Chemical composition proposed of the new titanium alloys.
\r\n\t
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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"65676",title:"A Different Kind of Teacher for a Different Kind of School",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84372",slug:"a-different-kind-of-teacher-for-a-different-kind-of-school",body:'\nWe are on the precipice of a massive transformation of schooling and the assumptions around the education of children in the world. The current ‘old school’ paradigm of teaching and learning is based on students sitting passively in rows, completing a required syllabus in the order they are told to do so, and with very little choice. Assessment systems sort children and reinforce the status quo, promoting learning for ‘some’. Obsolete uses of the normal curve ensure success for about 30% at a time when we need approaches to enable the success of all young people. This assembly-line approach to schooling too often sorts students early on based on societal socio-economic gaps or on educators’ failure to adapt the learning environment to meet individual learner needs. As an example, currently at least 40% of Australian students are disengaged from their schooling [1]. This disengagement is a failure for the individuals and a tragic loss of human capacity for a country to be relevant in the ‘innovation age’ where critical thinking, problem solving, adaptive reasoning and collaboration are core skills. In the ‘old school’ model, leadership is more management than transformative. And, in teacher and leadership education, we are too often preparing our new teachers for the schools we are holding onto rather than for the schools we need.
\nIn the ‘new school’ paradigm, schools will no longer be places young people go to watch their teachers work. They are learning centres, with student engagement at the forefront and personalized approaches focussing the instruction on the needs of the learner. Emerging virtual reality and artificial intelligence systems (immersive technologies) will require the reinvention of content delivery and leapfrog pedagogies to new frontiers of exploring and mastering ideas and knowledge. Students in this new school approach are at the centre of the learning as they accomplish the syllabus in ways that work for each of them. Assessment from here will be formative and used to modify instruction to meet the needs of learners in real-time. That is equity in action, with learning for all as a goal.
\nIn this dynamic learning environment, a new approach to classroom and school leadership is vital. Leadership for old school approaches was primarily management with a mission statement. In new school approaches, leadership is a complex, dynamic empowerment process. The individuals who drive education forward from here—from the classroom to the school to the boardroom—will need a new set of skills to help them create the learning environments that empower every child for success and embrace the culture and expectations of the community as vital partners in the process.
\nCurrently the traditional curriculum and the syllabus derived from it tend to drive teaching and learning. This leads to mostly teacher-focused schools. It reinforces compliance, passivity, old school assessments and rules. Alternatively, models such as Big Picture design starts with a focus on learner passion, community engagement and authentic evidence of student learning mapped to highly benchmarked national learning outcomes. This approach is creating a new role for teachers and schools.
\nThe implications of these changes are profound for teacher education. Some of the content of teacher education is rooted in preserving syllabus-driven didactic teaching and passive compliance-based regurgitation of low level facts by learners. Schools of education typically place students for their practica in schools as they are, not schools as they need to be. That means we are replicating and perpetuating obsolescence.
\nIn this chapter I offer a conceptual rationale for the change ahead and propose an internationally developed research-based framework for teacher education to cut across the silos of individual states and provinces. These silos allow teacher education programs to show evidence they each uphold local/national standards that appeal to regulators. However these silos may but may not promote current research or best practices in learning and teaching. The work is grounded in the premise and promise of John Dewey. Here we are 100 years later attempting to push back at massive industries of assessment and accountability and looking to finally see Dewey’s philosophy and vision realized in the concept of success for all.
\nCollege and university-based teacher education programs vary considerably by size, region, student body, nature and focus of curriculum, talent of instructional staff, status within home institution, balance of coursework and practice, relation with local district, and more. Some are excellent, some are good and experimenting with ways to get better, some are weak in some respects but decent in others, some are marginal and poorly run. The language of the current criticism of teacher education, at least the most public language, does not allow for this variability. Ministers of Education throughout the Western world continue to dismiss teacher education and put in place new policies and regulations aimed at changing the face of who comes into and out of teacher education programs. The bottom-line message: Teacher education is a disaster [2].
\nHow did we get to this so-called and falsely perceived disaster? In the United States, the evolution of teacher education as a professional endeavour has been a bumpy journey from requirements that teachers ‘will bring a bucket of water and make their pens carefully’ [3]. The current assumption for candidates coming from university-based teacher education is that they are fully-credentialed reflective practitioners who personalize education for all students and who serve as learning scientists from day one on the job. It was John Dewey who helped transform the assumptions of the role of a teacher in our society.
\nHe must, if he is an educator, be able to judge what attitudes are actually conducive to continued growth and what are detrimental. He must, in addition, have that sympathetic understanding of individuals as individuals which gives him an idea of what is actually going on in the minds of those who are learning [4].
\nOver the last hundred years or so of western culture, we have evolved as a society in contradictory ways to Dewey’s vision of where education might lead us. The contradictory expectations of teacher education mirror the contradictions of the world itself. With scientific advancements from the airplane, the cure for polio and the Internet, human kind has never had more opportunities then the present time to control the world around us and to advance the causes or equity and justice, particularly through education. In that same last century, we saw horrible people do horrible things, including Stalin, Hitler and Pol Pot. The United States is the only country to have used nuclear weapons and today rogue regimes gas their own people. During this time Western schools, for the most part, have remained remarkably the same and the credentialing of teachers has been evolved in increasing regulatory requirements, including new entrance and exit processes and increased pressures on licensure bodies to ensure the positive dispositional nature and clear criminal record of initial teaching candidates.
\nThe contradictions reflect a hurried culture as much of society is caught up in things that are fast and easy. Today the ‘McDonaldization’ of the ‘fast’ (food, news, social media, packages) has, among other things, led to increasing obesity and cardiovascular disease rates for the most vulnerable. Advances in research and technologies allow many of us to live healthier and longer lives than ever before, while Type II Diabetes is increasing in the most vulnerable populations in the west. In spite of billions spent on closing academic achievement gaps between the wealthiest and poorest among us, economic and opportunity gaps have increased. In addition, it led to an increase in short-cut teacher education programs fuelled by anti-government school sentiment and a for-profit mentality. Teach for American and its sister organizations in the UK and Australia are part of that massification movement. Now some want their teachers as fast and as cheap as their burgers, perhaps as long those microwaved teachers do not teach their own children.
\nEducation in that 100 years has created a sorting pipeline where the system deliberately worked to ensure that about 30% of any of us who started school would be successful in our formal schooling and accomplish post-secondary degrees. Large testing regimens were developed to assist in the sorting, using the normal curve and new-fangled psychometrics as the basis of the decision-making process. For example, the Intelligence test (IQ) first developed in France, the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) used to admit students to universities in the United States and the Australian Tertiary Admissions Ranking (ATAR) in Australia actually sort high school graduates based on pre-determined assumptions of knowledge and future success. This is a perpetuation of the assembly-line education system. The system is still built on the assumption that 30–40% of us will finish school with the wrote memory skills and test-taking accuracy to be selected to tertiary education. It assumes another 30% or so of us will complete secondary school with ‘good enough’ literacy skills to be successful in the workforce and about another 30% will not survive the syllabus-driven compliance-based system, and either marginally drop in or just drop out. This last group tended to be destined to be the lower-level employees needed to support the materialistically-driven and profit-driven capitalist economy.
\nFailed educational policies that have been floating around between the United Kingdom and the United States have influenced the initial preparation of teachers [5]. They have impacted curriculum, instruction, assessment and teacher education. These include the implantation of higher standards for schools followed by high stakes assessments of those standards. They have included the infusion of so-called twenty-first century learning techniques, increased rigor and new tests for initial teachers upon entry and exit from their programs. Most of those policies, including the No Child Left Behind legislation of 2002 in the United States have led to increasing achievement gaps and further erosion of equity-based goals.
\nWe have come to a time where there is almost nothing to ‘do’ to support one’s family with a ‘middle class’ life if you are in a low-skill, low-education-related job. Most of these kinds of jobs have been or will be automated. In Hangzhou, China, in 2017 Jack Ma opened a market where no one except security works there while they are open. Through the app-based interactions, customers are automatically billed for their purchases as they put them in their shopping bags and head out the door. The store is staffed to stock shelves after hours, and that is it. This type of innovation is very exciting if you like new apps. It is very scary if you work in a store. The skillsets needed to be successful require a teacher education that is transformed to this new reality that there is very little to ‘do’ if you are not well educated.
\nWe have a moral, social, economic and political obligation to get everyone to reach their highest potential and for them to have the opportunity to lead inspired lives. The overall happiness and health of our citizens is an economic savings in the level of social welfare that is not needed when people are well educated. Proper educational attainment gains directly influence the success for at least two generations beyond the current one in school. For young people today who are undereducated, there is very little to do. Continued economic and educational divides perpetuate social inequities. These economic gaps are widening and social upheaval threatens democracy. If anything has been a disaster (as discussed in the Rose quote above) in the education of teachers it has been the mixed goals we have for the education of our children. Are schools for promoting the common good? Are classroom teachers responsible for creating positive learning environments or for improving test scores? Should we differentiate for the needs or learners or have them conform to the lesson the way it is narrowly implemented? The ‘disaster’ Rose confronts above may be why many education students relay that they receive conflicting messages that our new teachers face as they enter schools in their required field experiences or practica. Many hear from experienced teachers that they should forget everything taught on the university campus and take on board mostly what they see and learn in the ‘real world’. Yet, other novices report that they are involved in amazing partnerships with schools, universities and communities committed to equity and student engagement in learning connected.
\nThere have been more than 100 reports critiquing teacher education in Australia since the 1970s and almost as many in the United States and the United Kingdom. These reports led to new tests and more accountability standards and measures of teacher behaviours.
\nToday we have a regulated profession that has not necessarily changed the content of what is taught as much as developed a ‘tick box’ compliance process [6].
\nWe need a major revamp of teacher education from the inside out that actually changes the model to provide all children with the education that is right for them.
\nWhen I was in school in the 1960s and 1970s, teachers typically had one lesson plan for each class, one textbook, one method of note delivery (chalkboard), one pedagogical approach (they talked), one style of seating arrangement and one discipline strategy for the whole class. My classmates and I were expected to adjust to the teacher and the plan not the other way around.
\n‘Differentiation’ at that time was primarily for those identified with moderate to profound special needs, who were typically taught by special teachers in special classrooms down separate corridors of the school [7].
\nThis was assembly-line education. Many of us did quite well. Some of us dropped in. Some of us dropped out. It was understood that if you worked hard after you left school, even if you dropped out, you could anticipate a pretty good job in the mill, the mine or the shop.
\nTeacher education grew out of these assumptions of ‘training’ for the assembly line in a two dimensional (2D—‘sit and git’) education world.
\nFor too long schools have been places young people go to watch their teachers work. They have relied on a deficit model of learning and teaching [8]. They have emphasized conformity rather than personalization. And today, in many parts of the world, they still mirror factories while the 3D printer is replacing the assembly line.
\nScientists are now aware of at least 10 dimensions [9] that we must comprehend in a very dynamic, collaborative, global innovation age. Although many of us performed well in the 2D (sit and git) model, those who were unable to adapt to it have very little to do today.
\nMany jobs available in the past for those who did not finish school have been outsourced or automated, and more will be in the near future. We cannot afford economically or morally to continue a 2D mentality for schooling [10].
\nCurrent standards for initial teacher preparation across the western world are remarkably the same [11]. They are really organizers of evidence that new teachers and their programs must assemble inside these agreed-upon categories. Unfortunately, they are built on and support a model of learning and teaching that is nearly obsolete. We actually have very little evidence that graduates of teacher education programs use what is taught to them 3 years into their teaching. This has to change [12] .
\nIn response, academics and educators across New Zealand, Hong Kong, South Africa, Canada, the United Kingdom, the United States and Australia have devised five new guiding questions or frameworks for teacher education [13]. They helped us create a global conversation to benchmark teacher education internationally rather than in individual states, provinces or nations.
\nThe frameworks evolved from conversations with leading scholars in the interdisciplinary fields.
\nThe Global Learning Equity Network (GLEN) aims to reinvent teacher education in the field of learning science and reinvigorate the profound role teachers play in addressing issues of equity and student success.
\nOur cloud-based Learning Equity Research and Resource Centre [14] hosts current and leading resources in scholarly and applied research on learning equity in emerging knowledge bases such as:
psychology
neuroscience
cognitive science
technology
equity
special education
Most teacher education programs in the world are remarkably the same. Programs are regulated and states, provinces, shires or countries in which the states for example create organizers or standards for which teacher education programs are accredited and where panels and external reviewers determine that they are actually going well. The issue with this form of validation process is programs are surprisingly very similar right now. In an effort to please regulators by complying to standards, the scope and the sequence of teacher education are more the same than different.
\nThe standards have created a vertical set of silos in which programs operate in isolation but with remarkable similarity and with little evidence of embedding best practice. We propose a new way to think of an international scheme for teacher education with horizontal research-based conversation across the world. Because of the imperative that we get education right for every child and that each learner is successful, the relevance of the content of teacher education programs more than mandated entrance and exit requirements from above is vital. The fears of many policy makers are related to the ‘quality’ of who is coming into teaching and the level of readiness of those exiting programs. The amazing knowledge bases that are driving a whole new approach to learning sciences outside of education are almost silent in the regulator mandates and new screening requirements put in place to safeguard from ‘dummies’ entering teaching. GLEN has developed the following frameworks to promote the two most important aspects of schooling in a free society—learning and equity.
\nOur resource centre facilitates the evolution of international frameworks to guide teacher education toward learning education. Each of our GLEN frameworks provides the latest key research for that area, as well as examples of how this research has already been implemented in an educational context, and a library of related and engaging online content [15].
\nThe frameworks themselves are based on a synthesis of the major domains in the field. They aim to guide teacher education programs around the world to recalibrate their current models in light of new evidence in the following areas:
\nThe context and environment in which children live is paramount to their success as learners in formal school settings. Mostly middle class new teachers often lack deep understandings of culture, family, diversity and community dynamics. The most innovative teacher preparation programs embed direct community and family involvement early into their education.
\nThe work in neuroscience, psychology, indigenous cultures, the arts, technologies, equity, learning differences, etc., is all forming a new transdisciplinary area of ‘learning sciences’.
\nWe have just begun to understand learning and its many forms and contexts in light of new innovations. Most of the new learning from brain research, including the recent knowledge about toxic stress [16], adolescent development [17], the importance of physical movement, creativity and the impact of technologies has not yet made its way to teacher preparation [18, 19].
\nIn the past 20 years, schools have often been pressured to become testing centres rather than leaning centres. To be successful in the innovation age, young people need exposure to a dynamic curriculum that helps them master traditional literacy and numeracy skills inside of an engaging problem-solving environment that focuses on students finding their passion, developing critical thinking, enables creativity, and fosters their innate curiosity for learning.
\nTeacher education should go way beyond the syllabus for each country and foster the newest and best thinking about knowing and doing in a global context. Students in Sydney are not only in competition with students in Brisbane and Perth, but also with students in Mumbai, Shanghai and Boston.
\nA focus on equity (fairness) is paramount to overcoming injustice, providing social cohesion, improving living standards and protecting democracy. Most teacher education programs currently isolate equity issues inside of introductory courses rather than wrap learning with equity throughout their program designs.
\nMost of the pedagogies taught to new teachers are about ‘fixing’ student deficits rather than building upon the amazing capacity and evolving cognitive capacity of every child.
\nWhom teachers are and how they behave is one of the most underrated competencies of learning to teach. Caring, flexibility, resilience, respecting diversity, overcoming inequities, advocating for children, leadership and positively communicating with colleagues and parents are all as vital as content knowledge and pedagogical prowess.
\nMany new teachers are strong in content, but the social aspect of their job may not be developed. It is possible for someone to meet the current standards but fail children.
\nThese frameworks might be the grounding across the various standards in states and nations to guide learning and equity and to build a sound way forward with the world’s best experts informing the process.
\nImplicit in these frameworks is a new approach to teacher education. I propose that teacher education programs align with an international set of frameworks and backwards map their research informed curriculum, instruction and assessment practices with national, state or province standards. Rather than being dictated to by policy makers, teacher educators can claim the knowledge base they contribute to and expand the interdisciplinary connections to the related fields that empower candidates across the five GLEN frameworks. This would be a new kind of teacher education built on current and future knowledge and prepare candidates for the schools we need rather than the ones we hold on to. This would indeed be a different kind of teacher prepared for a different kind of school.
\nWhen Copernicus posited, and Galileo confirmed the Sun as the centre of the solar system and that the Earth revolved around it, many learned people of the time considered this heresy. The notion that the syllabus can be accomplished by adjusting it to the passions and needs of the learners is possibly considered heresy today. To some, the idea that passion and student wellbeing help drive intellectual curiosity and lead to building cognitive capacities seems impossible at worst or unrealistic at best. However, the goal of learning for all is to design schools based upon and built around the needs of learners rather than the syllabus or the needs of adults. This is the direction we are heading led by great educators around the world who have adopted promising school designs. If we stay on top of the technological advances, smart tools can help us differentiate in powerful ways. By preparing new teachers differently, we can provide a bridge from old school to new school without a lost generation of disruption.
\nWhen I talk to parents of school age children, they often complain that some students on some days get different assistance from their teachers. They tell me this is not fair. Actually, it is fair, it is not equal. Equity is about giving each child what they need, when they need it. With fairness one of the core values of progressive countries around the world, and as we collectively address the inequities of the past, new school designs and new teacher education designs may be part of our journey to fairness. All of us deserve a fair go as a child, not a predetermined norm-reference box we are put in. Secondary school graduates this year around the world are the first generation of learners born since 2000. They are twenty-first century natives. We can no longer wait to embrace change. It is already here. We can do this.
\nThe author wishes to thank the members of the Global Learning Equity Network for their groundbreaking work in creating pathways across the planet for a new approach to teacher education.
\nNone.
Materials with the possibility of performing a biological function are increasingly sought. In the medical field, implants require a high compatibility with the hard tissue for osteointegration and bone formation and a compatibility with the soft tissue for the adhesion of the epithelium to them and the acquisition of antibacterial properties for inhibiting or forming the biofilm at the interface. These biofunctional characteristics have two contradictory properties: inhibition and enhancement of protein adsorption, respectively, and cell adhesion [1, 2].
The usual classification of synthetic biomaterials is carried out structurally, according to the classes of materials used. The main types of synthetic biomaterials are metallic, ceramic, polymeric, composite, and of natural origin, but they can also be divided into several categories, as can be seen in Figure 1.
The main types of biomaterials [4].
Biocompatible materials are intended to “work under biological constraint” and thereby become adapted to various medical applications.
When a metallic material is implanted in a human body, immediate reactions occur between their surface and the living tissues. In other words, an immediate reaction during the introduction period is determined and defines the biofunctionality of the metallic material [3].
The quality of a material used in the construction of an implant must respect the following two criteria: the biochemical criterion and the biomechanical criterion. According to the biochemical criterion, the applicability of a material is determined by its biocompatibility, and from the biomechanical point of view of fatigue resistance, it is the most important parameter but not the only one.
The most used metallic biomaterials are stainless steels, Co-Cr alloys, titanium alloys, and magnesium-based alloys. Each class of biomaterials has its advantages and disadvantages (Figure 2), their use in the execution of different implants being influenced by both the properties of the biomaterials and the functional requirements imposed to the implants [5].
Main characteristics of metallic orthopedic implants [6].
Among the most important factors that intervene on a biomaterial successfully integrated in the human body, we mention the physical-chemical properties, the design, the biocompatibility, the surgical technique applied to the implantation, and last but not least, the patient’s health.
The selection of materials used in contact with living cells or tissues for implantation in the human body, as biomaterials, is determined primarily by their acceptance by the human tissues with which they interact (biocompatibility) and by the ability to perform their functional role for which they were implanted (biofunctionality) [6].
Out of the metallic biomaterials, a special interest is for those with osteotropic structure, of which the titanium belongs. These biomaterials, thanks to the chemical and micromorphological biocompatibility with the bone tissue, achieve with this physical-chemical connection, the interface phenomenon being assimilated with the linking osteogenesis.
Titanium alloys are frequently used, due to the need of replacing stainless steels and cobalt-based alloys that have limitations in use, causing some deficiencies of biocompatibility with human tissues. These deficiencies are caused by some elements present in their chemical composition (e.g., nickel), which have a toxic effect on human tissues, causing inflammatory allergic reactions or implant rejection reactions [7].
The properties of the titanium are as follows:
melting point—the titanium melts at 1660°, and it can be sterilized without risk at 300°;
resistance—the implants are made from a single pure titanium bar by mechanical processing, giving them maximum resistance;
hardness—the titanium has a hardness comparable to that of steel, giving it special mechanical quality;
rigidity—the implants do not deform when applying, mounting, or milling forces nor in the biomechanics of chewing;
nonmagnetic—the titanium has no magnetic effect, resulting in good tissue supportability;
regenerative and therapeutic action—research and practical experience have highlighted the healing qualities of titanium oxide;
neutral pH—titanium dioxide, TiO2, which is formed immediately around the metal molecules, has a pH of 7, completely neutral;
biological immunity—the implant can be stimulated in contact with the bone, surrounding tissues and the oral cavity environment;
excellent resistance to electric shock—the titanium has a very low thermal conductivity; and
light weight—the density of titanium is close to that of light alloys [4, 8].
The biocompatibility of titanium is a consequence of the presence of the superficial oxide layer. The chemical properties and therefore the chemical processes on the interface are determined precisely by this layer of oxide and not by the metal itself. This feature is applicable to all metal materials used in the manufacturing of implants and prosthetic parts. Among the metal materials used for hard tissue repair in human body, the elastic modulus of titanium (about 80–110 GPa) is the closest to hard human tissue, which can reduce the mechanical incompatibility between metal implants and bone tissue [9].
Titanium alloys are used for medical applications in multiple fields in human body and became the first choice for orthopedic products. Figure 3 shows the main applications of titanium alloys used in orthopedic applications [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8].
Orthopedic products made by titanium and titanium alloys: (a) endoprosthesis for joint replacement; (b) system plate screws for bone fracture repair; (c) screws for bone repair; and (d) intramedullary nail [2, 9].
In conclusion, it can be said that titanium biomaterials, by its properties, respond to almost all the requirements necessary for the achievement of osteogenesis, osteointegration, and durability over time. The pure titanium implant offers perfect compatibility, correct and concrete osteogenesis, and demonstrable time-lapse viability.
Adding the alloying elements gives titanium a wide range of properties through different microstructures and properties.
After microstructure, the alloys are grouped into three categories depending on the type of stabilizing elements added to the titanium alloy. The mechanical properties and corrosion resistance of the alloys depend on the morphology and structure of the α or β phase particles in the alloy matrix.
Thus, the alloying elements are divided into three categories as follows:
α stabilizers: C, N2, O2, and Al;
β stabilizers: V, Nb, Mo, Ta, Fe, Mn, Cr, Co, W, Ni, Cu, Si, and H2; and
Over the years, many titanium alloys have been developed and investigated for the implantation of implants for medical applications, of which few have been accepted by the human body, namely those that have certain properties necessary for long-term success.
The biocompatibility of an alloy depends on the alloying elements. Alloying elements such as Zr, Ta, Nb, and Sn do not affect cell viability and have shown a reduced amount of ions released into the body, but Al and V contribute to reducing cell viability. Other elements such as Ag, Co, Cr, and Cu have moderate cytotoxic behavior, but their presence in these alloys significantly reduces their toxicity [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. By analyzing the current research, these alloys were studied in order to develop new recipes of titanium-based alloys with elements with high biocompatibility on human tissue such as Mo, Ta, Zr, and Si [10, 11].
The experimental tests aim at a characterization of new developed titanium alloys by chemical, structural, surface, and mechanical analyses.
This chapter describes the following investigations for the new alloys developed:
Development of alloys was carried out using a Vacuum Arc Remelting installation for the elaboration of homogeneous alloys.
Elemental composition is necessary to determine the percentages of the chemical elements that make up the elaborated titanium alloys.
Structural characterization is necessary for the study of the microstructure, the crystallographic orientation, the texture, and the identification of the constituent phases.
Mechanical characterization highlights the mechanical properties of the developed titanium alloys: hardness and elasticity module.
Corrosion resistance determines the stability of the proposed alloys in the simulated body fluids.
Surface characterization takes into account the measurement of the contact angle of the surface of the alloys for achieving/optimizing the adhesion and cell proliferation.
In order to obtain the titanium alloys, the MRF ABJ 900 Vacuum Arc Remelting has been used. Vacuum arc remelting is a commonly used process in the development of alloys. The process itself is used to refill the ingots and refine the structure by using nonconsumable mobile electrode of thorium tungsten. The process itself can also be used to obtain special alloys, superalloys, and titanium alloys.
In principle, the process of remelting with a vacuum arc is a process based on continuous melting with the use of the electric arc and nonconsumable mobile electrode.
Advantages of using this equipment are as follows:
It can achieve very high melting temperatures.
It ensures the possibility of melting the metallic vacuum samples under a protective atmosphere by means of a nonconsumable mobile electrode of thorium tungsten.
It creates alloys with uniform composition, through repeated remeltings.
It ensures the possibility of mixing elements with different melting temperatures.
It can use various crucibles for elaboration and ensure the possibility of obtaining the samples under specific conditions in the form of a pill of different shapes and sizes.
Loading and unloading is done in a simple way by lifting the cover that is caught in the hinge to the rest of the camera.
It is illuminated with a halogen lamp, thus helping to control the melting of the alloying elements in the process [12].
Figure 4 shows all stages of titanium alloying, which includes the weighing of the raw material, the loading of the alloying elements, and the final semi-finished obtained products.
Stages of titanium alloying obtaining process: (a) weighing of raw materials and gravimetric dosing; (b) loading of the raw material; and (c) titanium semi-products obtained after solidification [12].
The load calculation has considered the characteristics of the different alloying elements and their physical-chemical properties.
Elaboration of the alloys was carried out in two charges to obtain two alloys in each charge. Table 1 shows alloys proposed the cavities used for each alloy.
Alloy element | Ti | Mo | Si | Zr | Ta |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
(% weight) | |||||
Ti15Mo0.5Si | 84.50 | 15.00 | 0.50 | — | — |
Ti20Mo0.5Si | 79.50 | 20.00 | 0.50 | — | — |
Ti15Mo7Zr10Ta | 68.00 | 15.00 | — | 7.00 | 10.00 |
Ti20Mo7Zr10Ta | 63.00 | 20.00 | — | 7.00 | 10.00 |
Chemical composition proposed of the new titanium alloys.
Elaboration of the titanium alloys made with a vacuum arc melting system, took place by the melting of the elements, and followed by the remeltings of alloys for six times, a necessary operation for the refining and homogenization of the alloys. The melting of the elements took place uniformly, resulting alloys with a precise and homogeneous chemical composition. The samples had a homogeneous structure, which means that the installation, the elaboration protocol, and the elements were chosen correctly.
After the solidification, two samples of each alloy were obtained in the form of ingots, shapes, and different masses but with sufficient quantity for taking the specimens required for all proposed laboratory tests.
A complete characterization of a metallic material consists in knowing its composition, the concentration of the various elements, or the impurities in the mass of the alloy. An extremely important aspect is the determination as precisely as possible of the chemical composition of the titanium alloys obtained after elaboration.
The EDAX system is a microanalysis detector, equipped with an electron microscope, which uses the resulting X-ray energy on the surface of the samples.
Determination of chemical composition can be performed, both punctually and in a well-defined region on the surface of the analyzed sample.
This method is a variant of X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, in which the sample investigation is based on the interactions between the electromagnetic radiation and the sample, analyzing the X radiation emitted by the sample as a response to the charging of particles loaded with electric charges. The characterization possibilities are largely according to the fundamental principle that each chemical element has a unique atomic structure that allows the characteristic X-rays of the atomic structure of an element to characterize it uniquely from another.
In order to achieve the structural and thermal characterization, it is necessary to identify the chemical composition of the alloys obtained. EDAX microanalysis with energy dispersion of X radiation was used to determine the chemical composition of the TiMo alloys developed. Determination of the chemical composition by EDAX microanalysis is the first laboratory investigation required to highlight the proportions obtained between the pure chemical elements and was performed on titanium alloys obtained.
In order to validate the results regarding the concentration, for each sample, 10 measurements on five different areas were done.
To determine the chemical composition of the obtained titanium alloys, the Vega Tescan LMH II equipment was performed using the EDAX by Bruker attached to the SEM equipment.
For the determination of the chemical composition of alloys obtained from the TiMo system, samples having dimensions of 10 mm × 10 mm × 5 mm were used. Before being examined, the samples were ground on abrasive paper to remove impurities and titanium oxide film on the surface of the alloy.
Table 2 shows the mass percentages of the elements identified in the alloy composition, the percentages of the elements varying slightly with the theoretical batch calculation.
Alloy element | Ti | Mo | Si | Zr | Ta |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
(% weight) | |||||
Ti15Mo0.5Si | 79.28 | 19.95 | 0.77 | — | — |
Ti20Mo0.5Si | 78.98 | 20.06 | 0.96 | — | — |
Ti15Mo7Zr10Ta | 75.40 | 10.41 | — | 7.69 | 6.50 |
Ti20Mo7Zr10Ta | 71.51 | 14.05 | — | 7.04 | 7.40 |
Chemical compositions of titanium alloys, expressed as a mass percentage, according to the EDX measurements.
Figures 5–8 highlight EDX spectrum and element mapping of titanium alloys.
EDX spectrum and mapping for Ti15Mo0.50Si alloy.
EDX spectrum and mapping for Ti20Mo0.50Si alloy.
EDX spectrum and mapping for Ti15Mo7Zr10Ta alloy.
EDX spectrum and mapping for Ti20Mo7Zr10Ta alloy.
The analysis of the chemical composition obtained revealed that the main elements identified in the alloys elaborated are Ti, Mo, Zr, Ta, and Si, without the presence of other inclusions.
Microscopic methods of structural analysis are used to characterize the materials based on their structure, constituents and phases present (nature, shape, dimensions, and distribution), and possible structural defects (pores, cracks, structural inhomogeneities, etc.). Structural analysis was performed using the OPTIKA XDS-3 MET microscope.
In order to investigate the metallographic structure, the preparation of the metallographic samples of the experimental titanium alloys included a sequence of steps: cutting to appropriate dimensions (e.g., 10 mm × 10 mm × 5 mm), incorporation in epoxy resin, grinding and polishing, and chemical attack with specific reagents (a solution with 10 mL of HF, 5 mL of HNO3, and 85 mL of H2O) for 30 s. After the preparation of the samples, this was analyzed at the optical microscope at various magnification powers in order to obtain detailed images on the microstructure.
Figure 9 highlights images obtained by optical microscopy for titanium alloys at 100× magnification.
Optical microstructure of alloys investigated at 100× magnification power: (a) Ti15Mo0.5Si, (b) Ti20Mo0.5Si, (c) Ti15Mo7Zr10Ta, and (d) Ti20Mo7Zr10Ta.
In Figure 9, the structure of titanium alloys with aspects of the specific grains of titanium is presented. The images obtained by optical microscopy for the elaborated alloys show a dendritic structure with irregular grain boundaries. These coarse structures are specific to β alloys.
The variation of the α, α + β, and β type phases consists of the differences in chemical composition of the constituent elements. The high percentage of β-stabilizing elements (Mo, Ta, and Si) led to the formation of a β-type structure, very well highlighted in the elaborated TiMo alloys.
The measurement of the longitudinal elastic modulus for the obtained titanium alloys was achieved by the microindentation method. This method consists of penetrating the surface of the sample with a conical palpate at a certain force.
From a practical point of view, the indentation characterization presents a major advantage over the standard methods of testing on standardized tests, namely, the testing can be done directly on the finished pieces.
During the microindentation test, the values of the loading forces are recorded relative to the penetration depth of the indenter in the material. Based on the loading-unloading curve, a number of sizes can be determined that allow the characterization of the materials.
Figure 10 shows the response of the alloys during the indentation tests in the form of force-depth dependencies. The values of the modulus of elasticity for the titanium alloys resulting from the indentation test are shown in Table 3.
The force-depth curve of the micro-indentation test for the investigated alloys: (a) Ti15Mo0.5Si, (b) Ti20Mo0.5Si, (c) Ti15Mo7Zr10Ta, and (d) Ti20Mo7Zr10Ta.
Alloy | Ti15Mo0.5Si | Ti20Mo0.5Si | Ti15Mo7Zr10Ta | Ti20Mo7Zr10Ta | C.p. Ti | Ti6Al4V | CoCr alloys | Human bone |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Elastic modulus (GPa) | 19.81 | 37.53 | 76.88 | 43.41 | 105 | 110 | 240 | 17 |
Among the mechanical properties that are considered when evaluating a biomaterial is the longitudinal elasticity module. If the biomaterial is used for orthopedic implants, it must have a modulus of longitudinal elasticity equivalent to that of the bone, which varies between 4 and 30 GPa, depending on the type of bone and the direction of measurement [13, 14, 15].
A low modulus is reliable in inhibiting the bone resorption and enhancing the remodeling of bones, which may be due to the excellent stress transmission between the bone and the implant. A biomedical orthopedic implant should have a Young modulus matching or closer to that of human bone to avoid the stress shielding effect.
The developed titanium alloys have a low modulus of elasticity, close to that of the bone, with the exception of the Ti15Mo7Zr10Ta alloy and significantly lower values than CoCr alloys.
If the balance between mechanical properties and biocompatibility is achieved by both the implant and the bone tissue, the risk of negative effects is very small. The use of titanium materials with a low modulus of elasticity seems to be a good solution, and the chances of using the material for medical purposes are increasing.
Hardness is a property of materials that express their ability to resist the action of mechanically penetrating a tougher body into its surface. When determining the hardness of the materials, the size of the traces produced by a penetration body, characterized by a certain shape and size, and the force acting on it is taken into account.
The methods for determining the hardness, depending on the speed of the force on the penetrator, are classified into static methods, where the drive speed is below 1 mm/s, and dynamic methods for which the drive speed exceeds this value.
The Vickers hardness determination method uses a diamond penetrator in the form of a pyramid with a square base and consists in pressing it at a reduced speed and with a certain predetermined force F on the surface of the test material. The Vickers hardness, symbolized by HV, is expressed by the ratio of the applied force F to the area of the lateral surface of the residual trace produced by the penetrator. The trace is considered to be a straight pyramid with a square base, with diagonal d, having the same angle as the penetrator at the top.
For the Vickers hardness determination method, at least three attempts are made on the test material. For each trace, the average diagonal value is calculated based on the magnitude of the two diagonals measured. It is recognized that the difference in diagonal dimensions is within an error margin of not more than 2%.
The hardness measurements highlight resistance and provide information on the behavior of the studied materials. In this way, we can analyze titanium alloys developed for the purpose of fitting them into a specific medical application (Table 4).
Alloy | Ti15Mo0.5Si | Ti20Mo0.5Si | Ti15Mo7Zr10Ta | Ti20Mo7Zr10Ta | C.P. Ti | Ti6Al4V | CoCr alloys |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
HV | 233.37 | 165.18 | 462.33 | 321.31 | 128 | 381 | 600 |
HV hardness measurements on titanium alloys were performed with Wilson Wolpert 751N.
Both systems studied have different hardness results. Compared to other titanium biomaterials, TMZT alloys have a higher hardness, but close to the Ti6Al4V alloy, which are most commonly used in implantology. An important aspect that might have contributed to the increased hardness is the amount of stabilizing β elements. It can be observed that as the amount of stabilizing β elements increases (Mo and Ta), it decreases the hardness values.
Corrosion represents the physical-chemical, spontaneous, reversible, and undesirable destruction of metals and alloys under the chemical, electrochemical, or biological action of the environment.
Corrosion monitoring is the practice of qualitative assessment and quantitative measurement of the corrosivity of an environment on a metal or an alloy immersed in this environment. Monitoring tests can be performed using mechanical, electrical, electrochemical, or chemical methods [18, 19, 20]. The nature of the monitoring sensor depends on the technique chosen for the study, the purpose pursued, and the particular characteristics of the sample used. In the older methods, the electrical measurements were often used, the monitoring technique and the methods of processing the experimental data being generally very laborious. The advances in the field of microelectronics have allowed the signals of the electrochemical sensors to be strictly conditioned, appropriately amplified, and processed based on complex data processing programs.
Some techniques and methods of measurement allow continuous monitoring of corrosion—the sample is permanently exposed in the corrosion environment, while the discontinuous methods are done only in specialized laboratories.
Some techniques give direct information on material degradation or corrosion rate, while others are used to determine if a corrosive environment may exist. Also, some techniques are “destructive” altering more or less the surface of the metal, while others are nondestructive. The true methods of monitoring the corrosion are considered very sensitive measurements, which give a practical instantaneous signal, simultaneously with the change of the corrosion speed.
To obtain a more complete picture of the corrosion process, it is often necessary to obtain complementary data, from other sources or sensors, which are purchased simultaneously with those obtained from the corrosion sensor.
Three main aspects are pursued in the study of corrosion of alloys in various environments: (1) the type of corrosion involved in the process; (2) the corrosion rate; and (3) the nature of the corrosion products and their properties (chemical, structural, and protective). For this, numerous study methods can be used, which can be divided into three main classes: analytical methods, electrochemical methods, and optical methods. But in special cases, other methods are used (acoustic, nuclear, etc.).
Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (SIE) data, were processed with the ZSimpWin software [8], in which the spectra are interpreted by the fit procedure developed by Boukamp - by the smallest squares method. In order to process with this software the data acquired by the VoltaMaster 4 program, this were converted by using the EIS file converter program.
The polarization resistance method was used to evaluate the corrosion rate. This method serves to determine the corrosion current, at the corrosion potential of the metal or alloy, from the linear polarization curve obtained for relatively small overvoltages. The corrosion current determined by this method therefore represents the current that appears at the metal/corrosive medium interface when the metal is immersed in the solution and represents the instantaneous corrosion current.
All measurements were made on freshly cleaned surfaces. Each sample was polished on SiC abrasive paper until granulation 2000, degreased with acetone, washed with distilled water, and kept in bidistilled water until introduced into the electrochemical cell.
Figure 11 shows the linear polarization curves in semi-logarithmic coordinates for the samples studied in the Ringer solution, and in Table 5, the parameters of instantaneous corrosion in the same physiological environment are presented.
Linear polarization curves in semi-logarithmic coordinates for titanium alloys developed in Ringer’s solution: (a) Ti15Mo0.5Si, (b) Ti20Mo0.5Si, (c) Ti15Mo7Zr10Ta, and (d) Ti20Mo7Zr10Ta.
Alloy element | Ecor [mV] | Rp [kΩ/cm2] | Jcor [μA/cm2] | Vcor [μm /an] | βa [mV] | βc [mV] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ti15Mo0.5Si | −266 | 14.91 | 2.131 | 20.59 | 200 | −192 |
Ti20Mo0.5Si | −227 | 17.71 | 2.089 | 20.19 | 310 | −142 |
Ti15Mo7Zr10Ta | −400.10 | 46.22 | 0.37 | 4.31 | 92.10 | −91.20 |
Ti20Mo7Zr10Ta | −425.50 | 50.33 | 0.38 | 4.47 | 130.20 | −10.430 |
Instantaneous corrosion parameters for titanium alloys developed in Ringer’s solution.
The corrosion potential, Ecor, measured in relation to the potential of the saturated calomel electrode, is the potential at which the oxidation-reduction reactions on the surface of the alloy are at equilibrium; the speed of the oxidation reaction is equal to the rate of the reduction reaction, and the total current intensity is zero. As the potential increases toward more positive values, the speed of the oxidation reaction increases, while the movement of the potential toward negative values, the oxidation process is reduced and the metal is passivized. As a qualitative aspect, the TiMoSi alloy series has a higher corrosion tendency than the TiMoZrTa alloys. The differences are significant, and the presence of zirconia and tantalum seems to cause a decrease in the corrosion rate.
The polarization resistors have high values, which are reflected in very low corrosion rates. The product of “corrosion” in the case of these alloys is mainly titanium oxide, TiO2, which is insoluble and adherent to the surface of the alloy. The oxide layer on the surface protects the alloy from the ages of the electrolytic media. In view of this, it can be admitted that in the artificial physiological environment, Ti-based alloys do not corrode but in fact undergo a passivation process. Under these conditions, the parameter Vcor—called corrosion rate—is actually passivation speed.
One of the requirements of biomaterials is cellular adhesion on the surface of the material, depending on surface energy. The contact angle between a drop of liquid and a solid surface is a sensitive indicator of changes in surface energy and of the chemical and supramolecular structure on the surface. Specialty studies in domain indicated that contact angle measurement is important for the study of cell adhesion to the surface, being the one that characterizes the hydrophobicity of the studied material [21, 22].
Measurement of the contact angle (Figure 12) is an experimental technique used to evaluate the hydrophilic or hydrophobic character of the surfaces. Surfaces can be classified as hydrophilic or hydrophobic reported at 90°. If the angle of contact is between 0 and 90°, the material is hydrophilic, and if the angle of contact is between 90 and 180°, material is hydrophobic.
Images of water droplet on the surface of the elaborated alloys: (a) Ti15Mo0.5Si, (b) Ti20Mo0.5Si, (c) Ti15Mo7Zr10Ta, and (d) Ti20Mo7Zr10Ta.
The equipment used allows the determination of the surface tension of the liquids and of the free surface energy of the solid. The principle of measuring the angle of contact consists in placing a drop of water with a microsurgery syringe with the drop volume of 4 μl. Drop lighting is made from behind and recorded from the opposite side with a digital camera. The image obtained is further analyzed through the FAMAS program, a KYOWA integrated goniometer software.
Ten measurements of the contact angle (θ) for each experimental alloy were performed, and the value presented is the average of the measurements made, with a maximum error of ±1°. The average value of the contact angle for each alloy is shown in Table 6.
Alloy | Ti15Mo0.5Si | Ti20Mo0.5Si | Ti15Mo7Zr10Ta | Ti20Mo7Zr10Ta |
---|---|---|---|---|
Liquid used | water | water | water | water |
Contact angle (°) | 64.40 | 50.00 | 45.64 | 70.72 |
Water contact angle values on the surface of elaborated titanium alloys.
All investigated alloys have a contact angle of less than 90°, thus having a hydrophilic character, which means a high adhesion of the cells to the surface of the alloys.
From the data obtained for the analyzed titanium alloy surfaces, it follows that the value of the highest arithmetic mean of the alloys is recorded at the level of contact angle with water on the surface of the Ti15Mo7Zr10Ta alloy, and the smallest level was Ti20Mo7Zr10Ta alloy, this alloy having a more pronounced hydrophilic character.
Metals have traditionally been used to make implants subjected to high loads in the human body, used in various applications. They are known for their high resistance to wear, ductility, hardness, corrosion, and biocompatibility.
For a biomaterial to be functional for an extended period of time in the body, it should be nontoxic and engage in an adequate response with the body, so that it can fulfill its purpose.
The preliminary investigations presented in this chapter for the elaborated titanium alloys revealed the beneficial influence of some stabilizing β elements (Mo, Ta, and Si).
The alloys developed by the proposed method have the advantage of a modulus of elasticity close to that of the human bone and a good corrosion resistance in the simulated biological fluids. According to the obtained values for corrosion and the mechanical properties, the newly developed alloys, for a Young modulus, the value is the closest to the bone (from 19 to 77 GPa our alloys, C.p. Ti is 105 GPa, and the rest are higher, where the bone is 17 GPa) from all the commercial known alloys, and TMZT systems have the lowest corrosion rate. Also, according to the contact angle, the surfaces of the obtained alloys are susceptible for cell development.
Because improving the properties of biomaterials is a necessity to reduce the failure rate of implants in human tissue, we can say that the alloys developed in this chapter can be successful candidates for orthopedic implants, thanks to the stabilizing β elements.
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\\n\\nA Correction will be issued by the Academic Editor when:
\\n\\n3.1. ERRATUM
\\n\\nAn Erratum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter originates from the production process handled by the publisher.
\\n\\nA published Erratum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\\n\\n3.2. CORRIGENDUM
\\n\\nA Corrigendum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter is a result of an Author’s miscalculation or oversight. A published Corrigendum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\\n\\n4. FINAL REMARKS
\\n\\nIntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
\\n\\nIn the case of Retraction or removal of the Work, the publisher will be under no obligation to refund the APC.
\\n\\nThe general principles set out above apply to Retractions and Corrections issued in all IntechOpen publications.
\\n\\nAny suggestions or comments on this Policy are welcome and may be sent to permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2017-09-11
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen’s Retraction and Correction Policy has been developed in accordance with the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) publication guidelines relating to scientific misconduct and research ethics:
\n\n1. RETRACTIONS
\n\nA Retraction of a Chapter will be issued by the Academic Editor, either following an Author’s request to do so or when there is a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct. Upon receipt of a report by a 3rd party, the Academic Editor will investigate any allegations of scientific misconduct, working in cooperation with the Author(s) and their institution(s).
\n\nA formal Retraction will be issued when there is clear and conclusive evidence of any of the following:
\n\nPublishing of a Retraction Notice will adhere to the following guidelines:
\n\n1.2. REMOVALS AND CANCELLATIONS
\n\n2. STATEMENTS OF CONCERN
\n\nA Statement of Concern detailing alleged misconduct will be issued by the Academic Editor or publisher following a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct when:
\n\nIntechOpen believes that the number of occasions on which a Statement of Concern is issued will be very few in number. In all cases when such a decision has been taken by the Academic Editor the decision will be reviewed by another editor to whom the author can make representations.
\n\n3. CORRECTIONS
\n\nA Correction will be issued by the Academic Editor when:
\n\n3.1. ERRATUM
\n\nAn Erratum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter originates from the production process handled by the publisher.
\n\nA published Erratum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\n\n3.2. CORRIGENDUM
\n\nA Corrigendum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter is a result of an Author’s miscalculation or oversight. A published Corrigendum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\n\n4. FINAL REMARKS
\n\nIntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
\n\nIn the case of Retraction or removal of the Work, the publisher will be under no obligation to refund the APC.
\n\nThe general principles set out above apply to Retractions and Corrections issued in all IntechOpen publications.
\n\nAny suggestions or comments on this Policy are welcome and may be sent to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2017-09-11
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"105746",title:"Dr.",name:"A.W.M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Koopman-van Gemert",slug:"a.w.m.m.-koopman-van-gemert",fullName:"A.W.M.M. Koopman-van Gemert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/105746/images/5803_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Anna Wilhelmina Margaretha Maria Koopman-van Gemert MD, PhD, became anaesthesiologist-intensivist from the Radboud University Nijmegen (the Netherlands) in 1987. She worked for a couple of years also as a blood bank director in Nijmegen and introduced in the Netherlands the Cell Saver and blood transfusion alternatives. She performed research in perioperative autotransfusion and obtained the degree of PhD in 1993 publishing Peri-operative autotransfusion by means of a blood cell separator.\nBlood transfusion had her special interest being the president of the Haemovigilance Chamber TRIP and performing several tasks in local and national blood bank and anticoagulant-blood transfusion guidelines committees. Currently, she is working as an associate professor and up till recently was the dean at the Albert Schweitzer Hospital Dordrecht. She performed (inter)national tasks as vice-president of the Concilium Anaesthesia and related committees. \nShe performed research in several fields, with over 100 publications in (inter)national journals and numerous papers on scientific conferences. \nShe received several awards and is a member of Honour of the Dutch Society of Anaesthesia.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Albert Schweitzer Hospital",country:{name:"Gabon"}}},{id:"83089",title:"Prof.",name:"Aaron",middleName:null,surname:"Ojule",slug:"aaron-ojule",fullName:"Aaron Ojule",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Port Harcourt",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"295748",title:"Mr.",name:"Abayomi",middleName:null,surname:"Modupe",slug:"abayomi-modupe",fullName:"Abayomi Modupe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/no_image.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Landmark University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"94191",title:"Prof.",name:"Abbas",middleName:null,surname:"Moustafa",slug:"abbas-moustafa",fullName:"Abbas Moustafa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94191/images/96_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Moustafa got his doctoral degree in earthquake engineering and structural safety from Indian Institute of Science in 2002. He is currently an associate professor at Department of Civil Engineering, Minia University, Egypt and the chairman of Department of Civil Engineering, High Institute of Engineering and Technology, Giza, Egypt. He is also a consultant engineer and head of structural group at Hamza Associates, Giza, Egypt. Dr. Moustafa was a senior research associate at Vanderbilt University and a JSPS fellow at Kyoto and Nagasaki Universities. He has more than 40 research papers published in international journals and conferences. He acts as an editorial board member and a reviewer for several regional and international journals. His research interest includes earthquake engineering, seismic design, nonlinear dynamics, random vibration, structural reliability, structural health monitoring and uncertainty modeling.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Minia University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"84562",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbyssinia",middleName:null,surname:"Mushunje",slug:"abbyssinia-mushunje",fullName:"Abbyssinia Mushunje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Fort Hare",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"202206",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Abd Elmoniem",middleName:"Ahmed",surname:"Elzain",slug:"abd-elmoniem-elzain",fullName:"Abd Elmoniem Elzain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kassala University",country:{name:"Sudan"}}},{id:"98127",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdallah",middleName:null,surname:"Handoura",slug:"abdallah-handoura",fullName:"Abdallah Handoura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"École Supérieure des Télécommunications",country:{name:"Morocco"}}},{id:"91404",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdecharif",middleName:null,surname:"Boumaza",slug:"abdecharif-boumaza",fullName:"Abdecharif Boumaza",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Abbès Laghrour University of Khenchela",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"105795",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdel Ghani",middleName:null,surname:"Aissaoui",slug:"abdel-ghani-aissaoui",fullName:"Abdel Ghani Aissaoui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/105795/images/system/105795.jpeg",biography:"Abdel Ghani AISSAOUI is a Full Professor of electrical engineering at University of Bechar (ALGERIA). He was born in 1969 in Naama, Algeria. He received his BS degree in 1993, the MS degree in 1997, the PhD degree in 2007 from the Electrical Engineering Institute of Djilali Liabes University of Sidi Bel Abbes (ALGERIA). He is an active member of IRECOM (Interaction Réseaux Electriques - COnvertisseurs Machines) Laboratory and IEEE senior member. He is an editor member for many international journals (IJET, RSE, MER, IJECE, etc.), he serves as a reviewer in international journals (IJAC, ECPS, COMPEL, etc.). He serves as member in technical committee (TPC) and reviewer in international conferences (CHUSER 2011, SHUSER 2012, PECON 2012, SAI 2013, SCSE2013, SDM2014, SEB2014, PEMC2014, PEAM2014, SEB (2014, 2015), ICRERA (2015, 2016, 2017, 2018,-2019), etc.). His current research interest includes power electronics, control of electrical machines, artificial intelligence and Renewable energies.",institutionString:"University of Béchar",institution:{name:"University of Béchar",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"99749",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdel Hafid",middleName:null,surname:"Essadki",slug:"abdel-hafid-essadki",fullName:"Abdel Hafid Essadki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"École Nationale Supérieure de Technologie",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"101208",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdel Karim",middleName:"Mohamad",surname:"El Hemaly",slug:"abdel-karim-el-hemaly",fullName:"Abdel Karim El Hemaly",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/101208/images/733_n.jpg",biography:"OBGYN.net Editorial Advisor Urogynecology.\nAbdel Karim M. A. El-Hemaly, MRCOG, FRCS � Egypt.\n \nAbdel Karim M. A. El-Hemaly\nProfessor OB/GYN & Urogynecology\nFaculty of medicine, Al-Azhar University \nPersonal Information: \nMarried with two children\nWife: Professor Laila A. Moussa MD.\nSons: Mohamad A. M. El-Hemaly Jr. MD. Died March 25-2007\nMostafa A. M. El-Hemaly, Computer Scientist working at Microsoft Seatle, USA. \nQualifications: \n1.\tM.B.-Bch Cairo Univ. June 1963. \n2.\tDiploma Ob./Gyn. Cairo Univ. April 1966. \n3.\tDiploma Surgery Cairo Univ. Oct. 1966. \n4.\tMRCOG London Feb. 1975. \n5.\tF.R.C.S. Glasgow June 1976. \n6.\tPopulation Study Johns Hopkins 1981. \n7.\tGyn. Oncology Johns Hopkins 1983. \n8.\tAdvanced Laparoscopic Surgery, with Prof. Paulson, Alexandria, Virginia USA 1993. \nSocieties & Associations: \n1.\t Member of the Royal College of Ob./Gyn. London. \n2.\tFellow of the Royal College of Surgeons Glasgow UK. \n3.\tMember of the advisory board on urogyn. FIGO. \n4.\tMember of the New York Academy of Sciences. \n5.\tMember of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. \n6.\tFeatured in �Who is Who in the World� from the 16th edition to the 20th edition. \n7.\tFeatured in �Who is Who in Science and Engineering� in the 7th edition. \n8.\tMember of the Egyptian Fertility & Sterility Society. \n9.\tMember of the Egyptian Society of Ob./Gyn. \n10.\tMember of the Egyptian Society of Urogyn. \n\nScientific Publications & Communications:\n1- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asim Kurjak, Ahmad G. Serour, Laila A. S. Mousa, Amr M. Zaied, Khalid Z. El Sheikha. \nImaging the Internal Urethral Sphincter and the Vagina in Normal Women and Women Suffering from Stress Urinary Incontinence and Vaginal Prolapse. Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol18, No 4; 169-286 October-December 2009.\n2- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Laila A. S. Mousa Ibrahim M. Kandil, Fatma S. El Sokkary, Ahmad G. Serour, Hossam Hussein.\nFecal Incontinence, A Novel Concept: The Role of the internal Anal sphincter (IAS) in defecation and fecal incontinence. Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol19, No 2; 79-85 April -June 2010.\n3- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Laila A. S. Mousa Ibrahim M. Kandil, Fatma S. El Sokkary, Ahmad G. Serour, Hossam Hussein.\nSurgical Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, Fecal Incontinence and Vaginal Prolapse By A Novel Operation \n"Urethro-Ano-Vaginoplasty"\n Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol19, No 3; 129-188 July-September 2010.\n4- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Laila A. S. Mousa and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\nUrethro-vaginoplasty, an innovated operation for the treatment of: Stress Urinary Incontinence (SUI), Detursor Overactivity (DO), Mixed Urinary Incontinence and Anterior Vaginal Wall Descent. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/ urethro-vaginoplasty_01\n\n5- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamed M. Radwan.\n Urethro-raphy a new technique for surgical management of Stress Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/\nnew-tech-urethro\n\n6- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk, Nabil Abdel Maksoud H., Mohamad M. Radwan, Khalid Z. El Shieka, Mohamad A. K. M. El Hemaly, and Ahmad T. El Saban.\nUrethro-raphy The New Operation for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence, SUI, detrusor instability, DI, and mixed-type of urinary incontinence; short and long term results. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=urogyn/articles/\nurethroraphy-09280\n\n7-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. Menopause, and Voiding troubles. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly03/el-hemaly03-ss\n\n8-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A. Micturition and Urinary\tContinence. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1996; 42: 291-2. \n\n9-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly.\n Urinary incontinence in gynecology, a review article.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/abs-urinary_incotinence_gyn_ehemaly \n\n10-El Hemaly AKMA. Nocturnal Enuresis: Pathogenesis and Treatment. \nInt Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct 1998;9: 129-31.\n \n11-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A.E. Stress Urinary Incontinence, a New Concept. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1996; 68: 129-35. \n\n12- El Hemaly AKMA, Kandil I. M. Stress Urinary Incontinence SUI facts and fiction. Is SUI a puzzle?! http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly/el-hemaly-ss\n\n13-Abdel Karim El Hemaly, Nabil Abdel Maksoud, Laila A. Mousa, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asem Anwar, M.A.K El Hemaly and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. \nEvidence based Facts on the Pathogenesis and Management of SUI. http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly02/el-hemaly02-ss\n\n14- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\n Urethro-plasty, a Novel Operation based on a New Concept, for the Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, S.U.I., Detrusor Instability, D.I., and Mixed-type of Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/urethro-plasty_01\n\n15-Ibrahim M. Kandil, Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Mohamad M. Radwan: Ultrasonic Assessment of the Internal Urethral Sphincter in Stress Urinary Incontinence. The Internet Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2003. Volume 2 Number 1. \n\n\n16-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: A Novel Concept on its pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecolgy/?page=articles/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n17- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: An Update on the pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecology/?page=/ENHLIDH/PUBD/FEATURES/\nPresentations/ Nocturnal_Enuresis/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n18-Maternal Mortality in Egypt, a cry for help and attention. The Second International Conference of the African Society of Organization & Gestosis, 1998, 3rd Annual International Conference of Ob/Gyn Department � Sohag Faculty of Medicine University. Feb. 11-13. Luxor, Egypt. \n19-Postmenopausal Osteprosis. The 2nd annual conference of Health Insurance Organization on Family Planning and its role in primary health care. Zagaziz, Egypt, February 26-27, 1997, Center of Complementary Services for Maternity and childhood care. \n20-Laparoscopic Assisted vaginal hysterectomy. 10th International Annual Congress Modern Trends in Reproductive Techniques 23-24 March 1995. Alexandria, Egypt. \n21-Immunological Studies in Pre-eclamptic Toxaemia. Proceedings of 10th Annual Ain Shams Medical Congress. Cairo, Egypt, March 6-10, 1987. \n22-Socio-demographic factorse affecting acceptability of the long-acting contraceptive injections in a rural Egyptian community. Journal of Biosocial Science 29:305, 1987. \n23-Plasma fibronectin levels hypertension during pregnancy. The Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 13:1, 17-21, Jan. 1987. \n24-Effect of smoking on pregnancy. Journal of Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 111-121, Sept 1986. \n25-Socio-demographic aspects of nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 35-42, Sept. 1986. \n26-Effect of intrapartum oxygen inhalation on maternofetal blood gases and pH. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 57-64, Sept. 1986. \n27-The effect of severe pre-eclampsia on serum transaminases. The Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 7(2): 479-485, 1986. \n28-A study of placental immunoreceptors in pre-eclampsia. The Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 7(2): 211-216, 1986. \n29-Serum human placental lactogen (hpl) in normal, toxaemic and diabetic pregnant women, during pregnancy and its relation to the outcome of pregnancy. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:2, 11-23, May 1986. \n30-Pregnancy specific B1 Glycoprotein and free estriol in the serum of normal, toxaemic and diabetic pregnant women during pregnancy and after delivery. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:1, 63-70, Jan. 1986. Also was accepted and presented at Xith World Congress of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Berlin (West), September 15-20, 1985. \n31-Pregnancy and labor in women over the age of forty years. Accepted and presented at Al-Azhar International Medical Conference, Cairo 28-31 Dec. 1985. \n32-Effect of Copper T intra-uterine device on cervico-vaginal flora. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet. 23:2, 153-156, April 1985. \n33-Factors affecting the occurrence of post-Caesarean section febrile morbidity. Population Sciences, 6, 139-149, 1985. \n34-Pre-eclamptic toxaemia and its relation to H.L.A. system. Population Sciences, 6, 131-139, 1985. \n35-The menstrual pattern and occurrence of pregnancy one year after discontinuation of Depo-medroxy progesterone acetate as a postpartum contraceptive. Population Sciences, 6, 105-111, 1985. \n36-The menstrual pattern and side effects of Depo-medroxy progesterone acetate as postpartum contraceptive. Population Sciences, 6, 97-105, 1985. \n37-Actinomyces in the vaginas of women with and without intrauterine contraceptive devices. Population Sciences, 6, 77-85, 1985. \n38-Comparative efficacy of ibuprofen and etamsylate in the treatment of I.U.D. menorrhagia. Population Sciences, 6, 63-77, 1985. \n39-Changes in cervical mucus copper and zinc in women using I.U.D.�s. Population Sciences, 6, 35-41, 1985. \n40-Histochemical study of the endometrium of infertile women. Egypt. J. Histol. 8(1) 63-66, 1985. \n41-Genital flora in pre- and post-menopausal women. Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 4(2), 165-172, 1983. \n42-Evaluation of the vaginal rugae and thickness in 8 different groups. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 9:2, 101-114, May 1983. \n43-The effect of menopausal status and conjugated oestrogen therapy on serum cholesterol, triglycerides and electrophoretic lipoprotein patterns. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 12:2, 113-119, April 1983. \n44-Laparoscopic ventrosuspension: A New Technique. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet., 20, 129-31, 1982. \n45-The laparoscope: A useful diagnostic tool in general surgery. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 11:4, 397-401, Oct. 1982. \n46-The value of the laparoscope in the diagnosis of polycystic ovary. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 11:2, 153-159, April 1982. \n47-An anaesthetic approach to the management of eclampsia. Ain Shams Medical Journal, accepted for publication 1981. \n48-Laparoscopy on patients with previous lower abdominal surgery. Fertility management edited by E. Osman and M. Wahba 1981. \n49-Heart diseases with pregnancy. Population Sciences, 11, 121-130, 1981. \n50-A study of the biosocial factors affecting perinatal mortality in an Egyptian maternity hospital. Population Sciences, 6, 71-90, 1981. \n51-Pregnancy Wastage. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 11:3, 57-67, Sept. 1980. \n52-Analysis of maternal deaths in Egyptian maternity hospitals. Population Sciences, 1, 59-65, 1979. \nArticles published on OBGYN.net: \n1- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Laila A. S. Mousa and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\nUrethro-vaginoplasty, an innovated operation for the treatment of: Stress Urinary Incontinence (SUI), Detursor Overactivity (DO), Mixed Urinary Incontinence and Anterior Vaginal Wall Descent. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/ urethro-vaginoplasty_01\n\n2- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamed M. Radwan.\n Urethro-raphy a new technique for surgical management of Stress Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/\nnew-tech-urethro\n\n3- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk, Nabil Abdel Maksoud H., Mohamad M. Radwan, Khalid Z. El Shieka, Mohamad A. K. M. El Hemaly, and Ahmad T. El Saban.\nUrethro-raphy The New Operation for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence, SUI, detrusor instability, DI, and mixed-type of urinary incontinence; short and long term results. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=urogyn/articles/\nurethroraphy-09280\n\n4-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. Menopause, and Voiding troubles. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly03/el-hemaly03-ss\n\n5-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A. Micturition and Urinary\tContinence. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1996; 42: 291-2. \n\n6-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly.\n Urinary incontinence in gynecology, a review article.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/abs-urinary_incotinence_gyn_ehemaly \n\n7-El Hemaly AKMA. Nocturnal Enuresis: Pathogenesis and Treatment. \nInt Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct 1998;9: 129-31.\n \n8-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A.E. Stress Urinary Incontinence, a New Concept. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1996; 68: 129-35. \n\n9- El Hemaly AKMA, Kandil I. M. Stress Urinary Incontinence SUI facts and fiction. Is SUI a puzzle?! http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly/el-hemaly-ss\n\n10-Abdel Karim El Hemaly, Nabil Abdel Maksoud, Laila A. Mousa, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asem Anwar, M.A.K El Hemaly and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. \nEvidence based Facts on the Pathogenesis and Management of SUI. http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly02/el-hemaly02-ss\n\n11- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\n Urethro-plasty, a Novel Operation based on a New Concept, for the Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, S.U.I., Detrusor Instability, D.I., and Mixed-type of Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/urethro-plasty_01\n\n12-Ibrahim M. Kandil, Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Mohamad M. Radwan: Ultrasonic Assessment of the Internal Urethral Sphincter in Stress Urinary Incontinence. The Internet Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2003. Volume 2 Number 1. \n\n13-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: A Novel Concept on its pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecolgy/?page=articles/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n14- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. 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