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At the same time, technological advances are definitely causing the arrival of new computational paradigms, such as Ubiquitous Computing or Internet of Things. Ubiquitous Computing was defined by Mark Weiser in 1988, which provides the user with advanced and implicit computing, capable of carrying out a set of services of which the user is not aware. Internet of Things is similar to the Ubiquitous Computing paradigm and was introduced by Kevin Ashton in 1999 [7]. The scenario is described as a daily life object network where all of the objects are digitalized and interconnected.
The main objective of this chapter is focused on how to exploit the evolution of technology to improve user interaction in game environments through digitalized objects with identification technology (such as RFID or Near Field Communication). Digitalized objects are used as interaction resources. They are used in conjunction with mobile devices providing the performance of tasks with a simple and intuitive gesture. In the first place, mobile devices offer sophisticated methods to provide users with services to make use of information and to interact with objects in the real world. In the second place, physical objects are associated with digital information through identification technologies such as RFID. In this context, physical mobile interactions allow users to play games through natural interaction with objects in the real world. This chapter has six sections. Section 2 describes some concepts such as: Ubiquitous Computing, the Internet of Things and the types of interaction used in games. Section 3 presents the general infrastructure of RFID systems. In section 4, we describe the development of two RFID games. In section 5 their advantages and disadvantages are presented. Finally, conclusions are set out in Section 6.
Ubiquitous computing involves computers and technology that blend seamlessly into day to day living. Weiser described the concept in the article [8] in 1991.
The idea of a disappearing technology can clearly be applied to the trend in RFID technology development. In recent years, RFID technology was used in retail [2] and logistics [3]. Nowadays RFID Technology is becoming such an ubiquitous technology, it has led to a particular interest in developing a system in smart spaces. The Internet of Things is similar to the Ubiquitous Computing paradigm, which was described by Kevin Ashton in 1999 [7]. This concept refers to the interconnection of everyday objects in a network. i.e., each object such as a table, a chair or a refrigerator may include integrated identification technology. In this way, the Internet evolves from traditional devices to real objects thanks to the use of technologies such as wireless sensors or RFID.
In this chapter we have focused on games as an educational tool for children\'s learning. A video game is a software programme created for entertainment and learning purposes in general. It is based on the interaction between one or more people and an electronic device that executes the game. Over the past decades, video games have become a mainstream form of entertainment and communication which are highly accepted and successful in the society. People like playing games for several reasons: as a pastime, as a personal challenge, to build skills, to interact with others, for fun, or as tool for learning. In recent years, the advancement of technology has allowed designs to implement intuitive and new forms of interaction between the user and the console. Some of the devices used are: Kinect, Wii, Multi-Touch Technology, Virtual Reality, and Identification technologies such as RFID, NFC. The following describes in detail the devices and ways of interacting that there are between systems and users.
Kinect is a motion sensing input device that is connected to the console and PC video. It allows the user to interact with the game through movement and voice. In order to function, it requires technologies such as sensors, multi-array microphone, RGB camera and an internal processor. Some existing games that incorporate this technology with learning games are: [4][5][6]. These games offer a new and attractive interaction technique based on movement and voice. However, the new interaction needs some getting used to, most especially for children who have either physical or cognitive disabilities, as it can be exhausting to play through movement. Another obstacle is the space requirement and the hardware, such as the camera, is more delicate and expensive. Another device developed to improve the interaction between user and console is the Wii Remote, which is used as a handheld pointing device and detects movement in three dimensions. This device incorporates technologies such as: accelerometers, Bluetooth...[21].The main problem is the need for battery.
In addition, there is Virtual Reality software using helmets, gloves and other simulators. In this way the user may feel more immersed in the game, and it is very engaging and motivating, but the problem is the high cost of devices, and the difficulty in the use of certain devices. Also, an additional person is required to control the players and devices [9][10]. Multi-touch technology for games allows the users to play on digital tabletops that provide both an embedded display and a computer to drive player interactions. Several people can thus sit around the table and play digital games together. This technology uses infrared LEDs and photodiodes, which are discretely mounted around the perimeter of the LCD. The principle of an infrared touch screen is the combination of an infrared (IR) LED and an IR-sensitive photodiode. As soon as there is an object or finger between the LED and the photodiode, the latter no longer detects the IR light from the LED. This information is the basis for the input detection. You can interact with them through multiple objects (including fingers). Some of the games implemented with touch technology for learning are:[11][12][13][14].
Identification technology such as RFID and NFC has been used to transmit the identity of an object using radio waves. In this way different types of interaction are allowed, such as touching which involves touching an object to a mobile device and enabling the user to perform the selected task. For example [15][16] show some projects using this technique.
Scanning: the mobile device or other device is capable of scanning information and interacting with the system to provide a service to the user.
Approach&remove: [17] this is a style of interaction which allows us to control user interfaces of a distributed nature by making a gesture with the mobile device. Interaction, as mentioned previously, may be absent or may simply consist of approaching the mobile device to digitized objects.
In this chapter we propose another kind of interaction, in which the mobile devices are stationary and the user used physical objects for interacting with the display.
Some systems that use identification technology are described as following: Smart Playing Cards [26] is a game based on RFID; this technology is integrated in cards. Augmented toys are digitalized with RFID technology simulating the real world [18] [19]. Meta-Criket is a kit developed for augmenting objects [25]. Hengeveld described in [20] the value of designing intelligent interactive games and learning environments for young children with multiple disabilities to increase their language and communication skills. In [21] we can find a proposal that digitalizes toys to help deaf children to learn sign language. This system [24] focuses on assessment and training for special children, allowing the user to store data through RFID cards data for processing daily and providing treatment advice. However, this project only focuses on monitoring the child and does not take into account activities to improve their intellectual ability. [22] describes a RFID musical table for children or people with disabilities. The table is designed for people who cannot navigate through menus or by using buttons on an iPod, and serves to enable them to select albums or songs from a music list from an iPod Touch. This system is very specific; it is more focused on entertainment. Logan Proxtalker [23] is a communication device which allows any user to communicate with symbols "PECS" System (Picture Exchange Communication), which is a device to retrieve vocabulary stored in different labels in order to play actual words. These systems provide entertainment and user interaction with the environment. The disadvantage is that are very specific and none of them has focused on the stimulation of the cognitive abilities of people with intellectual disabilities.
The advantages offered by these devices and systems are numerous. They enhance positive attitudes in users. They feel more motivated and encouraged to learn. However, the systems present the following disadvantages:
The user needs a minimum knowledge of computer use. Not everybody can use a computer and some devices, like a mouse or a keyboard are not intuitive for people with cognitive disabilities. They need someone to help them.
The system requires highly specialized hardware / software which can be expensive (simulators, virtual reality). In some games, impaired users may have difficulties finding specific information.
On the other hand, RFID technology has many benefits over other identification technologies because it does not require line-of-sight alignment, tags can be identified simultaneously, and the tags do not destroy the integrity or aesthetics of the original object. Due to the low cost of passive RFID tags and the fact that they operate without a battery, this technology is ideal for converting a real object in a physical interface capable of interacting with other devices
The main objective of the project was to develop educational games for children that offer easy interaction based on RFID. For this purpose, the advantages offered by games developed in the pre-computer age (traditional games) were combined with the advantages and benefits of computer games.
To begin with, there are many advantages of traditional games. These were designed and carried out in the physical world with the use of real-world properties such as physical objects, our sense of space, and spatial relations.
Pre-computer games interactions consisted of two elements: user-to-physical-world interaction and user-to-user interaction. The physical objects were easily assimilated by the children, allowing users to interact intuitively with them.
There are also many benefits of computer games. These are more popular than traditional games. Some the advantages are the following:
People create the illusion of being immersed in an imaginative virtual world with computer graphics and sound.
Computer games are typically more interactive than traditional games, which enables the user to feel more motivated.
Computer games allow feedback to be easily shown, as well as notifications about the game process and other important information.
Taking advantage of real physical objects and the benefits that new technologies offer us, we have designed a new way to interact with the system. It is based on physical objects that integrate RFID technology and allow us to interact with Graphics User Interfaces.
This kind of the system functions as follows: in the main game an interface is projected on the wall. Users with physical interfaces, i.e., the objects that integrate RFID tags, can interact with the main interface; this requires the mobile device that incorporates the RFID reader to interact with the main interface, which is necessary to bring objects to the mobile device (See Figure 1).
Digitized objects with RFID tags that communicate with the game\'s interface through the mobile device.
Due to the need to make a simple, accessible and intuitive system and considering the multiple technologies used to develop it, it was decided to follow an architecture based on three layers. The system infrastructure is divided in the following layers: Application Layer, Network Layer and Perception Layer. In the next section, we explain the latter in more detail (See Figure 2).
This layer is the intermediary between the user and the system. Its main function is to allow the user to easily interact with the system. In our case study, the games are designed for children and users with special needs and for this reason we must focus primarily on usability and accessibility of the system. The main requirements that have been followed for the development of this type of games are:
Designing simple interfaces so that users do not have to learn to use it, acquire new skills, or need help.
Avoiding distraction and facilitating the interaction so that the user need not know and memorize how the system works.
Avoiding fear of interacting with the system, as well as providing notification of game development and the collaboration of information among players.
System architecture divided into three layers: Perception, Network and Application
This layer is divided into two parts. Firstly, there are the objects that integrate RFID technology, also called interaction resources, and secondly, there are interaction devices, through which are offered relevant services.
Objects. Their main function is to facilitate the human-computer interaction. These resources need to have a RFID reader nearby to perform services. The main reason to use objects that interact with the environment is the following: The user uses human factors such as perception in order to interact with the environment. When an object similar to other objects with similar appearance is seen, the mind of the user automatically associates the object with its function.
Devices. These computing devices are used as input and output of a system. They are communication channels. They are responsible for obtaining information from users without that them being aware of it. In this particular case, a mobile device has been camouflaged in a toy in such a way that it is more engaging and intuitive to users. The devices available in the system are described as following:
Mobiles devices: These devices internally incorporate the RFID reader, allowing users to communicate with the system through RFID technology.
Projector: This shows the game user interface, the results and feedback. The software is run on a PC or laptop. It returns the information in textual and audio format to facilitate the use of games. It works dynamically and responds to the information sent to web services (Application Layer) through the communication network (Network Layer).
The user communication style with the device is very intuitive, which is why no prior knowledge is necessary (see Figure 3), it is only necessary to move the toy, card or object, depending on the game, closer to the mobile device (hidden in an object). The interaction and the processes that occur below the system are implicitly run by the user.
In this case, the collaborative screen shows the game which is being executed. It may show some objects and to associate that object the user has to interact with it, just by moving the corresponding object closer to the mobile device. From this moment all processes are run implicitly. The collaborative screen displays the pictures, text and sounds, depending on the game executed.
Interaction. The user brings the digitized object closer (interaction resource) to the mobile devices that contain the RFID Reader. This is an interaction device hidden in an object [27].
The communication between interaction devices (mobile devices) and interaction resources (digitalized objects) is the following: The RFID tag (embedded in the object) is a small chip integrated circuit, adapted to a radio frequency antenna that enables communication via radio. The energy to generate communication is received from the reader´s radio waves (integrated into the mobile devices).
The device on the client´s side includes a reader and a controller that is responsible for processing information received by the physical object and transforming it into useful information, such as an XML message that is sent to the server, which will process the message and trigger an action, such as the generation of user interfaces or the information requested at that time. The network technology is then used to notify the customer with through web services, connecting the two components: the client and the server (See Figure 4).
Communication is based on RFID technology. The mobile device has RFID reader inside. It sends electromagnetic waves when a digitalized object is close to mobile device. It processes the information contained in the object and carries out the required action.
This layer enables the information obtained from the perception layer to be transmitted. This layer is composed by different wireless access technologies such as, Wireless Local Area Networks (WLAMs) (IEEE 802.11 variants), Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15.1). Wireless networks are a good option to establish wireless and mobile communications within the Internet of Things. We have used Wi-Fi technology because it allows connection of heterogeneous devices with the system (the computer interface that supports games and mobile devices which communicate with the objects). In addition, it allows user mobility, is highly scalable, efficient and lightweight.
This layer provides services to support the stimulating games. It is consists of a server, which is a computer as part of a network, providing services to the devices which are connected to it. It provides important functions such as Web Services database.
Web Services are a set of protocols and standards used to exchange data between applications in order to offer services. They facilitate interoperability and enable automated services to be offered, automatically causing the generation of user interfaces, thus allowing user consistency and transparency in use of the technology. Web services are of great importance in the trend of distributed computing on the Internet. To broaden and clarify the concept of Web services, we can quote a presentation by Dr. Marcos Escobar: “A Web Service is a software component that communicates with other applications by coding the XML message and sends this message via standard Internet protocols such as HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)”. Intuitively, a Web Service is similar to a Web site that has a user interface that provides a service to applications, by receiving requests through a message formatted in XML (Extensible Markup Language) from an application, it then performs a task and sends a response message, which is also formatted in XML. The standard protocol for messages is SOAP (Simple Object Access Protocol). A SOAP message is similar to a letter: it is an envelope containing a header with the address of the recipient, a set of delivery options (data encryption), and a body with the information or data of the message. The performance of the web services is as follows: the client application sends an XML message to the server, and then the services contained provide an XML document called WSDL (Web Services Description Language). Its aim is to describe in detail the interfaces so that the user can communicate with the service. XML Web services are registered so that the user can easily find them. This is performed using UDDI (Universal Description Discovery and Integration). The response to the customer is another XML message that is capable of generating the user interface that the device in the client´s side is going to display at that moment. Figure 3 shows the communication that takes place between Web services and client applications.
Database is an organized collection of data, today typically in digital form. The data is typically organized to model relevant aspects of reality. In this case, the database is composed the idtag field. Each idtag is associated with the web service function. Among the functions are the following: execute a method, update information.
The internal operation is as follows: the web service receives the information, which is the output layer, and specifically the id tag which in this application has been read from mobile devices. The system checks the method associated with this id tag in the database. Web Service receives information about the method that it must execute. The execution of this operation depends on the following parameters: the object identifier, the executed game and the current status in the game. A common flow of actions that a user may perform could include:
Updating the database and results internally in the system.
The system automatically generates the corresponding game interface. The projector displays it. According to the action carried out, different messages might be shown.
If the answer is right, a message indicates the outcome of play. This user interface congratulates and encourages the children to continue playing. A few seconds later, the interface related to the game that is running appears, but at a higher level than before.
If the answer is wrong, a message indicates the outcome of the play. This user interface motivates and encourages them to try again. The next user interface is related to the game that is running at the time, but at the same level as before. Voices and motivating messages sound in every interface to make the user feel actively accompanied and encouraged.
The system automatically generates the corresponding mobile user interface. It shows feedback and status of the system according to the action carried out.
In this section we describe two systems built in the University of Castilla-La Mancha (Albacete). The main objective is to take advantage of RFID technology to build systems that improve the user experience.
We used the same architecture for both games, while changing the contents and taking into account the cognitive abilities that we aimed to stimulate in each particular case.
This system functions by projecting an interface on the wall in the main game. Users with physical interfaces, i.e., the objects that integrate RFID tags, can interact with the main interface; this requires a mobile device that allows the RFID reader to interact with the main interface by bringing an object closer to the mobile device to play the game. For example, if in the game an object must be associated with another, the user only has to bring the corresponding object closer to the mobile device for the system to recognize it and display the outcome of the game.
Intellectual disability, also called mental retardation, is a disability characterized by significant limitations in intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior skills manifested in conceptual, social and practical aspects [1].
So far, this group has always had barriers imposed by society and by technology as it has often not been known how to adapt to the personal needs of each of these people.
Gradually, this situation has been improving with technological assistance and that of society. However, many of these people consider the world of technology to be strange and difficult to use.
TrainInAb (Training Intellectual Abilities) is an interactive and collaborative game designed to stimulate people with intellectual disabilities. The game is based on RFID technology; it allows a new form of human-computer interaction to be integrated. The user can interact with the system through everyday objects such as cards, toys, coins, etc. (See Figure 5). For example, if in the game an object must be associated with another, the user only has to bring the corresponding object closer to the mobile device, which the system will then recognize and display the outcome of the game (See Figure 5 and Figure 6)
The package consists of three different types of game, each aimed at stimulating a different cognitive ability such as memory, calculation, attention and auditory discrimination.
They are divided into different levels to motivate the child when using the game. If the child fails, s/he loses a life and if the user wins, s/he moves on to the next level. Each level is more difficult.
It displays the external information differently, as it is different for every level.
The information is displayed as text, voice and graphics. In addition, the game can show the status and game results when the game ends
The feedback-state messages are motivating for the user who then feels more encouraged to continue playing.
The user has the possibility of repeating items.
The first image shows the Mobile devices interfaces. The next image shows the Physical user interfaces, that is, objects that integrate the RFID inside.The first objects are cards with images from the game, and the last image shows the notes and coins used for the game.
Main interface of the game designed to stimulate user memory, attention and calculative abilities.
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurobiological disorder characterized by developmentally inappropriate impulsivity, inattention, and in some cases, hyperactivity. Children who are affected by this disorder have occasional difficulty paying attention or controlling impulsive behavior. This problem affects them in their daily lives at home, at school, at work, and in social settings.
StiCap, Stimulating Capabilities, is an interactive system to improve attention and learning in children with ADHD. It is directed towards psychological therapies, in schools, allowing supervision by professionals, parents, and teachers.
The system consists of three games: two oriented towards memory improvement and another one oriented towards vocabulary enrichment. It is composed of the following devices: cards integrating RFID tags used as interactive resources which allow a one-way transfer of information between a user and the system; mobile devices provide the necessary communication between the cards and the system and a projector or any other big display showing the game interface which is running on any PC or laptop.
Main interface of the game designed to stimulate user memory and attention [28]
In this section we will discuss the advantages offered by the integration of RFID technology in the new scenarios.
The main advantages of the system are the following:
Reduction of the cognitive load. This means that users have to rely more on recognition skills than on their memory and that they do not have to remember complicated abbreviations and codes. For this reason, it has been designed in a very graphic way and has also used common objects which can be easily assimilated.
Flexibility. This refers to the multiple ways in which the user and the system can exchange information. The information exchanged is displayed as text, voice, cheerful sounds or by using graphics. The goal is to adapt to any user, regardless of any disability or limitation he/she may have.
Flexibility in the number of users. This is a multi-player game. This allows users to share and exchange experiences with other users. The situation of each user may be complex and variable and for this reason, the game can also be used by one player.
Flexibility in terms of space. Players can be situated anywhere in the room, the only requirement is that the mobile device is connected to the server.
Very cheap to develop. Mobile devices will incorporate RFID technology in the short term and passive RFID tags are very inexpensive. In our case, only one mobile device is required, which is why it is low cost.
Expandable. It offers the possibility to extend the games. The topic can be changed easily. The only requirement is that the RFID must be integrated in the object selected.
Interaction with the system is simple and intuitive. Common items are familiar and can be easily assimilated by users, making it more predictable to use. They do not need prior knowledge of the system or device.
The cognitive stimulation of the system can enhance mental abilities such as perception, attention, reasoning, abstraction, memory, language, orientation processes, while optimizing their performance. These games can be used as therapy for the cognitive deficit.
Thanks to this technology, the implementation of new interfaces can be developed for any mobile device, allowing system usability and user-friendly interaction, thus improving user satisfaction.
One possible limitation are that it requires connectivity to another network interconnection. The server needs to contain all the data from RFID tags, so in very complex systems we can find a lot of data, which might be difficult to manage.
Educational games are currently making a very positive impact and are extremely successful among society, especially among children.
Emerging technologies and mobility are being inserted without society realising by providing services previously unthinkable. In recent years, devices have been invented that offer new techniques for interaction between humans and game consoles. Nowadays, the user can interact through movement, voice command control, virtual reality, mobile devices, etc... However, there are still some hardware limitations for children and especially people who need special education.In recent years, RFID technology is booming and being used to digitalize spaces and objects easily, so we are getting closer to the new paradigm predicted by Weiser, ubiquitous computing.Exploiting the advantages offered by this technology, this chapter proposes a new form of interaction based on objects that integrate RFID technology. In this way, anyone can interact with the software( in this case with the games )in an intuitive way.
This research has been partially supported by the Spanish CDTI research project CENIT-2008-1019, the CICYT TIN2011-27767-C02-01 project and the regional projects with reference PAI06-0093-8836 and PII2C09-0185-1030. I would like to especially thank to Yolanda Cotillas Aranda y Erica González Gutierrez for their collaboration on this project.
The use of social media is growing at a rapid pace and the twenty-first century could be described as the “boom” period for social networking. According to reports provided by Smart Insights, as at February 2019 there were over 3.484 billion social media users. The Smart Insight report indicates that the number of social media users is growing by 9% annually and this trend is estimated to continue. Presently the number of social media users represents 45% of the global population [1]. The heaviest users of social media are “digital natives”; the group of persons who were born or who have grown up in the digital era and are intimate with the various technologies and systems, and the “Millennial Generation”; those who became adults at the turn of the twenty-first century. These groups of users utilize social media platforms for just about anything ranging from marketing, news acquisition, teaching, health care, civic engagement, and politicking to social engagement.
\nThe unethical use of social media has resulted in the breach of individual privacy and impacts both physical and information security. Reports in 2019 [1], reveal that persons between the ages 8 and 11 years spend an average 13.5 hours weekly online and 18% of this age group are actively engaged on social media. Those between ages 12 and 15 spend on average 20.5 hours online and 69% of this group are active social media users. While children and teenagers represent the largest Internet user groups, for the most part they do not know how to protect their personal information on the Web and are the most vulnerable to cyber-crimes related to breaches of information privacy [2, 3].
\nIn today’s IT-configured society data is one of, if not the most, valuable asset for most businesses/organizations. Organizations and governments collect information via several means including invisible data gathering, marketing platforms and search engines such as Google [4]. Information can be attained from several sources, which can be fused using technology to develop complete profiles of individuals. The information on social media is very accessible and can be of great value to individuals and organizations for reasons such as marketing, etc.; hence, data is retained by most companies for future use.
\nPrivacy or the right to enjoy freedom from unauthorized intrusion is the negative right of all human beings. Privacy is defined as the right to be left alone, to be free from secret surveillance, or unwanted disclosure of personal data or information by government, corporation, or individual (
Privacy, or even the thought that one has this right, leads to peace of mind and can provide an environment of solitude. This solitude can allow people to breathe freely in a space that is free from interference and intrusion. According to Richards and Solove [6], Legal scholar William Prosser argued that privacy cases can be classified into four related “torts,” namely:
Intrusion—this can be viewed as encroachment (physical or otherwise) on ones liberties/solitude in a highly offensive way.
Privacy facts—making public, private information about someone that is of no “legitimate concern” to anyone.
False light—making public false and “highly offensive” information about others.
Appropriation—stealing someone’s identity (name, likeness) to gain advantage without the permission of the individual.
Technology, the digital age, the Internet and social media have redefined privacy however as surveillance is no longer limited to a certain pre-defined space and location. An understanding of the problems and dangers of privacy in the digital space is therefore the first step to privacy control. While there can be clear distinctions between informational privacy and physical privacy, as pointed out earlier, intrusion can be both physical and otherwise.
\nThis chapter will focus on informational privacy which is the ability to control access to personal information. We examine privacy issues in the social media context focusing primarily on personal information and the ability to control external influences. We suggest that breach of informational privacy can impact: solitude (the right to be left alone), intimacy (the right not to be monitored), and anonymity (the right to have no public personal identity and by extension physical privacy impacted). The right to control access to facts or personal information in our view is a natural, inalienable right and everyone should have control over who see their personal information and how it is disseminated.
\nIn May 2019 the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) clearly outlined that it is unlawful to process personal data without the consent of the individual (subject). It is a legal requirement under the GDPR that privacy notices be given to individuals that outline how their personal data will be processed and the conditions that must be met that make the consent valid. These are:
“Freely given—an individual must be given a genuine choice when providing consent and it should generally be unbundled from other terms and conditions (e.g., access to a service should not be conditional upon consent being given).”
“Specific and informed—this means that data subjects should be provided with information as to the identity of the controller(s), the specific purposes, types of processing, as well as being informed of their right to withdraw consent at any time.”
“Explicit and unambiguous—the data subject must clearly express their consent (e.g., by actively ticking a box which confirms they are giving consent—pre-ticked boxes are insufficient).”
“Under 13s—children under the age of 13 cannot provide consent and it is therefore necessary to obtain consent from their parents.”
Arguments can be made that privacy is a cultural, universal necessity for harmonious relationships among human beings and creates the boundaries for engagement and disengagement. Privacy can also be viewed as instrumental good because it is a requirement for the development of certain kinds of human relationships, intimacy and trust [7]. However, achieving privacy is much more difficult in light of constant surveillance and the inability to determine the levels of interaction with various publics [7]. Some critics argue that privacy provides protection against anti-social behaviors such as trickery, disinformation and fraud, and is thought to be a universal right [5]. However, privacy can also be viewed as relative as privacy rules may differ based on several factors such as “climate, religion, technological advancement and political arrangements” [8, 9]. The need for privacy is an objective reality though it can be viewed as “culturally rational” where the need for personal privacy is viewed as relative based on culture. One example is the push by the government, businesses and Singaporeans to make Singapore a smart nation. According to GovTech 2018 reports there is a push by the government in Singapore to harness the data “new gold” to develop systems that can make life easier for its people. The [10] report points out that Singapore is using sensors robots Smart Water Assessment Network (SWAN) to monitor water quality in its reservoirs, seeking to build smart health system and to build a smart transportation system to name a few. In this example privacy can be describe as “culturally rational” and the rules in general could differ based on technological advancement and political arrangements.
\nIn today’s networked society it is naïve and ill-conceived to think that privacy is over-rated and there is no need to be concerned about privacy if you have done nothing wrong [5]. The effects of information flow can be complex and may not be simply about protection for people who have something to hide. Inaccurate information flow can have adverse long-term implications for individuals and companies. Consider a scenario where someone’s computer or tablet is stolen. The perpetrator uses identification information stored on the device to access their social media page which could lead to access to their contacts, friends and friends of their “friends” then participate in illegal activities and engage in anti-social activities such as hacking, spreading viruses, fraud and identity theft. The victim is now in danger of being accused of criminal intentions, or worse. These kinds of situations are possible because of technology and networked systems. Users of social media need to be aware of the risks that are associated with participation.
\nThe concept of social networking pre-dates the Internet and mass communication as people are said to be social creatures who when working in groups can achieve results in a value greater than the sun of its parts [11]. The explosive growth in the use of social media over the past decade has made it one of the most popular Internet services in the world, providing new avenues to “see and be seen” [12, 13]. The use of social media has changed the communication landscape resulting in changes in ethical norms and behavior. The unprecedented level of growth in usage has resulted in the reduction in the use of other media and changes in areas including civic and political engagement, privacy and safety [14]. Alexa, a company that keeps track of traffic on the Web, indicates that as of August, 2019 YouTube, Facebook and Twitter are among the top four (4) most visited sites with only Google, being the most popular search engine, surpassing these social media sites.
\nSocial media sites can be described as online services that allow users to create profiles which are “public, semi-public” or both. Users may create individual profiles and/or become a part of a group of people with whom they may be acquainted offline [15]. They also provide avenues to create virtual friendships. Through these virtual friendships, people may access details about their contacts ranging from personal background information and interests to location. Social networking sites provide various tools to facilitate communication. These include chat rooms, blogs, private messages, public comments, ways of uploading content external to the site and sharing videos and photographs. Social media is therefore drastically changing the way people communicate and form relationships.
\nToday social media has proven to be one of the most, if not the most effective medium for the dissemination of information to various audiences. The power of this medium is phenomenal and ranges from its ability to overturn governments (e.g., Moldova), to mobilize protests, assist with getting support for humanitarian aid, organize political campaigns, organize groups to delay the passing of legislation (as in the case with the copyright bill in Canada) to making social media billionaires and millionaires [16, 17]. The enabling nature and the structure of the media that social networking offers provide a wide range of opportunities that were nonexistent before technology. Facebook and YouTube marketers and trainers provide two examples. Today people can interact with and learn from people millions of miles away. The global reach of this medium has removed all former pre-defined boundaries including geographical, social and any other that existed previously. Technological advancements such as Web 2.0 and Web 4.0 which provide the framework for collaboration, have given new meaning to life from various perspectives: political, institutional and social.
\nSocial medial and the information/digital era have “redefined” privacy. In today’s Information Technology—configured societies, where there is continuous monitoring, privacy has taken on a new meaning. Technologies such as closed-circuit cameras (CCTV) are prevalent in public spaces or in some private spaces including our work and home [7, 18]. Personal computers and devices such as our smart phones enabled with Global Positioning System (GPS), Geo locations and Geo maps connected to these devices make privacy as we know it, a thing of the past. Recent reports indicate that some of the largest companies such as Amazon, Microsoft and Facebook as well as various government agencies are collecting information without consent and storing it in databases for future use. It is almost impossible to say privacy exists in this digital world (@nowthisnews).
\nThe open nature of the social networking sites and the avenues they provide for sharing information in a “public or semi-public” space create privacy concerns by their very construct. Information that is inappropriate for some audiences are many times inadvertently made visible to groups other than those intended and can sometimes result in future negative outcomes. One such example is a well-known case recorded in an article entitled “The Web Means the End of Forgetting” that involved a young woman who was denied her college license because of backlash from photographs posted on social media in her private engagement.
\nTechnology has reduced the gap between professional and personal spaces and often results in information exposure to the wrong audience [19]. The reduction in the separation of professional and personal spaces can affect image management especially in a professional setting resulting in the erosion of traditional professional image and impression management. Determining the secondary use of personal information and those who have access to this information should be the prerogative of the individual or group to whom the information belongs. However, engaging in social media activities has removed this control.
\nPrivacy on social networking sites (SNSs) is heavily dependent on the users of these networks because sharing information is the primary way of participating in social communities. Privacy in SNSs is “multifaceted.” Users of these platforms are responsible for protecting their information from third-party data collection and managing their personal profiles. However, participants are usually more willing to give personal and more private information in SNSs than anywhere else on the Internet. This can be attributed to the feeling of community, comfort and family that these media provide for the most part. Privacy controls are not the priority of social networking site designers and only a small number of the young adolescent users change the default privacy settings of their accounts [20, 21]. This opens the door for breaches especially among the most vulnerable user groups, namely young children, teenagers and the elderly. The nature of social networking sites such as Facebook and Twitter and other social media platforms cause users to re-evaluate and often change their personal privacy standards in order to participate in these social networked communities [13].
\nWhile there are tremendous benefits that can be derived from the effective use of social media there are some unavoidable risks that are involved in its use. Much attention should therefore be given to what is shared in these forums. Social platforms such as Facebook, Twitter and YouTube are said to be the most effective media to communicate to Generation Y’s (Gen Y’s), as teens and young adults are the largest user groups on these platforms [22]. However, according to Bolton et al. [22] Gen Y’s use of social media, if left unabated and unmonitored will have long-term implications for privacy and engagement in civic activities as this continuous use is resulting in changes in behavior and social norms as well as increased levels of cyber-crime.
\nToday social networks are becoming the platform of choice for hackers and other perpetrators of antisocial behavior. These media offer large volumes of data/information ranging from an individual’s date of birth, place of residence, place of work/business, to information about family and other personal activities. In many cases users unintentionally disclose information that can be both dangerous and inappropriate. Information regarding activities on social media can have far reaching negative implications for one’s future. A few examples of situations which can, and have been affected are employment, visa acquisition, and college acceptance. Indiscriminate participation has also resulted in situations such identity theft and bank fraud just to list a few. Protecting privacy in today’s networked society can be a great challenge. The digital revolution has indeed distorted our views of privacy, however, there should be clear distinctions between what should be seen by the general public and what should be limited to a selected group. One school of thought is that the only way to have privacy today is not to share information in these networked communities. However, achieving privacy and control over information flows and disclosure in networked communities is an ongoing process in an environment where contexts change quickly and are sometimes blurred. This requires intentional construction of systems that are designed to mitigate privacy issues [13].
\nEthics can be loosely defined as “the right thing to do” or it can be described as the moral philosophy of an individual or group and usually reflects what the individual or group views as good or bad. It is how they classify particular situations by categorizing them as right or wrong. Ethics can also be used to refer to any classification or philosophy of moral values or principles that guides the actions of an individual or group [23]. Ethical values are intended to be guiding principles that if followed, could yield harmonious results and relationships. They seek to give answers to questions such as “How should I be living? How do I achieve the things that are deemed important such as knowledge and happiness or the acquisition of attractive things?” If one chooses happiness, the next question that needs to be answered is “Whose happiness should it be; my own happiness or the happiness of others?” In the domain of social media, some of the ethical questions that must be contemplated and ultimately answered are [24]:
Can this post be regarded as oversharing?
Has the information in this post been distorted in anyway?
What impact will this post have on others?
As previously mentioned, users within the ages 8–15 represent one of the largest social media user groups. These young persons within the 8–15 age range are still learning how to interact with the people around them and are deciding on the moral values that they will embrace. These moral values will help to dictate how they will interact with the world around them. The ethical values that guide our interactions are usually formulated from some moral principle taught to us by someone or a group of individuals including parents, guardians, religious groups, and teachers just to name a few. Many of the Gen Y’s/“Digital Babies” are “newbies” yet are required to determine for themselves the level of responsibility they will display when using the varying social media platforms. This includes considering the impact a post will have on their lives and/or the lives of other persons. They must also understand that when they join a social media network, they are joining a community in which certain behavior must be exhibited. Such responsibility requires a much greater level of maturity than can be expected from them at that age.
\nIt is not uncommon for individuals to post even the smallest details of their lives from the moment they wake up to when they go to bed. They will openly share their location, what they eat at every meal or details about activities typically considered private and personal. They will also share likes and dislikes, thoughts and emotional states and for the most part this has become an accepted norm. Often times however, these shares do not only contain information about the person sharing but information about others as well. Many times, these details are shared on several social media platforms as individuals attempt to ensure that all persons within their social circle are kept updated on their activities. With this openness of sharing risks and challenges arise that are often not considered but can have serious impacts. The speed and scale with which social media creates information and makes it available—almost instantaneously—on a global scale, added to the fact that once something is posted there is really no way of truly removing it, should prompt individuals to think of the possible impact a post can have. Unfortunately, more often than not, posts are made without any thought of the far-reaching impact they can have on the lives of the person posting or others that may be implicated by the post.
\nAccording to Berger and Milkman [25] there are five (5) main reasons why users are compelled to share content online, whether it is every detail or what they deem as highlights of their lives. These are:
cause related
personal connection to content
to feel more involved in the world
to define who they are
to inform and entertain
People generally share because they believe that what they are sharing is important. It is hoped that the shared content will be deemed important to others which will ultimately result in more shares, likes and followers.
\n\nFigure 1 below sums up the findings of Berger and Milkman [25] which shows that the main reason people feel the need to share content on the varying social media platform is that the content relates to what is deemed as worthy cause. 84% of respondents highlighted this as the primary motivation for sharing. Seventy-eight percent said that they share because they feel a personal connection to the content while 69 and 68%, respectively said the content either made them feel more involved with the world or helped them to define who they were. Forty-nine percent share because of the entertainment or information value of the content. A more in depth look at each reason for sharing follows.
\nWhy people share source: Global Social Media Research. \nthesocialmediahat.com\n [26].
Social media has provided a platform for people to share their thoughts and express concerns with others for what they regard as a worthy cause. Cause related posts are dependent on the interest of the individual. Some persons might share posts related to causes and issues happening in society. In one example, the parents of a baby with an aggressive form of leukemia, who having been told that their child had only 3 months to live unless a suitable donor for a blood stem cell transplant could be found, made an appeal on social media. The appeal was quickly shared and a suitable donor was soon found. While that was for a good cause, many view social media merely as platforms for freedom of speech because anyone can post any content one creates. People think the expression of their thoughts on social media regarding any topic is permissible. The problem with this is that the content may not be accepted by law or it could violate the rights of someone thus giving rise to ethical questions.
\nWhen social media users feel a personal connection to their content, they are more inclined to share the content within their social circles. This is true of information regarding family and personal activities. Content created by users also invokes a deep feeling of connection as it allows the users to tell their stories and it is natural to want the world or at least friends to know of the achievement. This natural need to share content is not new as humans have been doing this in some form or the other, starting with oral history to the media of the day; social media. Sharing the self-created content gives the user the opportunity of satisfying some fundamental needs of humans to be heard, to matter, to be understood and emancipated. The problem with this however is that in an effort to gratify the fundamental needs, borders are crossed because the content may not be sharable (can this content be shared within the share network?), it may not be share-worthy (who is the audience that would appreciate this content?) or it may be out of context (does the content fit the situation?).
\nOne of the driving factors that pushes users to share content is the need to feel more in tune with the world around them. This desire is many times fueled by jealousy. Many social media users are jealous when their friends’ content gets more attention than their own and so there is a lot of pressure to maintain one’s persona in social circles, even when the information is unrealistic, as long as it gets as much attention as possible. Everything has to be perfect. In the case of a photo, for example, there is lighting, camera angle and background to consider. This need for perfection puts a tremendous amount of pressure on individuals to ensure that posted content is “liked” by friends. They often give very little thought to the amount of their friend’s work that may have gone on behind the scenes to achieve that perfect social post.
\nSocial media platforms have provided everyone with a forum to express views, but, as a whole, conversations are more polarized, tribal and hostile. With Facebook for instance, there has been a huge uptick in fake news, altered images, dangerous health claims and cures, and the proliferation of anti-science information. This is very distressing and disturbing because people are too willing to share and to believe without doing their due diligence and fact-checking first.
\nEstablishing one’s individuality in society can be challenging for some persons because not everyone wants to fit in. Some individuals will do all they can to stand out and be noticed. Social media provides the avenue for exposure and many individuals will seek to leverage the media to stand out of the crowd and not just be a fish in the school. Today many young people are currently being brought up in a culture that defines people by their presence on social media where in previous generations, persons were taught to define themselves by their career choices. These lessons would start from childhood by asking children what they wanted to be when they grew up and then rewarding them based on the answers they give [27]. In today’s digital era, however, social media postings and the number of “likes” or “dislikes” they attract, signal what is appealing to others. Therefore, post that are similar to those that receive a large number of likes but which are largely unrealistic are usually made for self-gratification.
\nThe acquisition of knowledge and skills is a vital part of human survival and social media has made this process much easier. It is not uncommon to hear persons realizing that they need a particular knowledge set that they do not possess say “I need to lean to do this. I’ll just YouTube it.” Learning and adapting to change in as short as possible time is vital in today’s society and social media coupled with the Internet put it all at the finger tips. Entertainment has the ability to bring people together and is a good way for people to bond. It provides a diversion from the demands of life and fills leisure time with amusement. Social media is an outlet for fun, pleasurable and enjoyable activities that are so vital to human survival [28]. It is now common place to see persons watching a video, viewing images and reading text that is amusing on any of the available social media platforms. Quite often these videos, images and texts can be both informative and entertaining, but there can be problems however as at times they can cross ethical lines that can lead to conflict.
\nThe use of modern-day technology has brought several benefits. Social media is no different and chief amongst its benefit is the ability to stay connected easily and quickly as well as build relationships with people with similar interests. As with all technology, there are several challenges that can make the use of social media off putting and unpleasant. Some of these challenges appear to be minor but they can have far reaching effects into the lives of the users of social media and it is therefore advised that care be taken to minimize the challenges associated with the use of social media [29].
\nA major challenge with the use of social media is oversharing because when persons share on social media, they tend to share as much as is possible which is often times too much [24]. When persons are out and about doing exciting things, it is natural to want to share this with the world as many users will post a few times a day when they head to lunch, visit a museum, go out to dinner or other places of interest [30]. While this all seems relatively harmless, by using location-based services which pinpoint users with surprising accuracy and in real time, users place themselves in danger of laying out a pattern of movement that can be easily traced. While this seems more like a security or privacy issue it stems from an ethical dilemma—“Am I sharing too much?” Oversharing can also lead to damage of user’s reputation especially if the intent is to leverage the platform for business [24]. Photos of drunken behavior, drug use, partying or other inappropriate content can change how you are viewed by others.
\nAnother ethical challenge users of social media often encounter is that they have no way of authenticating content before sharing, which becomes problematic when the content paints people or establishments negatively. Often times content is shared with them by friends, family and colleagues. The unauthenticated content is then reshared without any thought but sometimes this content may have been maliciously altered so the user unknowingly participates in maligning others. Even if the content is not altered the fact that the content paints someone or something in a bad light should send off warning bells as to whether or not it is right to share the content which is the underlying principle of ethical behavior.
\nSome of the challenges experienced by social media posts are a result of a lack of understanding and sometimes a lack of respect for the varying ethical and moral standpoints of the people involved. We have established that it is typical for persons to post to social media sites without any thought as to how it can affect other persons, but many times these posts are a cause of conflict because of a difference of opinion that may exist and the effect the post may have. Each individual will have his or her own ethical values and if they differ then this can result in conflict [31]. When an executive of a British company made an Instagram post with some racial connotations before boarding a plane to South Africa it started a frenzy that resulted in the executive’s immediate dismissal. Although the executive said it was a joke and there was no prejudice intended, this difference in views as to the implications of the post, resulted in an out of work executive and a company scrambling to maintain its public image.
\nIn this age of sharing, many young persons spend a vast amount of time on social media checking the activities of their “friends” as well as posting on their own activities so their “friends” are aware of what they are up to. Apart from interfering with their academic progress, time spent on these posts at can have long term repercussions. An example is provided by a student of a prominent university who posted pictures of herself having a good time at parties while in school. She was denied employment because of some of her social media posts. While the ethical challenge here is the question of the employee’s right to privacy and whether the individual’s social media profile should affect their ability to fulfill their responsibilities as an employee, the impact on the individual’s long term personal growth is clear.
\nIn today’s information age, one’s digital footprint can make or break someone; it can be the deciding factor on whether or not one achieves one’s life-long ambitions. Unethical behavior and interactions on social media can have far reaching implications both professionally and socially. Posting on the Internet means the “end of forgetting,” therefore, responsible use of this medium is critical. The unethical use of social media has implications for privacy and can result in security breaches both physically and virtually. The use of social media can also result in the loss of privacy as many users are required to provide information that they would not divulge otherwise. Social media use can reveal information that can result in privacy breaches if not managed properly by users. Therefore, educating users of the risks and dangers of the exposure of sensitive information in this space, and encouraging vigilance in the protection of individual privacy on these platforms is paramount. This could result in the reduction of unethical and irresponsible use of these media and facilitate a more secure social environment. The use of social media should be governed by moral and ethical principles that can be applied universally and result in harmonious relationships regardless of race, culture, religious persuasion and social status.
\nAnalysis of the literature and the findings of this research suggest achieving acceptable levels of privacy is very difficult in a networked system and will require much effort on the part of individuals. The largest user groups of social media are unaware of the processes that are required to reduce the level of vulnerability of their personal data. Therefore, educating users of the risk of participating in social media is the social responsibility of these social network platforms. Adapting universally ethical behaviors can mitigate the rise in the number of privacy breaches in the social networking space. This recommendation coincides with philosopher Immanuel Kant’s assertion that, the Biblical principle which states “Do unto others as you have them do unto you” can be applied universally and should guide human interactions [5]. This principle, if adhered to by users of social media and owners of these platforms could raise the awareness of unsuspecting users, reduce unethical interactions and undesirable incidents that could negatively affect privacy, and by extension security in this domain.
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\n\n3. In those rare instances where IntechOpen declines to publish a book that had been previously accepted, full refunds will be made to the same account or credit card from which the Author made the original payment.
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