is turned ON, without diode D1 as a barrier. The other feasible topology is to isolate the DC/DC converter, such as a forward converter, a fly back converter, or a push–pull converter, as shown in Figure 3(b). With this method, Vc is a DC source that can be generated from the external low-voltage source Vs. Then, the random voltage signal passes through a resistor R and is injected into a node on the negative line of the DC link. Three voltage measurements are required in this method, as shown in Figure 1. Vb is the voltage of the high-voltage system. Vn is the voltage between the high-voltage negative terminal and the ground, and Vg is the output voltage of the isolation circuit. The MCU continuously reads the instantaneously measured voltage for the online estimation of the insulation resistance Rp as well as Rn, using the derived adaptive control algorithm.
PWM signal generated using the PRBS method. (a) Photo-coupler circuit for electrical isolation and multiple-voltage generation. (b) General topology of the isolated DC/DC converter.
Several topologies for implementing the proposed isolation circuit.
This high-voltage system connected to the insulation monitoring circuit can be modeled as an equivalent circuit, as illustrated in Figure 4, where Vb is the voltage of the high-voltage battery pack, Va is the voltage of the two- or three-phase AC source or AC machine, the inverter/converter block is the power electronic circuit used to convert power between the AC and DC power stages, and Vg is the output voltage of the isolation circuit. Rp/Rn is the insulation resistor between the ground and the positive/negative terminal of the high-voltage battery pack. Cp and Cn are stray capacitors connected in parallel with Rp and Rn, respectively. Resistor R, which connects the positive terminal of the random voltage sources Vg and the negative terminal of the battery voltage Vb, forms a closed loop between the monitoring circuit and the high-voltage system. We note that the battery voltage Vb, the ground G, and the other insulation resistors and parallel capacitors form the other loop in the circuit.
Equivalent circuit model for the insulation monitoring system.
Therefore, we estimate the insulation resistances Rn and Rp online by an algorithm that is based on the adaptive control law. According to Kirchhoff’s circuit laws, the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 4 can be described as follows:
Substituting Eq. (1) into Eq. (2), together with
yields:
which can be rewritten as follows:
Let us define the parametric vector as follows:
and the variable vector as:
such that the dynamics of the insulation monitoring system are formulated as follows:
where the parametric vector includes all the resistance and capacitance values that must be known and the variable vector is composed of the variables that can be evaluated from all the measurements in the system, i.e.,
If we suppose all the actual parameter values and the voltage
where
Invoking the Lyapunov stability criteria shows that the positive-definite function:
will approach zero for the negative semi-definite of its derivative; that is:
provided that the adaptation law is as follows:
where
Figure 5 shows a calculation flowchart for estimating the insulation resistance. A detailed description of the process is as follows:
Start the online estimation at time t0. The initial values of the estimated insulation resistance can be updated with the latest value in memory for faster convergence.
The voltage values are acquired from the measured Vg, Vn, and Vp values.
The estimated voltage error is computed by Eq. (7) together with the updated parameters, where the initial value of the estimated Vn can be identical to the measurement.
Based on the measured voltage data and estimated Vn, the adaptive algorithm given in Eq. (11) updates the parameter. The updated parameters are sent to the previous and following steps.
The insulation resistances are calculated by Eq. (12) based on the updated parameters. The minimum value is used to check whether it is under the predetermined threshold. If so, it is shown in the indicator.
The waiting time required for the parameters’ convergence is calculated and Tm is empirically set up to avoid misjudgment.
Either the insulation resistance or an alert message is displayed, depending on whether it is below the mandatory threshold.
For continuous online monitoring, once started, this flow is an infinite loop.
Flowchart for online parameter estimation.
To verify the proposed algorithm, for simplicity, we assumed a scenario in which an electric vehicle is driven on the road such that the battery and AC line voltages are Vb = 350 V and Va = 0 V, respectively. We set the initial insulation resistances at the positive and negative terminals to earth to be within the safety level, i.e., Rp(t = 0 s) = 600 kΩ and Rn(t = 0 s) = 500 kΩ, respectively. After 60 s, we degraded Rn(t = 60 s) to 100 kΩ, and after 120 s, we did the same for Rp(t = 120 s). To precisely characterize the electrical behavior of the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 4, we considered their parallel parasitic capacitances to be invariant at Cp = 0.3 uF and Cn = 0.2 uF. For the insulation resistance monitor, we selected the resistor R to be 20 kΩ, and we initially guessed the estimated values for Rp/Rn to be 350 kΩ/100 kΩ.
We constructed the circuit model and the estimation algorithm using Simulink software. The simulation estimation results for Rp and Rn are depicted in Figures 6 and 7, respectively. These figures show that the estimated Rp approaches the actual value within 20 s, but the estimated Rn converges to the actual value after 50 s. The relative error between actual and estimated values are both less than 1%. With respect to two degradation cases that sequentially occur on the negative and positive terminals, we found that either of the degradations would yield some fluctuation in the estimated value on the opposite side, particularly a case in which the degradation occurs on the positive terminal. As a consequence, it requires more time for convergence, i.e., 20 and 240 s for the degradations occurring on the negative and positive sides, respectively. This is because the proposed circuit is directly connected to the negative terminal, which makes it more sensitive to voltage variations across the negative terminal and chassis ground. In other words, the high battery voltage Vb would attenuate the excitation signal coming from the negative side. Nevertheless, the simulation verifies that the proposed algorithm can estimate the actual insulation resistance and monitor its variation in the circuit model, while also considering the parasitic capacitance, as shown in Figure 4. To avoid false alarms due to ground fault detection when using this method, fault counting is necessary over a period of time.
Estimation of Rp.
Estimation of Rn.
To simply validate the proposed algorithm in the laboratory, we connected a variable resistor to the proposed circuit to form a left-hand side loop of the circuit shown in Figure 4, in which the resistance, as represented by Rn, is the value to be estimated. Due to the simplicity of the single loop circuit, using Kirchhoff’s current law, Rn can be evaluated in a straightforward manner, as follows:
On the other hand, we modify the estimated model to yield:
The experimental results are shown in Figure 8. In Figure 8(a), the two estimated parameters converge after 25 s. In Figure 8(b), we depict the online estimated resistances based on the straight evaluation of Eq. (8) and the proposed method in Eq. (9). It is realized that the estimated value by using the straight evaluation varies roughly 10% between its maximum and minimum values. This may be due to either measurement noise or the dynamic uncertainty of the parasitic capacitance. However, the proposed method shows a steadier and more exact estimation after the convergence of the model parameters.
Experimental results. (a) Estimated parameters θ̂1 and θ̂2. (b) Estimated resistances of the two models.
In this chapter, to improve existing techniques for enhancing the safety and reliability of high-voltage systems, we proposed a new insulation resistance online monitoring method for EV high-voltage DC lines, which takes into account the parasitic capacitance effect. The estimation scheme based on an adaptive control algorithm guarantees the asymptotical convergence of the parameters in the circuit model. Hence, as demonstrated in our simulation and experimental results, this method can steadily and accurately track the insulation resistance even when the parasitic capacitance is unknown. Due to the simplicity of the proposed algorithm and circuit, they can be easily implemented via electronic circuit design in real cases. According to the results, the estimated Rp and Rn converge to the actual value in 50 s. The relative error between actual and estimated values are both less than 1%. With respect to two degradation cases that sequentially occur on the negative and positive terminals, it requires more time for convergence, i.e., 20 and 240 s for the degradations occurring on the negative and positive sides, respectively.
AC | alternating current |
BMS | battery management system |
DC | direct current |
DC/DC | conversion of a DC source from one voltage level to another |
ECM | equivalent-circuit model |
EV | electric vehicle |
MCU | micro-control unit |
PRBS | pseudo random binary sequence |
PWM | pulse-width modulation |
SoC | state of charge |
SoH | state of health |
UPS | uninterrupted power supply |
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\\n\\nAcademic editors and reviewers are required to declare any non-financial, financial and material conflicts of interest that could influence their fair and balanced evaluation of manuscripts. If such conflict exists with regards to a submitted manuscript, academic editors and reviewers should exclude themselves from handling it.
\\n\\nAll contributors (authors, academic editors, and reviewers) are required to declare all possible financial and material conflicts of interest in last five years, although older relevant conflicts of interest should be declared too.
\\n\\nFor example:
\\n\\nAuthors should declare if they were or they still are academic editors of the publications in which they want to publish their work.
\\n\\nAuthors should declare if they are board members of an organization that could benefit financially or materially from the publication of their work.
\\n\\nAcademic editors should declare if they were coauthors or they have worked on the research project with the author who submitted a manuscript.
\\n\\nAcademic editors should declare if the author of a submitted manuscript is affiliated with the same department, faculty, institute, or company as they are.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-09
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"A conflict of interest is a situation in which a person's professional judgment may be influenced by different factors such as financial gain, material interest or some other personal or professional interest. For IntechOpen as a publisher, it is important to avoid all possible conflicts of interest. Each contributor — author, editor, or reviewer — who suspects he or she has a conflict of interest is obliged to declare it in order to make the publisher and the readership aware of its possible influence. A conflict of interest can be identified in different phases of the publishing process.
\n\nTherefore, IntechOpen requires:
\n\nAUTHOR'S CONFLICT OF INTEREST
\n\nAll authors are obliged to declare every existing or possible conflict of interest, including financial, personal or any other relationship which could influence their scientific work. Authors must declare conflicts of interest at the time of manuscript submission, although they may exceptionally do so at any point during manuscript review. For jointly prepared manuscripts, the corresponding author is obliged to declare conflicts of interest of other authors who have contributed to the manuscript.
\n\nEDITOR'S CONFLICT OF INTEREST
\n\nEditors can also have conflicts of interest. Editors are expected to follow highest standards of conduct outlined in our Best Practice Guidelines for books (templates for Best Practice Guidelines) which, among other obligations, include transparent declaration of any possible conflicts of interest that they might have.
\n\nAvoidance of academic editor's conflict of interest:
\n\nFor manuscripts submitted by the academic editor or a scientific advisor, an appropriate person will be appointed to handle and evaluate the manuscript. The appointed handling editor's identity will not be disclosed to the submitter in order to maintain impartiality and anonymity of the review.
\n\nIf a manuscript is submitted by an author who is an academic editor's family member or is personally or professionally related to the academic editor in any way (friend, colleague, student, mentor) the work will be handled by a different academic editor who is not in any way related to the submitter.
\n\nREVIEWER'S CONFLICT OF INTEREST
\n\nAll reviewers are required to declare possible conflicts of interest at the beginning of the evaluation process. If a reviewer notices he or she might have any material, financial or any other conflict of interest with regards to the manuscript being reviewed, he or she is required to declare it and, if necessary, request exclusion from the further evaluation process. Reviewer's potential conflicts of interest are declared in the review report and presented to the academic editor. It is then assessed whether or not the declared conflicts of interest had any significant bearing on the review itself.
\n\nEXAMPLES OF CONFLICTS OF INTEREST:
\n\nFINANCIAL AND MATERIAL
\n\nNON-FINANCIAL
\n\nAuthors are required to declare all potentially relevant non-financial, financial and material conflicts of interest that may have had an influence on their scientific work.
\n\nAcademic editors and reviewers are required to declare any non-financial, financial and material conflicts of interest that could influence their fair and balanced evaluation of manuscripts. If such conflict exists with regards to a submitted manuscript, academic editors and reviewers should exclude themselves from handling it.
\n\nAll contributors (authors, academic editors, and reviewers) are required to declare all possible financial and material conflicts of interest in last five years, although older relevant conflicts of interest should be declared too.
\n\nFor example:
\n\nAuthors should declare if they were or they still are academic editors of the publications in which they want to publish their work.
\n\nAuthors should declare if they are board members of an organization that could benefit financially or materially from the publication of their work.
\n\nAcademic editors should declare if they were coauthors or they have worked on the research project with the author who submitted a manuscript.
\n\nAcademic editors should declare if the author of a submitted manuscript is affiliated with the same department, faculty, institute, or company as they are.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-09
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