Statistical adjustment of annual maximum flows, in the gauging station of Ouljet Soltane.
The soil erosion characterizes the majority of Morocco reliefs, and a spectacular expansion of erosion processes reveals more disturbing aspects. Thus, the soils degradation upstream is the origin of siltation phenomenon and decreasing storage capacities of dams with 50 million m3/year [1]. Particularly, the erosion hazard imposes significant costs on the Moroccan economy by reducing soil productivity and the consequences are manifested by dam siltation downstream.
\nIn this sense, the results obtained in the first phase of this study have shown the importance of erosion in Oued Beht watershed revealing that combined forms are meaningful (sheet, rill, and gully) and many factors, both physical and human, promote erosion risk. Moreover, the human context is generally characterized by high density of rural population [2, 3].
\nIn this perspective, this study provides a roadmap relating to biophysical, hydrological, and socio-economic backgrounds to develop a dynamic methodology that will identify and visualize development scenarios. The specific objectives that are identified include the following:
Analyzing the biophysical context and highlighting the environmental potentialities and constraints.
Developing the spatial modeling of soil and water degradation processes with integration of empirical models in a GIS environment to determine the potential soil loss.
Prescribing the strategic orientations of Master Plan Management to allow the sustainability of the main actions linked to erosion control.
Defining the action plan to be used in priority areas and identify the biological measures and appropriate soil conservation practices to be implemented in order to mitigate negative effects of erosion hazard.
The Oued Beht watershed is located upstream of El Kansra dam (85 km east from Rabat), which crosses the Central Highlands and the Middle Atlas of Morocco (Figure 1). The main stream is Oued Beht, affluent of Sebou river, one of the most important watersheds in the kingdom. Thus, the watershed overlaps the administrative territory erected into 5 provinces and 26 rural communes (Figure 2).
\nLocalization of the study area inside Morocco country.
Distribution map of rural communes in the Oued Beht watershed.
The delimitation of the watershed in the geographic information system (GIS) provides a total area of 430,728 ha with an elongated form (Figure 2). It owns a developed urban system, occupying a central place in socio-economic activities; it is Khemisset city (542,000 inhabitants), Azrou (47,540 inhabitants), and urban centers of Agourai and Ain Leuh [4]. Concerning climate context, the watershed presents characteristics of Mediterranean climate with a rainy winter and a dry summer [5].
\nThe coordinates of the map (longitude is x and latitude is y) are described in a map projection. Thus, the cartographic representation of the whole watershed surface on a two-dimensional map (X, Y) is based on the use of the Lambert conformal conic projection. Consequently, the Oued Beht watershed is located between the rectangle designated by the following Lambert coordinates: (X1 = 430,347, Y1 = 282,142) and (X2 = 527,857, Y2 = 383,572).
\nThe adopted methodological framework allows meeting the specific objectives of this study. Indeed, the guidelines of this strategic watershed management are based on critical analysis of the current situation and the definition of predictive interventions to revitalize natural ecosystems and to develop pastoral resources in order to support the local population needs of forage and fuelwood.
\nIn this perspective, the spatial aggregate functions are used to identify priority areas by statistics combination of significant values in the GIS database obtained in previous work on this study linked to biophysical and hydrological environments. The hot spot analysis is used to calculate the Getis-Ord Gi* statistics for each feature related to erosion hazard zoning from neighboring entities in spatial data set [6].
\nThe input data preparation and spatial analysis of projected actions to control soil loss hazard are performed in the GIS environment (ArcGIS 9.3). Thus, the biophysical and hydrometeorological data assessment is based on empirical models to produce decisional maps of the priority areas to be developed.
\nThe data used for the soils susceptibility analysis are divided into five groups of explanatory variables (R, K, LS, C, and P). These are climatic, geomorphology, topography (gradient and length slopes), geological and geomorphological data, hydrographic parameters (river density, distance to streams), and soil occupation. Thus, thematic maps are produced by geoprocessing of information obtained.
\nThe map of climatic aggressiveness is extrapolated from climatic data available in the stations characterized by long observation periods more than 20 years. Therefore, the topographic parameters (LS) are derived from the Digital Terrain Model DTM Aster, and planimetric and altimetric accuracies are, respectively, 30 and 20 m. The interpretation of the soil characteristics is used also to classify soils in the Wischmeier Abacus and to approach erodibility factor [7, 8]. Furthermore, the land cover map is extracted from SPOT satellite images (resolution is 20 m) combined with recent Landsat ETM+ imagery through the supervised classification method and field observations.
\nSoils susceptibility assessment corresponds to the spatial occurrence of soil loss (number of representative pixels) that has taken place under the impact of local environmental conditions. Thus, the analytical approach adopted is based on simulation models integrated with GIS tools in order to evaluate the behavior of the dependent variable (land loss location) from a spatial combination of predictive variables in homogeneous geomorphic units (pixels). The soils susceptibility is simulated by the Universal Soil Loss model [9, 10], considered the most robust approach for spatial assessment of the soil erosion hazard (A). Moreover, the basic hypothesis is that the potential soil loss will be triggered under the same conditions as in the past.
\nwhere A is the mean annual soil loss (t ha−1 year−1), R is the rainfall erosivity factor (MJ.mm.ha−1.h−1.year−1), K is soil erodibility factor (t.h.MJ−1.mm−1), L and S are the slope-length and the slope-steepness factors (dimensionless), C is the cover and management factor (dimensionless), and P is the support practice factor (dimensionless).
\nSecond, hydrometeorological study is used for flood sites. The flood hazard is one of the most destructive natural hazards of the environment that can cause severe social as well as economic losses. In majority situations, the modern methods of passive and active flood protection provide rational protection for people and property within watersheds. Consequently, the refinement of probabilistic and technical methods is totally justified.
\nThe flood analysis is based on the dependence applied in the Francou-Rodier model [11] and on the distribution function characteristic of the extreme values. This approach is the most widely used in Morocco, as a regional empirical formula that has the advantage of making the flow value, with the defined exceedance probability, dependent on the basin area function.
\nThe possibility to estimate the biggest possible flood that could appear during the extreme conditions is the significant element of the estimation of the potential hazard. Therefore, the Gradex model determines the flood flow characteristics and the regional parameter (kt) in a gauged station located in the Oued Beht watershed [12]. Subsequently, the data obtained are extrapolated to the other sub-catchments by Francou-Rodier method, based on the regional coefficient (kt) calculated in the gauged station called Ouljet Soltane [11].
\nBelow, the two significant formulas, which enable the estimation of the form of the maximum flows envelopes, are described:
\nwhere Q(t) is the maximum flow value in the ungauged sub-catchment (m3/s), S is the area of ungauged sub-catchment (km2), Q0: 106 m3/s, S0: 108 km2, and kt is the parameter of Francou-Rodier, which is a regional parameter in the right of the gauged station (called Ouljet Soltane station).
\nTherefore, the first step consists in calculating the Francou-Rodier parameter (kt), by using the flow QA for a determined return period, in the Ouljet Soltane gauged basin, whose area is SA. Considering the data available on the gauged basin, the flow QA is calculated by the Gradex method.
\nwhere QA is the flood flow in the gauged sub-catchment (m3/s) and SA is the area of the gauged sub-catchment of Ouljet Soltane (km2).
\nThe final map is the result of geoprocessing by spatial crossing of information linked to soils degradation by natural erosion and flood power to contribute to El Kansra dam siltation. As a result, the production of this qualitative map is used to provide a systematic vision to identify priority areas with homogeneous environmental characteristics and to study the alternatives of development upstream/downstream.
\nThe methodological protocol used to characterize the socio-economic aspect is based on survey data [2, 3]. Thus, the analysis of mechanisms essentially linked to lifestyle needs and household income is used to better understand the socio-economic vulnerability in the watershed. The aim is to prepare a reference situation for the future socio-economic or environmental project.
\nThe surveys are conducted in homogeneous areas using some direct conversations with groups surveyed (focus-group), with a freedom to structure the interview to better understand the population profile, their real needs, and to identify constraints that limit wealth production (natural, financial and commercial constraints, land structures, and incomes). Moreover, spatial distribution of the farms (units to investigate) is selected using a stratified sampling plan with 5% error and 95% confidence level. The randomness of the villages (sampling units) is made from the list available in the general agricultural census [13]. Based on the number of households in the watershed studied (19,987 farmers), the number of farmers to be interviewed is 378 in 50 villages.
\nConsequently, in order to reduce the heterogeneity linked to utilized agricultural land (UAL), which represents a discriminatory factor for management techniques and income sources, the stratification is performed according to farm size, and three classes are selected (UAL < 5 ha, 5 ha < UAL < 15 ha, and UAL > 15 ha).
\nThe potential consequences are evaluated by an analytical approach based on the identification of the exposed elements and the assessment of their vulnerabilities. In this approach, the potential damages are not expressed in numerical values but in hierarchical classes (qualitative assessment). The consequence typology differs: (1) direct structural damages (CS) affecting the land goods and the El Kansra dam and (2) direct functional damages (CF) related to disruption of agricultural activities with local and immediate consequences.
\nThe consequence assessment is a fundamental part of erosion risk analysis. Thus, the various components of the vulnerability are structured according to a decreasing exponential function. Moreover, the vulnerability analysis is based on the observation protocol of damage, original and reproducible, applicable to the soil loss analysis due to past erosion events. The erosion cost is defined by the difference between the initial net revenue per hectare and the net revenue with the effect of erosion:
\nwhere \n
The vulnerability input is based on the results of socio-economic surveys describing the current yields (or revenue) and the latest census data available in the Office of the High Commissioner for Planning (HCP), the government agency in charge of producing statistics [3, 14, 15, 16]. Thus, the damage process typology helps to prioritize the consequences classes: low (C1), moderate (C2), high (C3), and very high (C4).
\nOn the technical side, the terms “risk” and “hazard” are linked to each other but should be clearly distinguished. The risk mainly signifies a probability of the occurrence of (negative) impacts and expected losses resulting from a given hazard to a given element at danger or peril, over a specified time period.
\nTherefore, the purpose is to hierarchy the erosion menace that compromises land goods, human activities, and property of people. Thus, the analysis of the soil degradation levels obtained allows to prioritize the susceptibility classes: low (S1), moderate (S2), high (S3), and very high (S4).
\nIn addition, the spatial combination of susceptibility (S1 < S2 < S3 < S4) and potential consequence (C1 < C2 < C3 < C4) are translated into risk classes using a correlation matrix of double entries [17]. Consequently, the erosion risk classes are prioritized in order to guide planning decisions (Figure 3): low (R1), moderate (R2), and strong (R3).
\nThe methodological flowchart to identify priority areas and evaluate soil erosion risk.
Using the analysis of the existing opportunities in Oued Beht watershed, the present master plan is based on an action program focused on erosion control. Indeed, the identification of the package of management actions is based on the diagnosis results of biophysical and socio-economic backgrounds. Thus, the management approach of priority areas is based on operational actions (biological and technical treatments) that are compatible with the intrinsic characteristics of the watershed studied. In this sense, the objectives that promote the action plan are as follows:
Bioengineering techniques for soil erosion protection and slope stabilization to conserve natural resources upstream and to protect El Kansra dam against siltation.
Reconstruction of degraded ecosystems to promote biodiversity conservation.
The long-term planning is used to establish the framework and key elements of Oued Beht watershed and to reflect a clear vision created in an open process. Guidelines for the many departments which will draw up specific plans will be established. Thus, the key elements are reviewed for potential effects with uniform land uses (agricultural, rangelands, and forest).
\nThe interventions program includes the conservation actions and environmental rehabilitation. The measures selected are grouped into the following categories: agricultural land use, rangelands management, forest management, river system protection, and ravines treatment.
\nThe Hot Spot Analysis tool calculates the Getis-Ord Gi* statistic for each feature in a spatial data. The resultant “z-score” (standard deviation) tells us where features with either high or low values cluster spatially. This tool works by looking at each feature within the context of neighboring features. A feature with a high value is interesting, but may not be a statistically significant hot spot. Thus, to be a statistically significant hot spot, a feature will have a high value and be surrounded by other features with high values as well. The local sum for a feature and its neighbors is compared proportionally to the sum of all features; when the local sum is much different than the expected local sum, and that difference is too large to be the result of random chance, a statistically significant “z-score” results.
\nThe Gi* statistic returned for each feature in the dataset is a “z-score.” For statistically significant positive “z-score,” the larger the “z-score” is, the more intense the clustering of high values (hot spot); and for statistically significant negative “z-score,” the smaller the “z-score” is, the more intense the clustering of low values (cold spot).
\nIn this study, the use of the statistical method “Getis-Ord Gi*” allows the analysis of each entity (pixel) in relation with neighborhood in the spatial dataset [6]. The nearest neighbor analysis is based on comparing the distribution of the distances from each data point to its nearest neighbor in a given dataset with a randomly distributed dataset.
\nIndeed, this statistical approach tells us if we may reject or not the null hypothesis CSR (complete spatial randomness) that expresses the absence of spatial correlation between the following events: 1) significant soil loss and degraded vegetation cover and (2) soil erosion and steep slopes. Thus, the results, expressed in “z-score” (standard deviation) and “p-value” (independence probability), are used to measure the statistical significance of spatial autocorrelation (Figure 4).
\nDistribution of spatial autocorrelation indicators (adapted from [18]).
Furthermore, for confidence level 90%, if the z-score obtained is between −1.65 and +1.65, the probability of independence (p-value) will be automatically higher than 0.10 and the null hypothesis of independence is not rejected [18]. Thus, the biological actions are programmed in areas with strong spatial autocorrelation (hot spot) between erosion hazard and vegetation cover; and technical measures correspond specially to areas with high spatial autocorrelation between the natural hazard and topographic factors that will be modified by the action plan.
\nThe topography of the Oued Beht watershed is the result of factors with a combination involving topographic effect of altitudinal amplitudes, exposure, slope gradient, and slope length.
\nThe spatial analysis of the digital terrain model (DTM) shows that the watershed has a regularly altitudinal distribution along its elongated form. Thus, altitudes classes obtained follow a decreasing gradient, from upstream to downstream, in perpendicular bands to the axis, which coincides with the flow direction of Oued Beht (Figure 5).
\nHypsometric map.
The watershed presents a high altitudinal range, between the highest point 2121 m and the lowest point 108 m, which coincides with the level of the El Kansra dam. Thus, the total length midline crossing the watershed is 177 km, and the altitude difference of 2013 m represents a real hydrologic indicator that promotes erosive process.
\nThe aspect map is used to establish the slope exposure of the watershed and to give an idea about the relief forms and the cover land. The distribution of soil aspects shows that east facing slopes dominate, particularly at upstream part of Oued Beht watershed (38%). However, the other exposures are equal, almost 20%, while specifying that the investigations show that the north and west slopes present a humid character. Furthermore, the areas representing a flat field (with 0% of slope) are limited and localized mainly in the small depressions or hilltops (Figure 6).
\nAspect map.
The DTM spatial analysis shows that the low slopes (less than 15%) are dispersed and occupy more than half of the watershed (57%). Thus, steep slopes are concentrated in central and upstream areas. The map of the slope length classes gives an indication of the transport distance traveled by soil particles detached. The slope lengths distribution shows that almost half of the watershed (55%) is less than 1000 m with a majority (30%) lower than 500 m (Figure 7).
\nSlope gradient map of the study area.
In this sense, the digital terrain model (DTM) is the main source of data for the extraction of many parameters used such as slope lengths, direction of flow of water, topographic index, etc. The spatial distribution of the slope length classes is heterogeneous, and no zone is characterized by a single slope length class (Figure 8). Also, their importance decreases to a minimum corresponding to the class exceeding 5000 m with only 1%.
\nSlope length map.
In conclusion, the topographic factor analysis reveals the combination of slope length effects with slope gradient characterizing Oued Beht watershed.
\nThe soil analysis in Oued Beht watershed shows a strong dominance (45%) of slightly developed soils (PE). This soil type is dispersed and used not only for agriculture and forestry but also in rangelands. Moreover, Brown soils (B) and Forest Brown (BF) soils are concentrated at the upstream where the forests are developed (6%). Thus, this kind of soil is enriched by the litter decomposition (Figure 9). Specially, the poor soils, characterized by the bedrock outcrop, are located near El Kansra dam and at the extreme south of watershed (upstream).
\nSoils map.
In conclusion, the watershed soils analysis shows the diversity and heterogeneity of pedogenesis factors. Thus, this diversification of soils is mainly due to bedrock types and their degree of friability, morphology, topography, climate aggression, and land use (Figure 10).
\nSoil erodibility distribution.
The geographical distribution of climate stations selected presents good spatial coverage and long periods of observation that allow an eminent climate analysis in Oued Beht watershed. The weather stations used to characterize the thermal regime and deduct bioclimatic classes are the stations of El Kansra, Khemisset, and Ifrane (Figure 11). In this way, the continentality is quite significant with a neat decrease in temperature associated with increasing altitude. Moreover, the thermal regime is characterized by average temperatures that vary between 10°C in the east and 26°C in the north and north-west. Thus, the studied watershed is influenced by altitude and latitude factors.
\nDistribution of climate stations.
On the other hand, the rainfall regime is irregular and the rainy period is concentrated between October and May (Figure 12). As a result, the precipitation distribution analysis shows that the watershed has a rainy winter and a dry summer period. Therefore, the upland areas (mountains) are wetter than the areas that are close to the sea. Thus, the altitude effect on rainfall (R-factor) is more dominant than the approximation of the sea.
\nDistribution of average monthly rainfall data by station.
Bioclimatic data analysis is based on quotient Emberger index (Q2). This quotient, especially adapted to the Mediterranean regions, is based on the annual rainfall, the average maximum temperatures of the warmest month (M °C), and the average minimum temperatures of the coldest month (m °C) [19]. Thus, Oued Beht watershed is characterized by several bioclimatic architectures:
In the north and northwest, the climate is semi-arid with temperate winter.
In the center, the climate is sub-humid with temperate winter.
The east of the watershed presents a humid climate with cold winter.
In addition to the data mentioned above, linked to altitudinal impact (2013 m), the watershed hydrological behavior is conditioned also by the bioclimatic changes affecting inevitably the nature of the developed vegetation, the resilience of different ecosystems, and intensity of erosion hazard.
\nThe rainfall erosive power, or the rainfall erosivity factor (MJ mm ha−1 h−1 year−1), is calculated by the application of the formula using data of average monthly and annual rainfall in the selected meteorological stations [17, 20]. Thus, the rainfall aggressiveness values (R) are between 64 and 130, respectively, recorded at El Kansra and Ifrane stations. Moreover, in the east, the rains are more aggressive than in the north and west. Also, the upstream area shows the higher rainfall aggressiveness indexes (Figure 13).
\nR-factor distribution.
In conclusion, the rainfall aggressiveness, associated with the heterogeneity of the rainfall distribution, is spatially variable and adheres to erosion processes [21, 22].
\nThe watershed has a variety of land uses related to the bioclimatic variation and topo-edaphical diversity. Thus, the rangelands area is the most common type of land cover (44%). Forests represent second place with 29%, reflecting the pastoral character of the watershed (Figure 14). Moreover, the forestry formations are concentrated mainly in the central and upstream. Furthermore, we note the presence of unplanted lands, covered by rocks, which are generally concentrated near the dam El Kansra.
\nLand use map.
Normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) is the most common measurement used for measuring vegetation cover. NDVI calculation allows to quantify vegetation by measuring the difference between near-infrared “NIR” (which vegetation strongly reflects) and red light (which vegetation absorbs), according to the following formula:
\nThe NDVI will be computed temporally to understand the change of land cover during the study period. It ranges from values −1 to +1. Thus, very low values of NDVI (−0.1 and below) correspond to barren areas of rock, sand, or urban/built-up. Zero indicates the water cover. Moderate values represent low density of vegetation (0.1–0.3), while high values indicate vegetation (0.6–0.8).
\nThe results obtained from the NDVI analysis show that the recovery rate is characterized by dominance of the low class, grouping generally rangelands and crop fields. Thus, both classes “low” and “very low” represent 72% of the total area. Consequently, this indicator reflects the low coverage capacity even if the land cover is almost complete and denuded soils rate is only 9.5% (Figure 15).
\nNormalized difference vegetation index map.
Moreover, agricultural lands are specially based on cereals and annual crops with short growing cycles. Thus, the rangelands consist of perennial grass vegetation with short development cycle. In conclusion, the land use duration is short, especially during periods of heavy rain.
\nThe analysis of vegetation cover (C-factor) also confirms the low recovery rate. Thus, more than half of the watershed (55%) has a C-factor exceeding 0.5 and 72% has values greater than 0.2 (Figure 16). Therefore, these results are consistent with the biophysical analysis describing the low recovery rate.
\nC-factor distribution.
In conclusion, this factor has a detrimental effect on the erosion process by promoting the sediments production in low soil coverage, and especially if it is combined with other determinant factors.
\nThe establishment of the hydrological system map, based on DTM spatial analysis, allows to determine the rivers’ directions and the accumulation of their flow (flow accumulation). Indeed, the river system obtained is ramified along the entire watershed. Thus, it consists of the main stream named Oued Beht, which is powered by the waters of several tributaries: Beht, Tigrigra, Ifrane, El Kell, Ouchket, Kharrouba, Beregline, and El Kour (Figure 17).
\nSub-catchment delimitation.
The surface drainage in the Oued Beht watershed is assured by a hierarchical arsenal of rivers. Thus, the density is influenced by its topo-geological structure and relief. Indeed, the river system is characterized by the importance of its elements, since their original ramifications upstream, domiciled in the Middle Atlas chain, to the main collector which is the El Kansra dam. Therefore, the river system is characterized by a total length about 667.77 km and an average density 0.16 km/km2.
\nThe time (tc) that is necessary for the farthest water particle to arrive at watershed outlet, is estimated by the formula of Passini [23], which is presented as follows:
\n\n\n
Therefore, the concentration time (tc) is relatively low at the majority of sub-catchments (SBC) and varies from 2:30 hours (in SBC/Kharrouba) to almost 5 hours (in SBC/Tigrigra).
\nIn conclusion, the elongated form of the Oued Beht watershed and the low concentration time for the majority of sub-basins are favorable conditions for the development of flood and river flows that cause sediment deposits in the stream beds and El Kansra dam.
\nThe bathymetric data analysis implemented since the construction of the El Kansra dam is used to assess the quantity of soil loss which compromises the storage capacity and quality of water flow. Thus, for a period of 23 years (1981–2004), the average El Kansra dam siltation is 3 million m3/year.
\nThe central objective is the prioritization of sub-catchments presenting high flood risk and soil erosion. The data linked to maximum flood flows are obtained by calculating the extreme gradient values (Gradex method) from the decennial flow in the reference station of Ouljet Soltane (Table 1). Thus, the hydrological analysis involved determination of design floods for a large number of sub-catchments by the Gradex method:
First, samples of annual maximum daily rainfall were used to calculate parameters P0 and G of Gumbel distribution for the various raingauge stations (P0 = ordinate of origin and G = slope or gradex).
The Gradex method was next used, with a daily time-step, applied to all stream gauging stations available. Thus, the pivot point was taken as T* = 10 years. Conversion from daily discharge Q j(T) into peak discharge Q p(T) was done by considering the mean Q p/Q j ratio from a small sample of hydrographs.
Lastly, the results obtained (Table 2) are synthesized using the following equation for calculating the maximum instantaneous flow Q p(T), for the return period T:
Return period T (years) | \n10 | \n20 | \n50 | \n100 | \n1000 | \n
Q (m3/s) | \n488 | \n586 | \n712 | \n807 | \n1121 | \n
Statistical adjustment of annual maximum flows, in the gauging station of Ouljet Soltane.
Streams | \nArea (km2) | \nQ p | \nQp | \nQp | \nQp | \nQp | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
T = 10 years | \nT = 20 years | \nT = 50 years | \nT = 100 years | \nT = 1000 years | \n||
Tigrigra | \n909.37 | \n241 | \n294 | \n364 | \n417 | \n597 | \n
Ifrane | \n1019.6 | \n261 | \n318 | \n394 | \n451 | \n643 | \n
El Kell | \n487.2 | \n154 | \n190 | \n238 | \n275 | \n401 | \n
Ouchket | \n326.53 | \n115 | \n143 | \n181 | \n210 | \n310 | \n
El Kour | \n413.2 | \n137 | \n169 | \n213 | \n246 | \n361 | \n
Kharrouba | \n798.12 | \n219 | \n268 | \n333 | \n382 | \n549 | \n
Beregline | \n353.26 | \n122 | \n152 | \n191 | \n221 | \n326 | \n
Flood flows Q p of the principal rivers (m3/s).
where Gd is Gradex flow, defined by the following formula:
\nwhere Gp is the Gradex rainfall, S is the area of the watershed (km2), t c is the concentration time (h) (Eq. (5)), Cp is the pivot point, and u(T) is the variable of Gumbel.
\nFor the other neighboring ungauged sub-watersheds, the application of Francou-Rodier formula gives the following results (Eq. (2)):
\nCompared to Eq. (1), the potential erosion allows to evaluate the power of soils to produce sediments under the effect of rainfall and topological factors, without considering land cover (C-factor) and erosion control practices (P-factor). The crossing of thematic layers of rainfall aggressiveness (R), soil erodibility (K), and the topographic data (LS) is used to synthesize potential impacts according to the formula defined as follows [9, 10]:
\n\n\n
The results analysis shows that the potential average annual soil loss is 54 t/ha, and the average annual quantity is 23.25 million t/year. Moreover, the importance of soil loss differences between extreme values obtained (pixels) shows the power of eminent soil units to produce sediments under the rainfall aggressiveness [24].
\nTwo-thirds of the Oued Beht watershed are characterized by soil loss quantity, which is less than 50 t/ha/year, and almost 30% corresponds to the potential erosion class between 50 and 300 t/ha/year. Thus, on the broken reliefs located in the upstream part (in Tigrigra and Ifrane sub-catchments), with steep slopes, generally exceeding 25%, the potential erosion is high with values that may exceed 200 t/ha/year (Figure 18). Moreover, these erodible areas are characterized particularly by high and medium soil friability.
\nSecond, some areas near El Kansra dam present high values of the potential erosion exceeding 200 t/ha/year. These vulnerable sectors correspond mainly to northern sub-catchments with low altitudes (less than 400 m) with high soil friability. Therefore, the great erosive power of adjacent areas to El Kansra dam is a real danger involving the dam siltation and compromising its service life.
\nFurthermore, the investigative visits show that the upstream part is very sensitive to the potential erosion, but it should be noted, by location, the presence of medium and high levels of vegetation cover that can reduce the erosive potential.
\nThe priority areas delimitation is performed through the spatial crossing of the specific degradation map, the map of sub-catchment contribution to dam siltation, and flood generation. This analysis is further developed by the socio-economic vulnerability map (Figure 18). Thus, we note that the results obtained reveal that the majority of areas identified and delineated as priority areas are occupied generally by soils with strong erosion risks. Consequently, the vulnerability linked to soil degradation characterizes 32% of Oued Beht watershed (Figure 19).
\nPotential erosion map.
Distribution of vulnerable areas.
In conclusion, 24 rural communes know high contribution to dam siltation and include areas with high erosion risks and high poverty level. Therefore, urgent biological and technical actions are needed in this region to control erosion impact [25]. Therefore, these rural communes are concerned by action plans linked to land uses (agriculture, livestock, and forests).
\nThe hazard zoning obtained and the analysis of cumulative curves (number of pixels) define four susceptibility classes in the Oued Beht watershed:
Low susceptibility (S1): The start of the erosion is negligible in almost half of the watershed (44.5%). In fact, local conditions contribute to the stability of the land. Gradients of the slopes are very low (lower than 5%) on agricultural land which is well maintained and well drained.
Moderate susceptibility (S2): Local environmental conditions are also favorable to the onset of low land loss in almost a quarter of the watershed (24.4%). It is protected by forest areas and the slope gradients are low to moderate (5–25%). However, the abandonment of the reservation land or the local presence of slope failure could lead to destabilization.
High susceptibility (S3): Local environmental conditions are favorable for triggering erosion (11.4%). It is rangeland and unprotected forest formations located on moderately degraded soils and characterized by poor soil drainage techniques. The degrees of slopes are moderate to strong (25–45%).
Very high susceptibility (S4): The possibilities of the start of erosion are strong and the local environmental conditions are very favorable for that in 19.7% of the watershed. Soils are severely degraded, poorly maintained, and managed. The general appearance is marked by the absence of vegetation or forests. Thus, the erosion is very active with a significant soil loss with strong slope gradient (more than 45%).
In conclusion, this exploratory procedure shows amply the system capacity to generate automatically the hazard zoning. Almost a third (31%) of the Oued Beht watershed presents high to very strong susceptibility. The four hazard levels can be combined with vulnerability with four levels. This integrated analysis would produce risk maps, or rather the existing deficit protection.
\nThe analysis of the socio-economic vulnerability of the watershed is based on the assessment of damage related to the effect of past erosive events on the profitability of soil resources and the income of the farmers surveyed in this study. Thus, the preparation of input data is based on the results of socio-economic surveys describing the decline in land yield year after year (income loss).
\nAs a result, the yield loss parameters that tell us the annual cost of erosion are defined by the differences between the net initial income per hectare and the net income with the effect of erosion (Eq. (4)).
\nIn addition, the results of the socio-economic surveys show that the local economy is mainly represented by the primary sector (farming and poly-culture). The structural and functional damage map (CSF) describes the combination of damages due to land loss and El Kansra dam siltation that affect human activities. Therefore, the potential damage map (Figure 20) is obtained from the qualitative assessment of the state of land degradation (the importance of sheet, rill, and gully erosion) and this, to structure the cost of erosion and to highlight the homogeneous areas of vulnerability. Indeed, the analysis of cumulative curves (number of pixels) has identified four consequences classes for the Oued Beht watershed.
Low consequences (C1): Minor damages to these lands are obsolete (1%) and hazard causes as much damage to human activities.
Moderate consequences (C2): Mild to serious damage to soils and to infrastructures, which are characterized by half of the watershed (49%), mainly in the south watershed (upstream side) and partly downstream. Moreover, disruption of socio-economic activities is also moderate.
High consequences (C3): Moderate to severe disturbances of human activities. Thus, strong and direct consequences are confined in space, but can be felt over the agricultural seasons; also, they represent almost half of Oued Beht watershed (50%). These consequences are partly located in the north watershed (downstream) and mainly around the El Kansra dam but locally extending toward the center and south.
Very high consequences (C4): The very strong damage is minimal and negligible (0.02%); this kind of erosion events would exceed the human capacity and prevention authorities concerned.
Potential consequences map.
The risk map (Figure 21), derived from a spatial combination of susceptibility and potential consequences classes, shows that high-risk areas (R3) are developed on 6% of the territory. These sites identify the major risks and disruptions of human activities. The warning areas correspond to areas with high consequences (C3), located immediately in the upstream side and locally to the center, presenting a very high to moderate susceptibility (S2, S3, and S4). Thus, appropriate precaution measures must be established (protected areas) and a risk prevention plan (RPP) must be implemented.
\nNatural erosion risks.
Elsewhere, outside large spaces present a low risk (R1) on 72% of watershed, representing the concept of acceptable risk. The risk level is moderate (R2) in 22% of the watershed (e.g., steep slopes but with low to moderate consequences). This menace presents a moderate disruption to human activities and serious damage to infrastructure including El Kansra dam. In conclusion, if improper resource management is implemented, this part of the watershed affected by moderate risk (22%) can be aggravated. Therefore, the potential risk can meet 28% of the watershed. Certainly, the development of management scenarios can complete this mapping study to improve the prevention of erosion risk.
\nThe formulation of Strategic Action Program (SAP) is based on the results of erosion risk mapping (Figure 21) to identify priority areas, where measures against soil erosion or reservoir siltation should be taken. The approach used is translated into operational actions (biological and technical), which are compatible with the intrinsic possibilities of the studied watershed (Figure 22). Thus, the Strategic Action Plan aims to achieve the priority objectives as follows:
\n
Flood analysis in order to reduce the flood risks with implementation of technical actions and Hydro-Agricultural Infrastructure Protection Plan (HIPP) including the El Kansra dam and the land goods.
Implementation of biological actions, which consist of plantation and reforestation in degraded areas.
Master plan of the Oued Beht watershed management.
The agricultural development board assists rural households in the Oued Beht watershed to develop their agricultural business according to the lithological formations, and topographical and climatic constraints. Indeed, the agricultural lands, including arboriculture, cover an area of 74,577 ha, nearly 17% of the watershed area. Moreover, the operating systems are basically extensive with the cultivation of a maximum surface whatever the slope (even in the steep slopes).
\nOn the other hand, the production systems adopted are characterized generally by inappropriate farming practices that promote soil erosion. Thus, the socio-economic study shows that 96% of rural population is conscious of the water and soils degradation.
\nIn this sense, the selected actions aim to achieve a progressive evolution of production systems and land uses in accordance with soils vocation, with limitation of annual crops on steep slopes, the development of arboriculture, and improvement of forage production for livestock. Therefore, the implementation of actions mentioned below will lead to the increase of agricultural incomes and the establishment of a space management model to ensure local sustainability according to the following practices:
Low to medium slopes (0–15%): The biophysical data analysis shows that the lands with low to medium slopes (0–15%) are subject to an erosive process generally manifested by sheet, rill, and rarely gully erosion. Thus, the aggressive rainfall and inappropriate farming practices (soil tillage in the direction of the slope, overgrazing) are the main factors that increase soil erosion.
The correctional measures include improving productivity through appropriate use of culture techniques. Thus, on low to medium slopes, the soil tillage must follow the contours and be combined with cultures in alternate bands.
\nIn conclusion, to maintain this type of soil vegetation cover as long as possible during the year, it is necessary to promote culture associations. The rotations of “cereal-legume-forage” or “cereal-legume-cereal” are retained. For rangeland improvement, the vetch-oats, alfalfa, and clover present important opportunities for pastoral production and contribute significantly to soil protection.
Steep slopes (higher than 15%): The results analysis shows that higher slopes are commonly used by cereal cultures that give low yields. Especially, in this case, the soil tillage in the direction of slopes causes ridges that eventually become water runoff channels (gullies) that quickly develop the gullies and ravines. Moreover, the tillage soils according to the slope direction increase erosion.
In conclusion, a sustainable soil management on steep slopes is necessary through the restoration of vegetation cover by the planting of multiple use species following the contours. This plantation technique must be combined with isohypse structures (benches, ditches, and cords) to conserve water and soil.
\nIn the case of the Oued Beht watershed, fruit trees cultivation presents a promoter axis of the erosion control in the difficult terrain. The tree species proposed depend on agro-ecological areas. This operation needs also the consultation with the farmers concerned to choose trees species. Moreover, the olive, fig, and almond trees seem the most desired fruit trees by the population and the best adapted to the ecological conditions in the watershed. Second, the interline space will be used for the practice of the usual cultures respecting the principles of tillage soils following contour lines.
\nThe socio-economic study shows that the actual animal demand is high compared to production potential. Thus, the confrontation of the rangeland offers and livestock demand reveals an important deficit −31%.
\nThe results analysis shows that the three livestock types (sheep, cattle, and goats) use rangelands intensively and continuously. Generally, the state of rangelands presents advanced degradation of vegetation resources. In addition, this usage mode is accentuated first by the severity of soil and climatic conditions which are often unfavorable and second by the nature land status that promotes non-rational exploitation of forage justified by its gratuity.
\nIn this situation, the pastoral improvement is fully justified by the need to implement an intervention program to save the pastoral resources in the Oued Beht watershed. Thus, short-term actions are based particularly on the development and rational management of pastoral space, and then, in the medium term, the program can implement actions linked to improving driving livestock. Normally, the proposed actions tend to change the pastoralist habits and to support the incentive mechanisms related to fattening to reduce the pressure on the pastoral spaces.
Rangeland users organization: The users organization into pastoral associations (or cooperatives) is a central action to be taken in parallel with the technical actions (plantation, closing and deferred grazing, and water point for livestock) in order to ensure sustainable use of rangelands. This organizational approach is the population interface with all partners to monitor actions and to defend the pastoral potential of the watershed.
Deferred rotation grazing: In this case, the deferred rotation grazing is the technique used to enhance and restore the herbaceous and shrubs potential. It consists of prohibiting grazing in degraded areas in order to allow the natural regeneration with the development of herbaceous species richness and of forage quantity.
The duration of the deferred grazing depends on pastoral species. A short duration grazing is a rotation on 2–4 years, which is sufficient for the regeneration of herbaceous species and for the improvement of pastoral potential. However, the limitation of rights to use rangelands will be able to generate a forage imbalance that will directly increase the pressure on the surrounding lands and cause the accentuation of their degradation. Thus, to anticipate this problem, it is imperative to choose pastoral species with high nutrient supplies and to provide accompanying measures for population like compensation system linked to unexploited forage units and development of forage crops irrigated.
Planting shrubs: In the case of the studied watershed, the survey analysis shows clearly that fodder shrubs are highly attractive to farmers. Thus, the shrubs present the advantage to provide their production in a late period of the year when other forage crops (including herbaceous vegetation) are low or zero. The introduction of tree plantations consists of soil tillage in the autumn before the first rains with the digging holes along the contour lines for planting shrubs and installing bleachers for planting cactus.
In conclusion, this technique aims to improve water balance and fight against erosion. The shrubs species that are recommended are Atriplex nummularia, Medicago arborea, Chamaecytisus albidus, and Opuntia ficus-indica. Moreover, the use of cactus plantations presents his pastoral role with the advantage of producing highly appreciated fruit that can provide substantial revenue for the users.
Livestock watering points: The analysis of the surveys data shows that water shortage presents a major constraint, especially as the dry spells became frequent. In the summer, water resources become scarce and fail to cover the livestock needs. Several techniques for collecting and mobilization of water when they are available (in winters and flood periods) are proposed based on the watershed characteristics.
The proposed actions present great social utility and do not require large investments; they are adapted either to an individual or collective use. Thus, the actions include the preparation of water reservoirs, the capture from surface water sources, the development of existing wells, and the digging of new wells.
\nImplementation of action plan linked to watershed forestry resource consists to restore degraded natural ecosystems (evergreen oak and thuya), which represent an economic and ecological importance. Thus, these actions aim to improve the vegetation cover, to protect the soil against erosion, and finally to halt the forest degradation.
Forest rehabilitation: The biophysical analysis shows that watershed forests are located generally in difficult areas upstream. These ligneous formations have good adaptability and resistance to the negative impacts of climate and anthropogenic pressure. Thus, most of these forests suffer from a lack of natural regeneration.
Therefore, this difficult situation requires efforts in terms of natural regeneration with native species to ensure sustainability of these natural areas. Thus, the intervention program gives priority to the parties that have the potential for regeneration.
\nThese actions are accompanied by water and soil conservation measures to reduce erosion and increase water storage capacity (step elements, benches, and terracing).
Reforestation protection: The introduction of artificial plantations aims at the protection of degraded forests. Thus, the reforestation of denuded lands and badlands, with forest vocation, allows the soil protection, the runoff quality and quantity improvement, and production of wood products.
Considering the watershed bioclimatic conditions, the spectrum obtained from tree species proposed for reforestation is maritime pine, Aleppo pine, brutia pine, cypress, and eucalyptus trees.
River system and badlands development: The hydrographic network is characterized by high density ratio of river and lakes; the soil losses are accentuated by this river system, and the erosion is generally active on soft to moderately vulnerable areas. This phenomenon is strongly observed in the central part of the watershed where the river system becomes increasingly ramified and individualized (Figure 11). This regressive evolution leads to a densification of ravines that can achieve the generalized gully erosion. This situation is clearly illustrated in the downstream part at the El Kansra dam. The sediment quantities resulting from this erosion are mainly transported downstream and contribute significantly to the dam siltation.
Finally, the proposed management strategy for vulnerable areas is based on a combination of two main actions: biological fixation and mechanical ravine correction. Thus, the two integrated actions stimulate vegetation installation and slope correction. The chosen technique combines the advantages, not only to limit sediment yield but also to promote the defense of infrastructure, good land, and public and private properties.
\nThis socio-ecological development program gives special attention to aspects of social vulnerability, a major dimension of vulnerability to multiple factors including: low incomes, social exclusion, and natural hazards. Referring to this approach, all people whose consumption expenditure is below the poverty line, which represents the minimum income considered adequate for each person, are considered vulnerable. In Morocco, on average, the poverty line is US $ 2.4 per person per day in rural areas [14, 15].
\nIn fact, the survey design conducted in this study allowed us to exploit the income data of sampled individuals and to develop a simplified map representing, by homogeneous area, the percentage of individuals with an income below the minimum income deemed appropriate for each person (Figure 23).
\nSocial vulnerability.
The autocorrelation maps obtained (z-score) are used to delineate the priority interventions which correspond to the z-scores, statistically significant with values higher than 1.65 or less than −1.65 (Figure 13). Furthermore, the biological actions in degraded areas (by fruit plantation, regeneration, and reforestation) are materialized in spaces that express high spatial aggregation between soil loss and degraded vegetation cover. Consequently, the total area covered by this type of intervention is 87,351 ha, which represents 20% of the Oued Beht watershed. These biological interventions are concentrated mainly in the priority sub-catchments of Tigrigra, Ifrane, and Kharrouba (Figure 24).
\nBiological interventions.
On the other hand, the technical actions designed to reduce the slope effect consist in the establishment of benches, ditches, and terracing. These structures are programmed in high spatial aggregation between soil erosion and steep slopes. The total area covered by technical intervention is 22,753 ha, and a quarter of biological interventions is combined with technical measures, especially in the upstream part of the watershed (Figure 24).
\nIn conclusion, the package of techniques of soil conservation and erosion control is developed in agricultural and sylvopastoral areas, starting from various types of soil tillage and vegetation cover, to different types of terraces, check dams, and stone bunds. Thus, the terracing is the selected agricultural technique for collecting surface runoff water, thus increasing infiltration and controlling water erosion used to transform landscape to steeped agrosystems in the mountainous regions (upstream).
\nThis research paper proposes the development of a methodology analysis for soil erosion hazard and risk administration, especially a very few studies are dedicated to the mapping of soil loss risks. The use of analytical models based on space technology information processing has developed a GIS database on biophysical and topoclimatic parameters in Oued Beht watershed. Thus, the procedure described evaluates the soil loss risk and siltation of El Kansra dam, located in the upstream side.
\nThe present study has implemented a cartographic approach based on the integration of spatial remote sensing tools (GIS) and spatial analysis functionalities linked to the initial state of the studied watershed. Thus, the central objective is to define the guidelines of the strategic spatial planning dedicated to erosion risk management. Moreover, although some studies have combined biophysical data and the constraints identified in the socio-economic analysis in order to understand the conditions of water erosion, they generally do not consider the statistical autocorrelation to develop strategy for priority management of watersheds. In this perspective, the cartographic restitution of spatial clusters obtained identifies priority areas and establishes the first interventions across the watershed.
\nThe results obtained from the spatial autocorrelation analysis concerning socio-ecological components show that the priority actions are needed for almost 20% of the Oued Beht watershed. Thus, all priority areas identified are affected by the biological techniques (fruit plantation, regeneration, and reforestation in adequate slopes) that mitigate the factor, which expresses the lack of vegetation cover.
\nIn addition to that, the spatial aggregation map shows also that the appropriate soil conservation practices (terracing) correspond to a quarter (15%) of the priority areas. Thus, this category of intervention aims to reduce the negative effects of the topographic factor with the establishment of terracing structures (Figure 13). The main purpose of the terracing application is to improve the usefulness of steep slopes and to increase their agricultural potential. This function is realized by creating the level surfaces according to contour lines of transformed slopes. The level, bench platform allows spreading the surface runoff water, decreases its speed, and thus allows more time for water infiltration into soil profile.
\nIn conclusion, this approach has allowed developing a planning program with successful techniques for soil erosion control in degraded areas linked to steep slopes, climatic conditions, and erodible soils.
\nIt is obvious that this approach, based on ground measurements combined with geographic information systems, must be accompanied by a regular monitoring system by updating continuously the part of the spatial model derived from remote sensing. Furthermore, the stable part of the geospatial database consists of intrinsic factors (lithology, soil, drainage density, etc.) and the dynamic part to control includes biotic factors related to the soil occupation and needs evolution of the local population.
\nAlthough this analysis was conducted to the master plan of watershed development and has identified environmental constraints (soil and water degradation) characterizing priority areas, it is necessary to refine this analysis through a participatory action plan. Thus, this zonal analysis will specify for each year the interventions to be implemented and the financial package, by considering the needs and perspectives of the rural population. Moreover, the effectiveness of the proposed techniques can be limited especially if the local population is opposed or, in some cases, found to be expensive to build and maintain.
\nFinally, this research work demonstrates the potential and merits of spatial analysis techniques to evaluate the erosion risks. An indicative mapping designed for the management and risk prevention is obtained, to control the source and quality of input and to characterize the conditions of validity of the models. However, the difficulties encountered in the collection of quantitative damage data, usually, due to the lack of historical information, refer to the idea that it would be necessary to create an observatory and full database related to water erosion damage. Thus, research is needed to introduce also the temporal component (probability of erosion and return period) in a decision support perspective to implement a regional sustainable planning.
\nThis research paper was partially supported by the Identification and Modeling Laboratory of Natural Environment (LIMEN), Mohammadia School of Engineers in Mohammed V University (Morocco). I would also like to express my gratitude to some of my colleagues who were generous in providing guidance, and without their help, this project could not have been accomplished.
\nI dedicate this paper to my parents Ahmed and Jamila, my sisters and my nephew Mouad, my dear family, and to the soul of my uncle Hassan Touissate. I also dedicate this modest work to my dear wife Ihsane, friends, and colleagues, and without their encouragement, I could not have written this.
\nOrganic agriculture is a holistic production system that sustains the health of soils, ecosystems, and people. It relies on ecological processes, biodiversity, and cycles adapted to local conditions rather than the use of inputs with adverse effects. Organic agriculture combines tradition, innovation, and science to benefit the shared environment and promote fair relationships and a good quality of life for all involved [1]. Holistic means near-closed nutrient and energy cycle system considering the whole farm as one organism [2]. Organic agriculture relies on a number of farming practices based on ecological cycles and aims at minimizing the environmental impact of the food industry, preserving the long-term sustainability of soil and reducing to a minimum use of nonrenewable resources [3]. Organic agriculture is both a philosophy and a system of farming aiming to produce food that is nutritious and uncontaminated with substances that could harm human health [4]. Organic farming benefits to the ecosystem include conservation of soil fertility, carbon dioxide storage, fossil fuel reduction, preserving landscape, and preservation of biodiversity [3].
\nPest management in organic farming is achieved by using appropriate cropping techniques, biological control, and natural pesticides (mainly extracted from plant or animal origins). Weed control, the main problem for organic growers, can be managed through cultural practices including mechanic cultivation, mulching, and flaming. Organic farming is characterized by higher diversity of arthropod fauna and conservation of natural enemies than conventional agriculture [3, 5].
\nAccording to the IFOAM [1], organic agriculture is guided by four principles: health (soil, plant, animal, and human), ecology (living ecological systems and cycles), fairness (environment and life opportunities), and care (protect the health and well-being of current and future generations as well as the environment). The US Congress passed the organic food product act in 1990, while the European Union (EU) set up the first regulations on organic farming in 1991, and in the same year, the Codex Alimentarius Commission officially recognized organic agriculture. Gomiero et al. [3] gave more details on history of organic farming, total global areas, organic standards, and impact on the environment. The chapter deals with pest management in organic farming system with an example of organic date production as case study.
\nPest management in organic farming is a holistic (whole-farm) approach that largely depends on the ecological processes and biodiversity in the agroecosystem. Accordingly, most IPM tactics, principles, and components match with organic farming systems [6]. The goal of this strategy is to prevent pests from reaching economically damaging levels without causing risk to the environment. Successful IPM programs in organic farming may have the following components: (1) monitoring crops for pests, (2) accurately identifying pests, (3) developing economic thresholds, (4) implementing integrated pest control tactics, and (5) record keeping and evaluation.
\nThe factors that render crop habitat unsuitable for pests and diseases include limitation of resources, competition, parasitism, and predation [7]. These factors play an important role in maintaining equilibrium of the agroecosystem and suppression of harmful pests. Faunal and floral diversities play a substantial role in pest and disease management in organic farming system [8, 9]. The four principles of pest management in organic farming system, namely, prevention, avoidance, monitoring, and suppression, will be discussed in this chapter with special reference to date palm as case study.
\nFew options of plant protection substances are available for certified organic growers compared to conventional ones. Thus, they should capitalize on the natural processes and management of the ecosystem to control harmful organisms. Organic farms had a more diverse arthropod fauna, on average, than conventional farms. The average for five 30-second vacuum samples per farm was approximately 40 arthropod species in conventional tomato compared to 66 species in organic tomato fields. Additionally, natural enemies (parasitoids plus predators) were more abundant on organic farms [10]. Arthropod biodiversity, as measured by species richness, was, on average, one-third greater on organic farms than on conventional farms [10].
\nUnder organic farming systems, the fundamental components and natural processes of ecosystems, such as soil organism activities, nutrient cycling, and species distribution and competition, are used directly and indirectly as farm management tools to prevent pest populations from reaching economically damaging levels. Soil fertility and crop nutrients are managed through tillage and cultivation practices, crop rotations, and cover crops and supplemented with manure, composts, crop waste material, and other allowed substances.
\nSoil-borne and root pathogens are usually found in low levels in organic farming as compared to conventional farming [11]. Pathogens such as Pythium spp., Sclerotium rolfsii, Phytophthora spp., and some Fusarium can survive on organic matter of the soil, in the absence of their hosts for long periods, and are thus difficult to be controlled with crop rotation. Additionally, airborne pathogens cannot be controlled with cultural practice such as crop rotation [12]. Powdery mildew and rust diseases (airborne) and insect pests such as aphids and whiteflies (sucking insects) are less serious in organic farming than in conventional farming due to lower nitrogen concentrations in foliar tissues or phloem of plants in the former compared with the latter [11]. Almost all pesticides available for organic farming have short residual effects and work through direct contact mode of action as compared to the persistent systemic pesticides used in conventional farming. Table 1 gives the main differences between organic and conventional farming with respect to soil fertility, biodiversity, and other criteria.
\nOrganic farming (OF) | \nConventional farming (CF) | \n
---|---|
Synthetic fertilizers and synthetic pesticides are not permitted | \nSynthetic fertilizers and synthetic pesticides are allowed | \n
Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are not allowed | \nGMOs can be used | \n
Soils have higher water holding capacity than CF | \nSoils have less water holding capacity than OF | \n
OF has larger floral and faunal biodiversity than CF (complex crop pattern) | \nCF has smaller biodiversity than OF (simple crop pattern) | \n
The agricultural landscape is characterized by heterogeneity (multicultural system) | \nThe agricultural landscape is characterized by homogeneity (monocultural system) | \n
Minimizing the use of nonrenewable resources by recycling plant and animal waste into the soils (on-farm inputs) | \nDepends largely on nonrenewable resources (off-farm inputs) | \n
OF is more sustainable than CF | \nCF is less sustainable compared to OF | \n
Strictly regulated by international and national institutional bodies such as Codex Alimentarius and IFOAM | \nNot strictly regulated | \n
Crop protection depends mainly on natural processes such as soil fertility, crop cycle, and biodiversity (more preventive) | \nCrop protection relies mainly on human intervention with synthetic chemicals (more curative) | \n
Fundamental differences between organic and conventional farming.
Practices and tactics used in organic farming are based on the three management strategies, which include prevention, monitoring, and suppression. These practices will be intensively discussed in the following paragraphs:
\nCrop pests include insects, weed, plant pathogens, invertebrate, and vertebrate animals. Identification of insect pests and their natural enemies is an important step in any pest management program. Insect pests and natural enemies could be identified using keys and field guides or otherwise consulting an official identification bodies. Unlike insect pests, plant pathogens including fungi, bacteria, virus, and nematodes are difficult to identify in the field and may need laboratory diagnosis. However, signs of insect damage and symptoms of plant diseases may be easily distinguished in the field. Weeds could be easily identified using key and field guides.
\nMonitoring is the regular inspection or scouting of field crops for pests, including insects, pathogens, nematodes, and weeds, to determine their abundance and level of damage. It serves as an early warning system for the presence of pests and diseases providing information for decision-making regarding management action and evaluation of control methods. Insect pests can be monitored through visual observation, pheromone and light traps, sticky traps, water traps, yellow traps, sweep nets, beating trays, and pitfall traps. Scouting data are used to develop economic thresholds, a useful decision-making tool to start control action when a pest population reaches or exceeds the specified economic threshold.
\nA successful integrated pest management (IPM) program in organic farming incorporates a variety of pest management tactics such as cultural, mechanical/physical, biological, and biopesticide (allowed for organic use) tactics individually or in combination. Each control tactic, discussed below, employs a different set of mechanisms for preventing and suppressing pest populations.
\nThe goal of cultural control is to alter the environment, the condition of the host, or the behavior of the pest to prevent or suppress an infestation. It disrupts the normal relationship between the pest and the host and makes the pest less likely to survive, grow, or reproduce [13]. In agricultural crops, crop rotation, selection of crop plant varieties, timing of planting and harvesting, irrigation management, crop rotation, and use of trap crops help reduce populations of weeds, microorganisms, insects, mites, and other pests. These cultural practices are more preventive than curative and thus may require planning in advance [13–15]. The diversified habitat provides these parasites and predators with alternative food sources, shelter, and breeding sites [16]. Tillage can cause destruction of the insect or its overwintering chamber, removal of the protective cover, elimination of food plants, and disruption of the insect life cycle generally killing many of the insects through direct contact, starvation or exposure to predators, and weather [13]. The use of trap strip crops can control insect damage at the field edges and at the same time avail refuge and food for beneficial insects. Insect resistance is an important component of pest and disease management. Quality-based resistance can be induced in plants through management of nutrients and irrigation. Intercropping and biodiversity play an important role in pest management in organic farming [13].
\nOne of the simplest methods of physical or mechanical pest control is handpicking insects or hand-pulling weeds. This method works best in those situations where the pests are visible and easily accessible [17]. Physical or mechanical disruption of pests also includes such methods as mowing, hoeing, flaming, soil solarization, tilling or cultivation, and washing [17]. Animals such as kangaroos cause damage by eating yellow dates; hence, fruit bunches are covered to protect them from such damage [18].
\nDevices that can be used to exclude insect pests from reaching crops in organic farming include, but not limited to, row covers, protective nets with varying mesh size according to the pest in question, and sticky paper collars that prevent crawling insects from climbing the trunks of trees. Water pressure sprays can be employed to dislodge insect pests such as aphids and mites from the plant surface. Insect vacuums, on the other hand, could be used to remove insects from plant surface and collect them into a collection box.
\nBiological methods are the use of beneficial organisms that can be used in the field to reduce insect pest populations. Biological control is grouped into three categories: importation or classical biological control, which introduces pest’s natural enemies to the locations where they do not occur naturally, augmentation involves the supplemental release of natural enemies, boosting the naturally occurring population, and conservation, which involves the conservation of existing natural enemies in the environment [19]. The role of beneficial species on pests is of relatively greater importance in organic agriculture than in conventional agriculture, because organic growers do not have recourse to highly potent insecticides (such as synthetic pyrethroids) with which to tackle major pest problems [13].
\nBiopesticides are characterized by having minimal or no risk to the environment, natural enemies, and nontarget organisms due to their mode of action, rapid degradation, and the small amounts applied to control pests. They are slow acting, have a relatively critical application times, and suppress rather than eliminate a pest population [20]. Biopesticides have limited field persistence and shorter shelf life and present no residue problems. Thus, they are approved for pest management in organic crops.
\nThe crop protection in organic farming is holistic, and, hence, it is extremely difficult to separate inputs as plant nutrients (fertilizers) and plant protectants (pesticides) [6]. Plant protection products authorized for use in organic farming differ among countries depending on the differences in crops, pests, and cropping systems, as well as regulations and standards adopted by these countries [21]. Organically approved pesticides fall into the following groups: biorational, inorganics, botanicals, microbial, oils, and soaps. The most widely used as insecticides are microorganisms, natural pyrethrins, rapeseed oil, and paraffin; the most widely used as fungicides are copper compounds, sulfur, and microorganisms. The rules of organic agriculture allow the use of unregistered products such as nettle slurry, which is used against aphids. It can be prepared on the farm or shared among farmers [21, 22].
\nThe basic substance concept was introduced by the EU regulation 1107 in 2009. It was defined as substance not intendedly used for plant protection purposes; however, it can still be used in protection of plants either directly or as a diluent. According to this definition, substances used as foodstuff such as vinegar and sunflower oil can be used as plant protection [23]. The basic substances of plant and animal origin, which are used as foodstuff, can be legally used in crop protection in organic farming with the exception of being used as herbicides. These basic substances include chitosan hydrochloride, fructose, sucrose, Salix spp. cortex, and Equisetum arvense L. (field horsetail) which are used as elicitors of the plant self-defense mechanism. Sunflower oil, whey, and lecithins are used as fungicides, while vinegar is used as fungicide and bactericide, and Urtica sp. is used as insecticide, fungicide, and acaricide [21]. In organic farming, only active substances listed in the Commission Regulation (EC) No. 889/2008 (Table 2) can be used. New update is frequently being made by the EC to add or remove PPPs from the list.
\nName of product | \nPurpose and specifications of use | \n
---|---|
Azadirachtin from the neem tree (Azadirachta indica) | \n\n |
Beeswax | \nUsed as protectant for treatment of cuts and wounds after pruning or in grafting | \n
Plant oils | \nUsed for control of small-bodied insects such as thrips, aphids, and whiteflies | \n
Laminarin (from Laminaria digitata) or kelp or brown algae seaweed | \nA polysaccharide from the group of the glucans, used to protect plants against fungi and bacteria. Kelp should be grown according to the organic standards | \n
Pheromones | \nUsed only in traps and dispensers | \n
Pyrethrins from the leaves of Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium\n | \nUsed as insecticide | \n
Pyrethroids (only deltamethrin or lambdacyhalothrin) | \nUsed only in traps with attractants or pheromones | \n
Quassia from the plant Quassia amara\n | \nOnly insecticide and repellent | \n
Microorganisms, e.g., Bacillus thuringiensis, Beauveria bassiana, and Metarhizium anisopliae\n | \nOrigin should not be GMOs | \n
Spinosad from the soil bacterium Saccharopolyspora spinosa\n | \nUsed as insecticide | \n
Ethylene | \nInsecticidal fumigant against fruit flies | \n
Paraffin oil | \nUsed as insecticide against small-bodied insects | \n
Fatty acids (soft soaps) | \nInsecticide against mite, thrips, and aphids | \n
Lime sulfur (mixture of calcium hydroxide and sulfur) | \nUsed as fungicide | \n
Kieselgur (diatomaceous earth) from the hard-shelled diatom protist (chrysophytes) | \nUsed as mechanical insecticide | \n
Naturally occurring aluminum silicate (kaolin) | \nAs insect repellent against a wide range of insects at a rate of 50 kg/ha | \n
Calcium hydroxide | \nUsed as fungicide | \n
Sodium hypochlorite (bleach or as javel water). It is a disinfectant with numerous uses, and its effect is due to the chlorine | \nUsed in seed treatment as viricide and bactericide | \n
Sulfur | \nUsed as broad-spectrum inorganic contact fungicide and acaricide | \n
Copper compounds such as: copper hydroxide, copper oxychloride, copper oxide, tribasic copper sulfate, and Bordeaux mixture (copper sulfate and calcium hydroxide) | \nUsed as fungicide and bactericide maximum of 6 kg copper per ha annually | \n
Sheep fat (obtained from fatty sheep tissues by heat extraction and mixed with water to obtain an oily water emulsion) | \nA triglyceride consisting predominantly of glycerine esters of palmitic acid, stearic acid, and oleic acid. A repellent by smell against vertebrate pests such as deer and other game animals. It should not be applied to the edible parts of the crop | \n
Quartz sand | \nUsed as repellent against vertebrate pests | \n
Plant protection products approved by the European Union (EU) for use in organic farming [24].
There are about 100 million date palms in the world mostly distributed in Asia and North Africa, producing 7.78 million ton of dates annually [25]. The international famous date palm cultivars include Medjool, Deglet Noor, Barhee, Halawy, Khalas, and Khadrawy. Organic dates are now produced in many countries around the world including Tunisia, Israel, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Sudan, Iran, Algeria, and the USA. Date palm, whether grown conventionally or organically, has numerous pests and diseases including 132 species of arthropod (insects and mites), 52 vertebrate pests (birds, rodents, bats), and 28 non-arthropod pests (slugs and snails, parasitic nematode) [26, 27]. Additionally, more than 16 important fungal, phytoplasma, and unidentified diseases attack the date palm. The major ones include Bayoud, black scorch, Diplodia, Khamedj inflorescence rot, Belaat, graphiola leaf spot, Al-Wijam disease, brittle leaf disease, and Faroun disease [28]. These pests and diseases may cause substantial losses in date palm groves if left unmanaged. Therefore, a well-planned and supervised pest management program is important to maintain a sustainable date palm production in organic farming system. Some examples of injuries inflicted by pests on date palm and dates are shown in Figures 1 and 2.
\nSymptoms of damage on the fruit bunch stalk (left) due to Oryctes elegans and on the trunk (right) due to Jebusaea hammerschmidti.
Fatal damage caused by the larvae of the longhorn beetle Jebusaea hammerschmidti on the apical meristem (Goumara) of a date palm.
Date palm pests of economic important in organic farming could be prevented through an IPM program comprising the following components: selection of planning materials, pest monitoring, cultural management, and conservation of natural enemies of pests.
\nTo a healthy vigorous palm that yield good quality date fruits, one should start with good planting materials whether tissue culture seedlings, offshoots, or mature palms. Planting materials should be adapted to the area where to be grown, in addition of being healthy and free from pests and diseases. Such planting materials should be obtained from nurseries certified for organic date palm production, where strict quarantine measures and protocols are applied. Many serious pests and diseases of date palm including the invasive red palm weevil spread rapidly through movement of infested planting materials [29]. Dubas bug, scale insects, longhorn beetle, and rhinoceros beetle also invade new areas through transportation of infested offshoots and mature palms (Figure 3). Thus, application of preventive and protective controls through strict implementation of agricultural quarantine controls, as well as non-trading of any offshoots or infected palms, are essential for the establishment of new date palm plantation.
\nMany important pests and diseases of date palm can be introduced into new areas through transporting unhealthy planting materials.
\n
Make sure that the offshoot belongs to the cultivar that is intended to be grown. Selection should be made during harvesting time of the mother palm, because it is easy to identify the date palm cultivar from the characteristics of its fruit.
The offshoot should be 3–4 years old, with length of approximately 1–1.5 m and diameter of 25–35 cm with an average weight of 20–30 kg.
The offshoot should contain numerous undamaged roots.
The offshoot should be free of insect pests and diseases.
The offshoot should be mature and hence will have a better chance of survival after transplanting. Bearing fruits and having daughter offshoots indicate the maturity of the offshoot.
Care must be taken not to wound the offshoot during detachment from the mother palm, as the wounds would predispose the offshoot for bacterial and fungal diseases, as well as for opportunistic insect pests such as the dynastic beetles, termites, and red palm weevil.
Monitoring of major date palm pests is essential for decision-making such as determination of economic threshold that largely help in starting control actions and avoidance of routine preventive treatments. Pheromone trapping could be used to determine population cycles and prediction of pest outbreaks. Pheromones can also be employed in mating disruption, attack and kill, and male inhalation techniques to reduce pest populations [30]. The same devices of pheromone and light traps can also be used for mass trapping of adult insect pests, particularly gravid females that lead to drastic reduction in pest population (Figure 4) [31].
\nSolar light trap (top left), pheromone-baited trap (top right), adult borers collected by the light trap (bottom right), and adult of red palm weevils mass trapped through pheromone trap (bottom right).
Services of date palm that are important in the management of pests and diseases include irrigation management, field sanitation, removal of weeds, organic fertilization, old frond pruning, frond base cutting, offshoots removal, pollination, fruit thinning, spines removal, fruit bagging, and harvesting. Each one of the abovementioned operations is carried out at specific time of the year with specific purpose; however, each operation can control palm pests and diseases in one way or another. Thus, adoption of date palm calendar for each locality will provide control of date palm pests and diseases.
\nManagement of irrigation to avoid conditions that are congenial to the development of pests and diseases (e.g., red palm weevil) is an important soil conditioning practice in organic farming. Another important practice is maintaining soil health and nutrients to increase palm immunity against pests’ attack, such as the longhorn beetle, which is known to inflict serious damage on weak unattended undernourished date palms. Healthy palms with balanced nutrients and irrigation withstand attack by this opportunistic insect pest. High humidity, which is conducive to the buildup of Dubas, is expected to prevail in densely planted orchards. High soil moisture (flood irrigation and basin irrigation) increases the infestation by the red palm weevil in date palm groves [32]. Care has to be taken when applying organic manure to newly transplanted date palm offshoots, because it may contain eggs and different stages of the rhinoceros beetles, which are considered serious pests of date palm. However, the organic manure can be disinfested from these grubs and other insect pests using physical methods or chemicals permitted in organic farming system. In this respect, the farm wastes including eradicated palms can be pulverized and used for production of compost (Figure 5). Organic fertilizers are added to date palm during the end of October–December. This is to promote date palm growth and increase its immunity against pests and diseases. About 5–50 kg of organic fertilizer is required per palm, depending on age.
\nShredding machine for pulverizing date palms severely infested by the red palm weevil, Rhynchophorus ferrugineus.
Well-spaced date palms (8 × 8 m) have no problem of dub bug insect which represents a real problem in narrowly spaced plantations [33]. Densely spaced palms facilitate the spread of crawling mites and scale insects from one palm to another. Sallam et al. [32] reported high incidence of red palm weevil infestation in closely spaced date palms. He attributed the high infestation to the high in-grove humidity caused by densely planted farms.
\nPruning is the most important practice that contributes significantly in management of pests and diseases, and it includes the removal of old dry fronds (leaves), offshoots, aerial offshoots, fibers, and spines (Figure 6). Frond removal has two parts: cutting of fronds from the lower whorls of the canopy (Tagleem) and cutting the rachis base (petioles) 1–2 years after frond cutting (Takreeb) [34, 35]. The advantages of frond pruning are listed below:
Facilitates climbing of the date palm by the farmers.
Reduces fire hazards in date palm plantations, particularly during dry seasons.
Improves aeration around the palm trunk and thus reduces humidity and discourage hiding and oviposition by trunk borers.
Reduces transpiration rate of newly transplanted palms and hence increases the chance of palm survival.
Reduces hiding places for unwanted arthropods such as cockroaches, scorpions and non-arthropods such as snail, slugs, as well as vertebrate pests (birds and rats)
Facilitates handpicking of large-sized grubs and adults of trunk borers.
Pruned palm trunk showing cut frond (A), fibers (B), and cut frond base or petiole pruning (C).
The following precautions are recommended to be taken during pruning process:
Prune only fronds after 3–7 years (old dry fronds) on only palms that are 7 years old or above.
Curry out pruning during December–January, when temperatures are low to avoid infestation by the red palm weevil where activity of the weevils is at the lowest level.
Treatment of wounds and pruned surfaces immediately with bee wax or any other substance allowed in organic farming to obscure the kairomones (odor emitted by the palm) which attract the red palm weevil and other palm pests.
Avoidance of palm overpruning as fronds protects the palm’s heart from excessive heat as well as from cold during winter.
Cutting frond base should be inclined outward with downsloping 45° to avoid accumulation of rainwater in the area between the base of the frond and trunk.
Disinfection of pruning equipment such as saws, sheers, and sickles to avoid the spread of fungal diseases such as black scorch and Fusarium wilts.
It has been stated that tillage practices and leaf pruning had the greatest effect in reducing termite, long antennae, and horned beetles, respectively. On the other hand, sucker removal operations had the greatest effect in reducing the severity of injuries of horned and long antennae beetles in date palm trees [15]. In addition, larvae of long antennae beetles can complete overwintering in the petioles of damaged leaves. Therefore, pruning the dry, damaged, and old leaves can reduce the severity of injuries of borer pests. Termites attack the dry and damaged parts of date palm tree, so pruning the petiole is very effective in reducing nutrient availability, population growth, and severity of injury [15].
\nFor good quality date fruits, pollen grain should be obtained from certified bodies to be sure that they are free of pests and diseases such as the inflorescence beetle Macrocoma sp. and the fungal pathogen Mauginiella scaettae and Thielaviopsis paradoxa, which cause Khamedj inflorescence rot and black scorch diseases, respectively [36]. In this respect, the author stated that extracting pollen and mixing with talc/flour or with water for mechanical pollination proved to be cost-effective and more efficient in prevention of inflorescence pests and disease than traditional pollination methods.
\nFruit thinning has two types: strand thinning either made by cutting the end of the strands or removal 30% of the strands from the center of the spathes [35]. It is carried out in February–March 2–3 days after female spathes opening and before pollination. Bunch thinning, on the other hand, involves the removal of the whole bunch and is usually done after pollination. It is carried out in a way that 6–8 bunches are left in each mature date palm. The number of bunches per palm should corresponds to the number of green functioning fronds, i.e., 9–12 green fronds per bunch to ensure high yield of date fruits with high quality [35]. The bunch thinning should be made even on all sides of the palm taking into account the distribution of bunch loads. This is essential to avoid curving of palm head as the case with the cultivar Barhi. Weak infested or infected bunches with undersized fruits and incomplete pollination should be removed first during thinning process. Latifian [37] reported that bunch pruning helped in decreasing the lesser moth, Batrachedra amydraula infestation.
\nThe use of insect-proof fruit bunch covers, made of woven monofilament polyethylene yarn (40 mesh), excludes all insect pests including beetles, ants, flies, rats, and birds (Figure 7). These bags are more expensive than the loose net bags. Bunch covering and bunch-remained pruning had suitable effects in decreasing the date spider mite, Oligonychus afrasiaticus, raisin moth Cadra figulilella, and the lesser date moth, Batrachedra amydraula infestation [38, 39]. Early harvesting of cultivars such as Barhee, Deglet Noor, and Medjool provides satisfactory control against ripening dates including date moth, raisin moth, carob moth, greater date moth, and sap beetles [40, 41]. Fruit bagging and early harvesting provide effective control against fruit depredation by frugivorous birds [42]. Culling of infected/infested date fruit during harvesting and field drying is considered as an important step in the management of pests and diseases during transit and storage [36].
\nThe white-eared bulbul Pycnonotus leucotis (top), damage on dates due to bulbul (bottom left), and bunch covering to control birds (bottom right).
Both field and palm sanitation can have a profound effect in reducing the population of pests and diseases of date palm. The removal of fallen date fruits on the basin of the palm and in the leaf axil of unpruned palms helps provide control for the nitidulid beetles, lesser date moth, and other insect pests [40]. The fallen fruits provide suitable breeding site for these insect pests as well as for rats and birds. Thus, all dried litter around palms should be carefully removed. In organic farms, grazing animals such as goats, horses, and donkeys may be used to clean weeds, fallen fruits, and other farm wastes [40]. Neglected date palm farms represent suitable breeding sites for serious date palm pests including the red palm weevils, longhorn beetle, and rhinoceros beetle [29, 35]; thus, infested old neglected palms should be eradicated.
\nThe date palm agroecosystem comprises diverse groups of natural enemies including insect predators, parasitoids, spiders, predatory mites, birds, entomopathogenic nematodes, and microorganisms. In this respect, El-Shafie et al. [26] listed 90 species of predators and parasitoids from 9 orders and 23 families. Out of the listed species, the most important are the general predator Chrysoperla carnea and the braconid wasp Bracon spp. that is highly associated with the date moth Cadra cautella. Predatory mites from the family Phytoseiidae such as Phytoseiulus persimilis and Neoseiulus sp. and Trichogramma parasitoids are common. Al-Khatri [43] reported more than 70% parasitism of Dubas bug in Oman by the specialist egg parasitoid, Pseudoligosita babylonica. He also mentioned other species of Dubas natural enemies including the hymenopterous Bocchus hyalinus, Aprostocetus sp., and Aphanogmus sp. as well as the coccinellid Cheliomenes sexmaculata.
\nSeveral measures taken in date palm plantation can enhance survival and biodiversity of natural enemies. For example, the exclusion of synthetic pesticides by rules of organic farming is the cornerstone in conservation of natural enemies of pests. Intercropping of date palm with annual plants may avail new habitats for predators of pest such as the lacewing. Soils with high population of diversified beneficial organisms such as ground beetles (carabids) and earwigs, which are commonly to be encountered in the date palm agroecosystem (El-Shafie, unpublished data), are expected to maintain low levels of harmful pests. On the other hand, cultural control techniques create a balance between pests and their natural enemies, and they are more effective in the prevention of outbreaks of date palm borer pests [15]. The growing of hedgerows, strip crops, and windbreaks provides suitable habitats and source of pollen and nectar for beneficial organisms [3, 16]. Provision of nesting boxes for owls in date palm groves has a noticeable reduction in the population of field rats [27]. In addition to the abovementioned measures to conserve natural enemies, repeated release of purchased predators and parasitoids can maintain their numbers, which cause substantial reduction in pest populations. In this context, Ali and Hama [33] reported that the release of Trichogramma sp. twice a year at a rate of 300–500 individuals/palm contributed significantly in the integrated management of the lesser date moth, C. cautella.
\nThe major date palm pests and diseases prevailing in organic date palm plantation, which cause economic damage, are listed in Table 3, with possible measures to control them.
\nPest | \nTime of appearance | \nPossible control measures | \n
---|---|---|
Red palm weevil, Rhynchophorus ferrugineus\n | \nAll the year round with adult peaks in March–May and October–November | \nPheromone trapping of adults, removal and destruction of infested palm, strict quarantine measures to prevent entry of the weevil in date grooves, application of azadirachtin, the Beauveria bassiana, and other biological control agents | \n
Termites (Microcerotermes diversus, Odontotermes smeathmani) | \nAll the year round | \nKeeping palm healthy palms, removal of dry fronds and litters from around palm basin, application of azadirachtin as curative measures | \n
Green pit scale insect (Palmaspis phoenicis) and white scale (Parlatoria blanchardi) | \nAll the year round | \nPruning and removal of infested fronds, adequate fertilization and irrigation, application of mineral oils (96%) at a rate of 10/1000 liters of water, application of azadirachtin | \n
Weeds | \nAll the year round | \nMechanical weeding, grazing by farm animals, use of covers to smother weeds | \n
Rodents | \nAll the year round | \nUse of mechanical traps, provision of nesting sites for predatory birds, such as owls, that can effectively control rodents in date palm grooves | \n
Inflorescence weevil (Derelomus sp.), inflorescence beetle (Macrocoma sp.) | \nWith beginning of inflorescence February–March | \nUse of uninfested pollen, dusting with microfine sulfur at a rate of 50 g/ palm | \n
Bayoud disease, Fusarium wilt caused by F. oxysporum f. sp. albedinis\n | \nAll the year round | \nCultivation of resistant date palms, removal and incineration of infested palms, avoidance of the spread of the disease pathogen through irrigation, use of organic fertilizer rich in chitin to enhance the development of actinomycetes which antagonize the pathogen | \n
Inflorescence rot (Khamedj disease) caused by Mauginiella scaettae\n | \nFebruary–March | \nAvoid the use of infected pollen, treatment of the palm with Bordeaux mixture (0.3–0.5%) after harvest and before inflorescence of the next year as preventive measures Treatment (dusting) with microfine sulfur at a rate of 50 g/palm | \n
Black scorch disease caused by Thielaviopsis paradoxa\n | \nAll the year round | \nAvoid making wound on the palm, sanitation measures such as removal and destruction of badly infected palms, application of Bordeaux mixture, and use of microfine sulfur (80%) at a rate of 2.5 g/1000 liters of water after harvest | \n
\nDiplodia disease (basal leaf rot) caused by the fungus Diplodia phoenicum\n | \nAll the year round | \nUse of healthy uninfected offshoots, avoidance of making wounds in palms, disinfection of pruning equipment, application of copper sulfate or copper carbonate | \n
Lesser date moth (Humeira) (Batrachedra amydraula Meyer) | \nFebruary–March | \nField sanitation including removal of fallen fruits, use of pheromone or light traps, use of Bacillus thuringiensis, biological control using egg parasitoid Trichogramma and the larval parasitoid Bracon sp. | \n
The old world dust mite (Oligonychus afrasiaticus) | \nApril–July | \nRemoval of weeds around palms, which may act as alternative host for the mite, use of windbreak to reduce dust storms, spraying, bunches with a strong stream of water to dislodge mites and destroy webbing; use of predatory mites and coccinellids, dusting bunches with sulfur | \n
The longhorn beetle (Jebusaea hammerschmidti), the bunch borers (Oryctes agamemnon arabicus, Oryctes elegans), and the frond borer (Phonopate frontalis) | \nApril–July Larvae of the longhorn beetle are found inside the palm all year round | \nPruning of old dry fronds, avoid using uncured farm manure as organic fertilizer, handpicking of larvae during frond base cutting, light trapping of adult beetles, maintaining healthy palms, application of the fungi Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae, and the entomopathogenic nematode Rhabditis blumi\n | \n
Date palm Dubas bug (Ommatissus lybicus) | \nMarch–April September–October | \nPruning of infested lower fronds to remove Dubas eggs, spraying with azadirachtin (2–3 ml/per liter of water), application of agricultural soaps, biological control with fungi such as Beauveria and the egg parasitoid Oligosita sp. | \n
Fruit rots | \nJune–July | \nBunch covering and avoidance of fruit injuries by insects and birds | \n
Birds | \nJuly–October | \nCovering of bunches during Khalal stage with bird-proof nets | \n
Pests of stored dates | \nSeptember–November | \nBunch bagging to exclude pests that start infestation in the field, sanitation and disinfestation storehouses before use, freezing dates at −18°C | \n
Calendar of major pests and diseases in organically grown date palms and their management in the Gulf region.
As mentioned earlier in this chapter, pest management in organic farming depends mainly on crop husbandry and biological control. The prohibition of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides leads to conservation of natural enemies including predators and parasitoids. The absence of harmful pesticides also increases diversity of pollinators of crops and minimizes pesticide residues in food products [13, 16, 19]. The community of microorganisms flourishes well in organically managed farms leading to increased organic matter decomposition, soil fertility, and sustainability of the ecosystem. Organic farming enhances the biodiversity of the ecosystem through multicropping and growing of hedges and refuges for beneficial insects as well as wildlife [3]. Preserving biodiversity contributes much in reducing the initial invasion and subsequent establishment of organic farms by pests and diseases [3, 8, 9, 44].
\nCrop protection in organic farming is more preventive than curative. Thus, husbandry practices such as crop rotation, fertilization, cultivation, use of resistant varieties, and preservation of natural enemies play an essential role in pest management. Plant protection products (PPPs) permitted in organic farming should only be used when cultural and biological controls fail to suppress pest populations below economic damage levels. Floral and faunal diversities represent the cornerstone in the strategy of managing pests and diseases under organic production system. Crop protection program in organic farming needs to be documented to allow inspectors to file their reports, which are essential for the certification process. The documents needed are a well-written plan, copies of scouting records and protocols used in monitoring of different pests, and provision of pest management guidelines, according to the organic standards, if available. For optimizing pest management tactics in organic farming, future research priorities and recommendations would include:
Long-term ecological studies on ecosystem biodiversity to elucidate its potential role in pest management
Testing more plant protection products including plant extracts and microbial preparations for use in pest population suppression
Exploitation of inherited resistance in different crops against plant herbivores
Strengthening participatory research approach with organic farmers and encouraging citizen science to optimize existing practices and develop new techniques
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