\r\n\tThis book will provide an insights in different aspects of hygiene in correlation to human health with special emphasis on cross contamination and cross infections with pathogens transmission. Basic principles of prevention, control and procedures for best hygiene practice are described with aim to deliver comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art in hygiene for human health.
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1. Introduction
Traditional human societies have protected natural areas for various cultural purposes for millennia. Examples include the sacred forests of South Asia and parts of Africa, sacred burial grounds of some native American groups and traditional royal hunting reserves in many parts of Europe, Asia and Africa, which were generally only seasonally opened for hunting by royalty (Borgerhoff Mulder & Coppolillo, 2006). The modern concept of the national ownership and protection of natural areas for the benefit of society at large is a much more recent phenomenon; the United States became the first country to conserve nationally protected areas with the creation of Yellowstone National Park in 1872. This Category II (below) protected area is now close to 9,000 square kilometers in size and was inscribed as a World Heritage Natural Site in 1978.
The management of many of the earliest protected areas would be at odds with modern conservation practices. For example, for several decades after its creation, the US Calvary managed Yellowstone and mounted soldiers regularly hunted bison and elk for food - and wolves as vermin - within its borders. By the 1930s, wolves had been eradicated from the park, and remained absent until the mid-1990s when the US Park Service and US Fish and Wildlife Service jointly reintroduced the species from animals captured in Canada. Within several decades of the creation of Yellowstone National Park, Canada, New Zealand and Australia all had set aside protected areas and had begun developing national legislation to manage them, and the United States began establishing wildlife refuges as a separate category of protected area (Fischman, 2003).
Much has been written about the historical and cultural context of this (then) new phenomenon, and the similarities of its earliest adherents. All were British colonies, spoke English as their national language, and were being quickly populated by immigrating Europeans. All four countries also had de facto policies of subduing their native peoples to the point of what many now consider cultural genocide. This had the effect of depopulating large natural areas, within even larger countries with low population densities to begin with, in a rather short time period during the late 19th and early 20th Centuries. Some historians also note that the European Diaspora naturally tended to look to Europe for its cultural inspiration. The countries of the Old World had great universities, museums, artworks, palaces and ruins dating back to ancient Greece and Rome, while the New World had scenery and natural areas unsurpassed by anything in densely populated Europe. This school of thought considers the movement to create national protected areas to be motivated, at least in part, by ‘Europe envy’ (Zaslowsky and Watkins, 1986). By the early 20th Century, all four of those countries and a few others (e.g. Sweden) had set aside multiple natural areas and had created professional management authorities to protect them. Canada was the first country to create a national park management agency (in 1911) followed by the USA (in 1916).
In any case, there is much evidence to suggest to that the earliest parks (and many still; see below) were not set aside with particular reference to conservation in any form, and thus the ‘Europe Envy’ thesis is generally accepted. Most of the earliest units contained spectacular scenery, but their borders did not relate to the habitat needs of native species, much less the dynamics of entire ecosystems (Norton, 2005). By the 1930s, the American park system received criticism from within with a report by Dixon and Wright, two Federal employees, that received widespread attention. The authors stated that most units were “mountain top parks” and preserved only scenery with no regard for wildlife. Seasonal movements of many species were such that large populations of birds and mammals were left outside park boundaries (and therefore subjected to hunting); the early American ‘mountain top parks’ were, therefore, ineffective for many conservation purposes (Dombeck & Williams, 2003).
Modern conservation biology has also greatly expanded our ideas of the geometric design and placement of protected areas across landscapes (Primack, 2006), but the problem of ‘mountain top parks’ still remains. For national governments, it is simply easier to set aside large protected areas in places such as high elevations, deserts, tundra, etc., i.e. where there are few competing economic demands, than in areas of high biological productivity. The latter tend to be at low elevations, in temperate or subtropical zones, and receive adequate rainfall. In short, the most productive ecosystems are also those where humans tend to concentrate. Tropical rainforests, with their primary productivity largely found in the canopy and frequently harboring human diseases, are possible exceptions to this generality, but in that cases too, they are at risk worldwide (Wilson, 1999).
Canada and the United States also pioneered several other conservation movements during the Progressive era of the early 20th Century. They developed the world’s first international treaties on the protection of migratory wildlife, with separate instruments for wild salmon, fur seals and migratory birds (Dorsey, 1998). The last, The Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918, is still in force. Canada and the United States also developed the world’s first transboundary protected area in 1932, with the creation of Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park, a large area that conserves habitat on both sides of the international border in the northern Rocky Mountains. With this came the recognition that many species and ecosystems cannot be conserved within the borders of single nations and these legal instruments were watershed events in the history of conservation worldwide (Susskind, 1994). From these humble beginnings, many other bilateral, regional and global conservation conventions have been developed for the protection of both migratory species and natural areas.
The largely Western ideal of protected areas as raw nature devoid of humans (except for tourism) was never really true to begin with; most areas set aside in the nations that began the movement had been occupied by pre-industrial people who were removed. This concept was also largely out of synch with realities on the ground in developing nations During the post World War II period of decolonization, many seminal wildlife studies were conducted in various places in Africa and Asia and the world became much more aware of their unique heritage. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (now IUCN – The World Conservation Union; www.iucn.org) was begun in 1948 with a charter to develop world wide standards for conservation and the World Wildlife Fund (www.worldwildlife.org; now the Worldwide Fund for Nature) was established several years later, initially as a fund raising mechanism for IUCN. Having been developed in the West, with essentially all funding coming from West, meant that Western standards of nature conservation were becoming global (Swanson, 1997). IUCN’s World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA) was organized in the 1950s, and developed internationally-recognized categories of protected areas by the 1970s, which were modified in the 1990s (see below).
Post-colonial governments in developing nations began setting aside protected areas by the 1960s, but the ‘fences and fines’ approach of the West had its limits in this context. Some, such as Kenya, Tanzania and India, already had the semblance of a protected area system as a result of colonial British rule, but these were areas largely set aside for use by British government officials and indigenous elites for hunting reserves, and effectively prohibited rural residents, who were dependent on natural resources, from entry (e.g.\n\t\t\t\tGillingham & Lee, 2003; Bruyere et al. 2009). In 1962 and 1972, IUCN held its First and Second World Conferences on Protected Areas, respectively. Both were characterized by over-representation of delegates from developed countries and there was little focus on the issues relevant for newly emerged developing countries. This began to change with the Third World Conference on Protected Areas, held in 1982, in Bali, Indonesia. The Conference was renamed “National Parks, Conservation and People” and the theme was the role of protected areas in economic development; a majority of participants came from developing countries. The Fourth and Fifth World Conferences were held in Venezuela (1992) and South Africa (2002) respectively, and the global agenda for protected areas in each decade expanded from the one preceding it.
The relative success of national parks in the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand was due at least in part to the fact that population densities were low in those countries to begin with and that indigenous peoples had been largely removed from many ancestral areas as part of national policy as those countries were developing. Such was not the case in the developing world, and there is now near universal agreement that the Western national park model is generally inappropriate for the situation in most developing countries with their large rural populations dependent (at least in part) on extractive activities in natural areas (e.g.\n\t\t\t\tCampbell & Vainio-Mattila, 2003; De Boer & Baquete, 1998; Groom & Harris, 2008; McShane and Wells, 2004)). The WCPA recognized this with the liberalization of rules regarding national parks and more strictly protected areas, and with the modification of protected area categories recognized worldwide in 1994 (below).
2. IUCN – WCPA categories of protected areas
IUCN defines a protected area as "an area of land and/or sea especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity, and of natural and associated cultural resources, and managed through legal or other effective means." According to the World Database on Protected Areas compiled by the WCPA, there were over 7,000 separate units covering over 17,000,000 square kilometers as of 2007. This includes about 3.3% of Earth’s total surface area and nearly 10 % of Earth’s land surface, but less than 0.5% of its sea surface, although there has been recent growth in the designation of near-shore marine protected areas as well. The WCPA’s mission is to “promote the establishment and effective management of a world-wide representative network of terrestrial and marine protected areas as an integral contribution to IUCN\'s mission.” A general goal is to bring 10% of the Earth’s land surface, including 10% of all recognized ecosystem types, under one or another internationally recognized category of protected area. The growth of such areas has been very rapid during the past several decades, but, based on the aforementioned criteria, some ecosystem types are over-represented, while most, and especially the more productive ones, are under-represented (Chape et al. 2008).
The WCPA uses a system in place since 1994 to define these areas (Table 1). Here I describe the major management categories, but please note that many nations have additional protected natural areas that do not fit within the IUCN criteria and are thus not included on the United Nations List of Protected Areas. Based on IUCN criteria, national protected areas are those managed by the “highest competent authority’’ which, in most cases, is the national government. Yet many countries have State, County, Provincial or Urban parks, recreation areas, etc., in additional to those designated at the national level. In some cases, depending on the management plan, size and remoteness of such areas, they are included on the World List, but in many other cases they are not.
Similarly, many countries have private reserves (e.g. Nature Conservancy reserves, land trusts, etc. in the United States and elsewhere) or reserves managed by other entities (e.g. university-owned research reserves), that are generally not included based on IUCN criteria. In many cases, national forests or rangelands, which can be important for habitat for many native species, are also not included because their permitted uses exceed that considered appropriate by IUCN. With these caveats in mind, it is generally true that there is much more natural area set aside (about 17% of the Earth’s land area; Chape et al. 2008), albeit in small reserves and/or under greater degrees of human uses, than is recognized internationally based on IUCN criteria. IUCN categories, based on a numbering system from most to least strictly protected, are as follows (from www.iucn.org/about/union/commissions/wcpa):
Ia. Strict Nature/Scientific Reserve. The main purposes of Category Ia reserves are scientific research and species conservation, and other human uses are generally banned. Because of this, few nations recognize Category Ia reserves within national law, but quite a few have de facto Strict Nature reserves. These may include, for example, very remote regions of much larger protected areas in which inaccessibility precludes tourism or other uses.
1b. Wilderness Areas. Wilderness areas are generally large and remote. Tourism is permitted, but since permanent human dwellings and motorable roads generally are not, tourist numbers are few and generally involve backpacking style camping. They provide for the protection of wilderness and maintenance of ecosystem services. This category was added in the WCPA category revisions of 1994.
Table 1.
IUCN -The World Conservation Union Protected Area Management Categories (adapted from IUCN 2003)Key to Management Objectives: SR, scientific research; WP, wilderness protection; SD, species or genetic diversity conservation; ES, environmental services; NF, natural or cultural features; TR, tourism and recreation; ED, education; SU, sustainable use; and CA, cultural attributes.Key to importance of objectives by category: *** designates a primary objective; **, a secondary objective; *, potentially not applicable; and -, not applicable.
Category II. National Parks. This has been the most used protected area category worldwide. National parks are generally large areas that protect more than one important natural feature and/or wildlife population, and in which tourism is generally permitted and promoted. Other important functions include providing environmental services and opportunities for environmental education as well as scientific research. National parks tend to be the best known and most important protected areas economically, and many of the best examples worldwide are also recognized internationally as World Heritage Sites.
Category III. National (Natural) Monuments. This category has, in general, the same aims as Category II, but national monuments are generally smaller than national parks and are set aside to protect one or several important natural features. In some cases, these can be combined with cultural features in a natural setting (e.g. Mt. Rushmore in the United States). Because of their generally smaller size, they are usually not important for broader conservation purposes such as ecosystem services, but many contain important wildlife populations.
Category IV. Managed Habitat/Wildlife Reserves. By sheer numbers, this is the second most important protected area category worldwide. In general, these reserves are established to protect one or more important wildlife populations and, for the larger units, they can also be important for providing ecosystem services. Tourism is frequently permitted within them, but not promoted as in the case of II and III, above. In addition, material alteration can take place within Category IV protected areas to enhance habitat for the species of conservation concern. For example, maintaining pastures for ungulate grazing, creating empoundments for waterfowl habitat, etc., may all be permitted within them. These activities are generally not permitted in the previous categories. Sustainable use is frequently a secondary goal of Category IV reserves, and some (limited) hunting of common game species may be permitted within some, or in adjacent areas.
Category V. Protected Landscapes/Seascapes. Category V reserves are perhaps the most interesting for their breadth of permitted activities and management options. These are generally large areas set aside for a combination of their natural and cultural features, and they generally promote tourism. In many places, human habitations are found within them, including small towns with examples of rural working landscapes. As such they are generally designated across landscapes that contain an admixture of public, semi-public and private lands, and may be quite altered from their natural state.
Category VI: Managed Resource/Extractive Reserves. Category VI, like Ia, was added to the list of protected are categories with the 1994 revisions. These are generally large reserves that provide for ecosystems services, but their main purpose is the conservation and sustainable use of important species and their gene pools. Active removal of forest products is permitted and in fact encouraged, and, as such, they tend to be important economically for local communities. The general rule for a protected area to qualify under this category is that no more than one third the area can be subject to intense harvest. Many countries (the United States included) have large areas set aside in which more extensive harvesting is permitted. Such areas may be managed in a semi-natural state for national purposes, but do not qualify as Category VI internationally (e.g. National Forests in many countries).
2. Some caveats of protected area categories
In the modern era (post 1990), greater areas under Category V and VI reserves, both terrestrial and marine, have been created worldwide than other reserve types. This is especially true in developing countries, but is also true in some of the large marine protected areas created in the United States (e.g. the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary). Given their more lenient management regimes, this is also not surprising due to the dependence in many places that rural residents have on natural resource extraction and use. However, there has been a great deal of concern expressed, especially by natural scientists, about this phenomenon. Since large predators, especially, are generally not tolerated by humans (and vice versa), and yet are keystone species in many ecosystems, Category V and VI reserves are especially problematic from a purely ecological standpoint (e.g.\n\t\t\t\tHeinen and Mehta, 1999). Yet these reserves can be the most important from a purely economic standpoint (e.g.\n\t\t\t\tSherman and Dixon 1990) and from the standpoint of human cultural values.
While debates were ongoing in the western academic literature largely between natural and social sciences on the competing values of different types of protected areas and their uses, with ecologists generally favoring more strict protection and social scientists favoring less strict protection (e.g.\n\t\t\t\tRedford and Sanderson, 2000), many nations, as well as less philosophically-driven researchers and development workers, were slowly arriving at a different consensus. That is, both sides have valid arguments and large reserves, and the regions in which they are found, can have elements meeting these competing demands via zoning criteria. For example, India and Nepal added less strict regulations to some of their national parks (including some limited extractive uses), while keeping more strict regulations in others, and both also actively supported buffer zone policies in the vicinity of more strictly protected areas beginning in the 1990s (e.g.\n\t\t\t\tHeinen and Shrestha, 2006). In those cases, many Category II and IV protected areas are surrounded by buffer zones that are managed more like Category V or VI protected areas, whether or not they are recognized as such internationally.
To promote the broad goals of sustainable development as articulated in the 1987 Brundtland Report (Bruntland, 1987), Agenda 21 (Sitarz, 1993) and the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity (Glowka et al., 1994), rather intensive local development inputs are needed in such areas to reduce demands on the core protected area (i.e. the Category IV or lower reserve). This may include rural enterprise development such as farm fisheries, agro- and community forestry and training of local people for tourism related jobs. There is now a large and growing literature on the development and success of community-based conservation (CBC) programs and integrated conservation and development programs (ICDPs) that is generally outside the scope here. Suffice it is to say that, for our purposes, from both socio-economic and ecological standpoints, there is growing evidence that this mixed approach has many advantages and pitfalls (e.g.\n\t\t\t\tFiallo & Jacobson, 1995; Lepp & Holland, 2006; Lepp, 2007).
Some ecological factors that may lead to success (or not) include the types of species protected in core areas (e.g. large mammals frequently cause much loss to local farmers, including lost human lives on occasion) and the types of natural plant products and other resources (e.g. fish), their growth and sustainable harvest rates and local market values, that may be harvested legally from designated extractive zones. Socio-economic and other factors are many and varied. For example, human population density alone, and especially the ethnic heterogeneity and recency of immigration to an area, can determine the degree of difficulty of developing and sustaining CBD programs (Heinen, 1996). Recent research has shown that the creation of protected areas and development inputs into their surroundings can act as attractants for new immigrants, further complicating the issue (Wittemyer et al. 2008). In addition, increased wealth (due to tourism and other employment opportunities) of residents around protected areas can also create difficult managerial consequences in their vicinity via increasing demand for many forest products (e.g.\n\t\t\t\tFu et al., 2004). But, in general, CBC programs in areas that are more stable demographically and/or especially areas in which they have been in place for longer time periods (and thus institutional trust and social capital has been built), have been shown to be effective over time in many case studies (Baral et al. 2007). But this can take many years to a few decades.
The protected area categories used by IUCN’s WCPA are broad enough to cover quite a bit of the world’s protected natural heritage adequately, but individual countries deviate from international standards frequently. As previously mentioned, they are not inclusive enough to capture many of the world’s smaller protected areas (e.g. state, provincial and country parks) or important private reserves. Such reserves can be very important for the conservation of local plant and insect species, as stopover areas for birds during migration, as important nesting areas for species such as sea turtles, and for the ever-increasingly important purposes of introducing urban and suburban populations to environmental and science education, which are all very important objectives. For example, the Counties and the State of Florida maintain a system of such reserves in the urban and suburban matrix of Miami-Dade, Broward and Palm Beach in Southeast Florida that are heavily visited by residents and tourists (Alonzo & Heinen, 2011); their combined attendance annually is thought to be greater than for nearby Everglades National Park. As such, small reserves can be disproportionately more important for several simultaneous conservation goals than some internationally recognized large reserves.
Individual countries may also vary quite a bit in terms of management practices and hence in terms of how the WCPA categorizes their protected areas. For example, ‘National Parks’ under both British and Japanese standards are frequently too materially altered to be considered Category II protected areas by WCPA. Because they may include many important cultural components and have private in-holdings, and, in some cases, entire towns, they are generally classified as Category V by IUCN. Many of the large extractive reserves in the USA (and elsewhere) simply allow too much extraction to be classified as Category VI reserves (e.g. US National Forests managed by the Forest Service and Grazing Areas managed by the Bureau of Land Management). Other units within the same system, under less intensive management, do qualify, and thus IUCNs’ WCPA must consider each unit on a case by case basis by reviewing individual management plans in deriving the United Nations List of Protected Areas to determine if each qualifies. World wide, the effort required is huge and the list is always in need of updating. In spite of these caveats, the system has proven useful for over 15 years; it is also adaptable and widely recognized, so there is little reason to change it at the present time.
Another issue that is frequently debated and studied is that of ‘paper parks.’ These can be defined as units that are protected at the national level via appropriate laws, and in some cases, recognized under international conventions as very important protected areas, but in which there is either inadequate or no active enforcement on the ground. This term is now applied to many parks and reserves in developing countries where inadequate budgets and manpower for conservation are the norm. The World Heritage Convention (below) has focused on this issue and has developed the “List of World Heritage in Danger” (whc.unesco.org/en/danger). Inscription of this list should cause national shame, for these are some of the most spectacular parks on Earth, but in fact, the vast majority of protected areas are not World Heritage Sites, and there are many ‘paper parks’ in which poaching, logging, or other extraction go on regularly in spite of laws. WCPA has no means currently to assess these issues on a case by case basis worldwide, so many listed sites (especially Category II) either should be placed in another less strict category or removed from the List.
3. International regimes concerning protected areas
There are currently dozens of international instruments related to the conservation of species, natural areas, or both. The vast majority are bilateral or regional; some are quite well studied while others are more obscure (Klemm & Shine, 1993). Regional treaties in this area exist in Europe, the Commonwealth of Independent States (i.e. most of the former Soviet Republics), Southeast Asia, sub-Saharan Africa and Central America. Here I briefly discuss the major international regimes that are subject to ratification or acceptance by all United Nations members, but interested readers are referred to Klemm and Shine (1993) for more information on some of the regional agreements.
3.1. The man and biosphere program
In the late 1960s, the Man and Biosphere Program (MAB) was conceived under the auspices of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) based in Paris (Batisse, 1982, 1986). By 1971, MAB was implemented with the broad goals studying human relationships with the biosphere, especially for studying long-term human induced impacts and conservation for sustainable development. A major objective of MAB since its beginning was to develop a worldwide network of international biosphere reserves and, and there are currently (2009) 553 MAB-designated Biosphere Reserves in 107 countries (www.portal.unesco.org).
Based on MAB criteria, biosphere reserves are established in representative ecosystems for research purposes, with several secondary goals. These include: preserving traditional forms of land use, disseminating knowledge to manage resources, and promoting cooperation in solving resource related problems. The biosphere reserve model is one in which more strictly protected core reserves are surrounded by nested buffers permitting more human uses with distances from the core. Given the time period, the goals of the program and the concept of reserves with functional buffers, were quite progressive and a number of countries have since followed suit with the zoning implicit in the MAB reserve design (above). Education and training are also promoted under MAB, as is ecosystem level management. A number of countries in Latin America and the former Soviet Union now use ‘biosphere reserve’ as a category of nationally-protected areas; many of these sites are listed on UNESCO’s international list, while others are not.
The type and scale of reserves listed under MAB vary quite a bit based on national norms and conventions, and national MAB programs are given a great deal of leeway in nominating sites (Heinen & Vande Kopple, 2003). Any nomination is subject to acceptance by the international MAB program. MAB is also quite fluid in maintaining ties with international organizations (e.g. the World Wide Fund for Nature, WWF; the World Wildlife Fund in the USA), and United Nations agencies such as the United Nations Environmental and Development Programs, respectively, and with Secretariats of international conventions such as Ramsar and CBD (below). Through international as well as regional programs, MAB fosters exchanges among reserves and facilitates interactions through networks such as AfriMAB and EuroMAB.
Sites listed under MAB range from large and nationally protected areas (e.g. Everglades National Park) to much smaller reserves maintained by sub-national entities (e.g. The University of Michigan Biological Station). While some may perceive this as a weakness in that such disparity in size and purpose leads to little uniformity in management of these reserves, this can also be considered a strength of MAB. That is, individual national programs can promote the overarching goal with a number of different reserve types, and can take part in various levels of international cooperation, as long as the reserve meets the general criteria of research, education and outreach and includes some semblance of the zoning criteria in which core areas are well protected. As such the program is quite flexible and unique. The fact that it is not legally binding can also be considered both a strength and a weakness as it, again, promotes more flexibility but less uniformity. In any case, the MAB program has existed for four decades and in many ways set additional standards for protected areas management internationally. As such, it is quite important for the movement worldwide.
3.2. The ramsar convention
The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, Especially for Waterfowl Habitat was conceived in Ramsar, Iran in 1971, and is generally known as the Ramsar Convention (Hails, 1996). Ramsar was the first truly international convention promoting the protection of natural areas and, in many ways, it remains the most important. Like MAB, it was also very progressive for its time (below). To date (2009) there are 159 contracting parties and 1,847 sites included on the List of Wetlands of International Importance, which collectively cover about 1.8 million square kilometers of area (www.ramsar.org). The purpose of Ramsar as articulated in the Preamble is to recognize the interdependence of humans and the environment and to consider the ecological and economic functions of wetlands as fundamentally important. Parties are instructed to develop national wetlands policy with the aim of decreasing wetland loss, and to recognize that waterfowl, by virtue of their annual migrations, are an important international resource. All Parties must nominate at least one Wetland of International Importance from within their borders.
Ramsar defines wetlands very broadly, to include fens, bogs, marshes and swamps as well as near-shore marine areas in which low tide does not exceed 6m in depth. In this way, the Convention was progressive in that near-shore marine areas can be included. At the time of its formulation, very few nations had created marine reserves, but this movement has increased greatly in the decades since, and many coastal areas are now listed as Ramsar sites. Similarly, Ramsar provides a very broad definition of waterfowl to include any species of migratory bird that uses wetlands for any part of its life cycle. As such, waterfowl in the traditional sense are included (i.e. ducks, geese and swans), as well as all species of waders and fishing birds, and a number of passerine species that breed in wetland areas.
Various Articles of Ramsar further articulate the responsibilities of Parties to conserve wetland areas. Article 4, for example, encourages Parties to create wetland reserves whether or not they are listed sites, and to train personnel for research and management of wetlands, while Article 5 instructs Parties to consult about implementing the Convention, an important provision for sites that may cross international borders. Ramsar was also historically important in promoting the concept wise use of wetland resources for sustainable development. This also made it very progressive for its time in the sense that the Bruntland Report was released 15 years after Ramsar, and the Convention on Biological Diversity followed Ramsar by 2 decades. It also preceded the changing concepts of the WCPA about protected area management categories and the promotion of sustainable human uses within more categories than had been the case previously (above). Ramsar also maintains a Trust Fund for which Parties that are developing nations can apply for funding for special projects to maintain sites, offer trainings, etc.
In another sense, however, Ramsar can be criticized for having relatively little control over Parties as to how they manage wetlands overall. The idea of no net loss of wetlands, inherent to Ramsar, has frequently not been met, even in the United States, and wetland drainage continues in many Party States. Listed Ramsar sites themselves vary quite a bit in terms of their importance. For example, Canada and the United States have relatively few listed sites, but all are large and of obvious importance for the broad goals of the Convention (e.g. Everglades National Park). While many of the smaller and much more densely populated European countries list large numbers of small sites, some of which are of dubious importance. Even with these caveats in mind, Ramsar is very important for international conservation for promoting wetland protection and for many broader issues related to protected areas management. It could also be used as a template to form other Conventions focused on single broad ecosystem types (e.g. tropical forests or tropical grasslands), although none currently exist.
3.3. The world heritage convention
The International Convention for the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage (The World Heritage Convention or WHC) as adopted by UNESCO in Paris in 1972. As of 2009, WHC had 186 Parties; of these, 148 have sites listed on the World Heritage List. Of the 890 sites listed worldwide, the majority are Cultural heritage sites (689) and will not be considered here (whc.unesco.org). Of the remaining, 176 are Natural heritage sites (mostly national parks) while 25 are mixed sites containing both cultural and natural heritage. WHC came into force in 1975 with the purposes of conserving both natural and cultural areas of outstanding universal importance. As such, Parties recognize that many sites are of importance to world’s heritage and not just to the heritage of the countries that may contain them. In addition, to maintaining the World Heritage List, WHC’s Secretariat also maintains the World Heritage Trust, under which developing countries can apply for project funds to help maintain sites. Lastly, the Secretariat also maintains a list of World Heritage Sites in Danger for previously listed sites that are under improper management or for some other reason at risk. Sadly, the site nearest my own desk, Everglades National Park, is currently on this list due to the lack of progress of the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Project under the Bush Administration. Compliance is a major issue, and focus of study, regarding many such legal instruments (e.g.\n\t\t\t\t\tFaure & Lefevere, 1999).
Many of the Articles of WHC pertain solely or mainly to cultural sites but there are several important provisions that relate to natural sites. Article 2, for example, states that natural heritage consists of “physical and biological formations or groups of such formations, which are of outstanding universal value.” The definition is further clarified to include areas that constitute important habitat for endangered species of universal value, outstanding geological formations, or other natural features of outstanding beauty. Parties to the Convention are responsible for proposing sites within their borders for listing, and providing strong evidence based on a set protocol for each place that allegedly constitutes a site of outstanding universal value. Most natural sites on the list were already world famous before they were listed (e.g. The Grand Canyon, The Serengeti, Mount Everest, The Great Barrier Reef, The Galapagos Islands), and in fact, most were already protected under national law as National Parks or other types of internally-recognized protected areas. None-the-less, there is national prestige to having sites listed as World Heritage, and the added (although rather meager) incentive for developing nations to garner some funds through the Trust. National governments and private tour operators alike frequently use listing in advertising as an incentive to attract more tourism, and World Heritage Natural Sites are among the most-visited protected areas on earth. In Nepal, for example, of 16 nationally protected areas, the two World Heritage Sites alone (Everest and Chitwan National Parks) typically account for over one third of tourist entries in protected areas in the country (Heinen and Kattel, 1992).
3.4. The convention on the conservation of migratory species of wild animals
The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, also known as CMS or the Bonn Convention, came into force in 1979; as of 2009, there were 112 Parties (www.cms.int). Throughout its history, CMS has attracted fewer Parties than the other Conventions described here, in part because many nations of the Western Hemisphere were already party to an older regional convention protecting migratory wildlife (the Western Convention of 1940). As such, most Parties to CMS are in the Eastern Hemisphere, but more recently, a number of Latin American countries have ratified it. As the name implies, CMS focuses on migratory wildlife and not with protected areas per se. It is thus much more of a species-based than area-based conservation convention, but within its 20 Articles there are some clauses that are germane for the topic at hand.
CMS’s Article 1 considers conservation status to be favorable if (among other things) the distribution and abundance of migratory species approach historic coverage, suitable ecosystems for conservation exist, and that there is sufficient protected habitat to maintain migratory species. The Article further describes unfavorable conservation status as being those in which these (above) conditions are not met. CMS’s fundamental principles (Article 2) similarly contains an important clause outlining the importance of conserving habitat: The Parties acknowledge the importance of migratory species... “taking individually or in cooperation appropriate and necessary steps to conserve such species and their habitats.”
Through its long history, and in conjunction with other Conventions (especially Ramsar) CMS has been indirectly importance in expanding protected area networks, and especially in Europe and Africa due to the large avian migrations between those two continents. A number of small reserves were created along flyways that offer staging and stepping-stone habitats, and many of these also contain significant wetland resources. None-the-less, with its focus on migratory species, its relatively few signatory nations, and its appendices of species under varying degrees of threat, it is not nearly as important for protected areas as the other instruments described here, but is important for species protection. Under its auspices, various important regional agreements have been established and form some rather interesting case studies in species (and area) conservation. Among these are: the Agreements for the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black and Mediterranean Seas and Contiguous Atlantic Area; the Africa-Asia Migratory Waterbird Agreement, several agreements on sea turtles in the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Agreement on Gorillas and their Habitats. Some habitat protection clauses are found within all of these.
3.5. The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity
The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), formulated prior to and during the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro, is far and away the broadest of the international conservation agreements. It came into force on 29 December 1993 and has three main objectives: to conserve biological diversity, to use biological diversity sustainably and to share the benefits of biological diversity equitably (www.cbd.in). The CBD currently (2009) has 156 Parties. Many provisions of the Convention do not deal with protected areas per se, so I only highlight important aspects of CBD and focus on those few aspects that do relate to this topic.
Of its 42 Articles and 3 Annexes, Article 8 (In Situ Conservation) is the main one dealing with protected areas. Therein, contracting Parties are encouraged, as far as possible and as appropriate, to, establish systems of protected natural areas and to develop guidelines for their selection and management.
Article 8 of CBD further requests Parties to manage important biological diversity appropriately whether it is located within the protected area network or not, and to promote general ecosystem protection. Parties are also requested to promote environmentally sound sustainable development in the vicinity of protected areas, to promote restoration of degraded ecosystems, and to control exotic species that pose a risk to conservation. Parties are further encouraged to use innovative practices in management and to involve local and indigenous communities in protected areas management. The final clauses of Article 8 instruct Parties to develop appropriate regulatory legislation to conserve endangered species, cooperate in financial support for ex situ conservation, and regulate processes that may adversely affect biological diversity in accordance with Article 7, which addresses the identification and monitoring components of biological diversity. Annex 1 (referenced in Article 7) defines components to be monitored to include ecosystems and habitats with high diversity, large numbers of endemic or threatened species, wilderness, and/or important habitat for migratory species. It further instructs Parties to identify and monitor communities and species that are threatened, contain wild relatives of important domesticates or other value, or are important for research, conservation and sustainable use.
Much of the rest of CBD deals with issues of domestic biodiversity, genetic complexes, appropriate uses of biological diversity and trade, ex situ conservation, equitability and sustainability management of biodiversity, and not with protected areas per se (Glowka et al., 1994). None-the-less, CBD is far and away the broadest in scope of any conservation treaty and recognizes explicitly that protected natural areas are essential for biodiversity conservation at all levels of integration (i.e. from genes to ecosystems) and such protected area systems are important to effectuating the CBD objectives. It is also useful to note that CBD articulates quite well the more modern view of protected areas as places in which human are an integral part, as opposed to the older view of raw nature and ‘fences and fines’ management characteristic of the first American model. Shortly after CBD came into force, WCPA modernized its protected area categories (above). Another aspect of CBD that has proven important since its passage is that many Parties have undertaken the task of creating national conservation strategies and action plans, which is promoted by Article 7 and Annex 1. Such plans have allowed for a fuller inventory of important biological diversity, and have generally contained parts that deal with the existing protected areas network of each Party, with recommendations for expansion and for better management of existing units.
4. General discussion and overview
From its humble American beginnings in 1872, the international movement to conserve protected areas at the national level has mushroomed in the modern era. Most nations now maintain systems of protected areas, and the majority are now Parties to all of the international conservation conventions discussed above. The intellectual breadth of protected area management categories recognized worldwide, and of the types of both traditional and non-traditional uses permitted within them, has also expanded greatly, as has the use of zoning large areas to permit more or less uses in specific tracts depending both on the need for biological conservation and human enterprises. None-the-less, the stamp of the earlier history of a Western and largely American model still pervades many protected area systems. For example, of the categories recognized worldwide, four were derived largely from American law. These include Category Ib (Wilderness), II (National Parks); III (Natural Monuments) and to a lesser degree, Category IV (Wildlife Reserves, refuges, managed habitat areas, etc.). Categories V (Managed Landscapes and Seascapes) also had some precedent in the national protected area system of the United States, with its National Seashores, National Recreation Areas, etc. The nation that began the movement is thus still the most dominant player, at least in terms of general categories and many accepted management practices.
However, the internationalization of the protected areas movement created many opportunities and altered many previously accepted practices, which proved important for the continuous expansion of protected area systems. Allowing private in-holdings and some limited extractive uses from National Parks, for example, did not become recognized until the 1980s, and was only recognized by WCPA as a result of several national experiments to remove local people completely from Category II reserves. One such case happened in Nepal, where two local villages were removed from high-altitude Rara National Park, and their residents relocated into the western Terai (lowlands) of the country. Within a generation, over half of the original population had either left or died from malaria or other lowland diseases, and Nepal’s Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation ended any plans to remove larger (but still rather small) local populations from other Himalayan national parks such as Langtang and Everest (Heinen & Kattel, 1992). The international movement, and the international organization in the form of IUCN’s WCPA, was sensitive to these issues and adjusted Category II accordingly by allowing the zoning out of traditional villages (i.e. they are not recognized as part of the park, although they are surrounded by it). Similarly, the development of Category VI in 1994, and its subsequent worldwide expansion, was an important acknowledgement of the needs of many people in developing countries by recognizing that traditional local uses, and even some more modern commercial, uses of at least some protected areas should be permitted.
The literature on many facets of protected area management is similarly expanding greatly, and both space and topical content of this volume does not permit a closer look at some of the more scientific aspects. Suffice it is to say that the literature in conservation biology, a field only recognized since the 1980s, includes literally hundreds of well-done studies on issues such as placement of reserves, how to prioritize areas for protection based on scientific criteria, the appropriate size of reserves, the utility of maintaining natural corridors to promote gene flow between reserves, the placement and uses of buffer zones, etc. (Primack, 2006). Modern conservation agencies thus have at their disposal a great arsenal to help them plan the most efficient uses of scarce resources in conserving biodiversity. But conservation biology, first defined by Michael Soule (one of its founders) as a “mission oriented, crisis discipline” also recognizes that time is running out for many wild species on earth, and for the places that harbor them.
We are in the midst of a mass extinction, recognized by science as the 6th such event in the history of life on Earth, and the only one to be caused by one species: ourselves (Wilson, 1999). Modern humans threaten to have a commensurate impact, albeit more slowly, of the great asteroid that landed in the Western Caribbean and wiped out the dinosaurs - and about half of all other life forms - some 65 million years ago. While much conservation literature, and the Convention on Biological Diversity, also discusses the importance of ex situ conservation in the form of seed banks, zoos, botanical gardens, etc. (and doubtlessly they are all important), science and much of society recognizes that in situ conservation of species - and complexes where they occur naturally - is a much more cost effective and efficient way to conserve biodiversity. It has the added advantage of keeping ecological phenomena (e.g. predation, competition, migratory behavior, pollination) intact (or at least partly so) and allows for the evolutionary game to continue. Ex situ conservation provides, at best, a short term buffer.
So the international movement to conserve protected areas will increase over time. As the planet becomes increasingly crowded, it will remain the major way to conserve biodiversity and, ultimately, ourselves. New ideas - and ideals – are constantly expanding the field with more recent foci on issues such as landscape-level conservation across wide regions, a recent major increase in the study of invasive species and their removal, and better ways to manage areas already protected. But like the situation with so much else, the legal and policy instruments, both within nations and across nations in the form of international treaties and programs, lag greatly behind the science (e.g.\n\t\t\t\tJacobson and Weiss, 2000). To further this field, we will need much more land set aside, which may mean including even broader protected area categories recognized in the future, and we will need to pay much more attention and legal recognition to dynamic processes across landscapes. In short, we need to become much smarter and more adept at living with the functional natural world.
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IUCN – WCPA categories of protected areas",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"Table 1.",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. International regimes concerning protected areas",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1. The man and biosphere program",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.2. The ramsar convention ",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.3. The world heritage convention",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.4. The convention on the conservation of migratory species of wild animals",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.5. The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"4. General discussion and overview",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'AlonzoJ.HeinenJ. T.2011Miami-Dade County’s Environmentally Endangered Lands Program: Local efforts for a global cause. Natural Areas Journal 312500506'},{id:"B2",body:'BaralN.SternM.HeinenJ. 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'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"2969",title:"Protected Area Management",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Protected Area Management",slug:"protected-area-management",publishedDate:"August 8th 2012",bookSignature:"Barbara Sladonja",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2969.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88464",title:"Dr.",name:"Barbara",middleName:null,surname:"Sladonja",slug:"barbara-sladonja",fullName:"Barbara Sladonja"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"38182",title:"International Trends in Protected Areas Policy and Management",slug:"international-trends-in-protected-areas-policy-and-management",totalDownloads:1318,totalCrossrefCites:5,signatures:"Joel Heinen",authors:[{id:"139181",title:"Prof.",name:"Joel",middleName:null,surname:"Heinen",fullName:"Joel Heinen",slug:"joel-heinen"}]},{id:"38181",title:"New Issues on Protected Area Management",slug:"new-issues-on-protected-area-management",totalDownloads:1060,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"David Rodríguez-Rodríguez",authors:[{id:"141367",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Rodríguez-Rodríguez",fullName:"David Rodríguez-Rodríguez",slug:"david-rodriguez-rodriguez"}]},{id:"38192",title:"Managing the Wildlife Protected Areas in the Face of Global Economic Recession, HIV/AIDS Pandemic, Political Instability and Climate Change: Experience of Tanzania",slug:"managing-the-wildlife-protected-areas-in-the-face-of-global-economic-recession-hiv-aids-pandemic-pol",totalDownloads:1994,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Jafari R. 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A Case of Natura 2000 Sites in Poland",slug:"effectiveness-of-nature-conservation-a-case-of-natura-2000-sites-in-poland",totalDownloads:1145,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Małgorzata Grodzińska-Jurczak, Marianna Strzelecka, Sristi Kamal and Justyna Gutowska",authors:[{id:"151533",title:"Prof.",name:"Malgorzata",middleName:null,surname:"Grodzinska-Jurczak",fullName:"Malgorzata Grodzinska-Jurczak",slug:"malgorzata-grodzinska-jurczak"}]},{id:"38184",title:"Economic Valuation as a Framework Incentive to Enforce Conservation",slug:"economic-valuation-as-a-framework-incentive-to-enforce-conservation",totalDownloads:865,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Isabel Mendes",authors:[{id:"151548",title:"Prof.",name:"Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Mendes",fullName:"Isabel Mendes",slug:"isabel-mendes"}]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"2053",title:"Aquaculture and the Environment",subtitle:"A Shared Destiny",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"896dc149c63ab74b6f76141f3ed6535d",slug:"aquaculture-and-the-environment-a-shared-destiny",bookSignature:"Barbara Sladonja",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2053.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88464",title:"Dr.",name:"Barbara",surname:"Sladonja",slug:"barbara-sladonja",fullName:"Barbara Sladonja"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"25455",title:"Aquaculture and Environmental Protection in the Prioritary Mangrove Ecosystem of Baja California Peninsula",slug:"aquaculture-and-environmental-protection-in-the-prioritary-mangrove-ecosystem-of-baja-california-pen",signatures:"Magdalena Lagunas-Vazques, Giovanni Malagrino and Alfredo Ortega-Rubio",authors:[{id:"60732",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfredo",middleName:null,surname:"Ortega-Rubio",fullName:"Alfredo Ortega-Rubio",slug:"alfredo-ortega-rubio"},{id:"85097",title:"Dr.",name:"Magdalena",middleName:null,surname:"Lagunas",fullName:"Magdalena Lagunas",slug:"magdalena-lagunas"}]},{id:"25456",title:"Impact of Shrimp Farming on Mangrove Forest and Other Coastal Wetlands: The Case of Mexico",slug:"impact-of-shrimp-farming-on-mangrove-forest-and-other-coastal-wetlands-the-case-of-mexico",signatures:"César Alejandro Berlanga-Robles, Arturo Ruiz-Luna and Rafael Hernández-Guzmán",authors:[{id:"85123",title:"Dr.",name:"César Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Berlanga-Robles",fullName:"César Alejandro Berlanga-Robles",slug:"cesar-alejandro-berlanga-robles"},{id:"85187",title:"Dr.",name:"Arturo",middleName:null,surname:"Ruiz-Luna",fullName:"Arturo Ruiz-Luna",slug:"arturo-ruiz-luna"},{id:"85189",title:"MSc.",name:"Rafael",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández-Guzmán",fullName:"Rafael Hernández-Guzmán",slug:"rafael-hernandez-guzman"}]},{id:"25457",title:"Mangrove Revegetation Potentials of Brackish-Water Pond Areas in the Philippines",slug:"mangrove-revegetation-potentials-of-brackish-water-pond-areas-in-the-philippines",signatures:"Maricar S. Samson and Rene N. Rollon",authors:[{id:"73153",title:"Dr.",name:"Maricar",middleName:"Sacdalan",surname:"Samson",fullName:"Maricar Samson",slug:"maricar-samson"},{id:"73155",title:"Prof.",name:"Rene",middleName:"N",surname:"Rollon",fullName:"Rene Rollon",slug:"rene-rollon"}]},{id:"25458",title:"Manila Clam (Tapes philippinarum Adams & Reeve, 1852) in the Lagoon of Marano and Grado (Northern Adriatic Sea, Italy): Socio-Economic and Environmental Pathway of a Shell Farm",slug:"manila-clam-tapes-philippinarum-adams-reeve-1852-in-the-lagoon-of-marano-and-grado-northern-adriatic",signatures:"Barbara Sladonja, Nicola Bettoso, Aurelio Zentilin, Francesco Tamberlich and Alessandro Acquavita",authors:[{id:"88464",title:"Dr.",name:"Barbara",middleName:null,surname:"Sladonja",fullName:"Barbara Sladonja",slug:"barbara-sladonja"},{id:"89213",title:"Dr",name:"Francesco",middleName:null,surname:"Tamberlich",fullName:"Francesco Tamberlich",slug:"francesco-tamberlich"},{id:"89214",title:"BSc",name:"Nicola",middleName:null,surname:"Bettoso",fullName:"Nicola Bettoso",slug:"nicola-bettoso"},{id:"93843",title:"BSc.",name:"Aurelio",middleName:null,surname:"Zentilin",fullName:"Aurelio Zentilin",slug:"aurelio-zentilin"}]},{id:"25459",title:"The Investigation of the Hydrodynamics of an Artificial Reef",slug:"the-investigation-of-the-hydrodynamics-of-an-artificial-reef",signatures:"Yan Liu, Guohai Dong, Yunpeng Zhao, Changtao Guan and Yucheng Li",authors:[{id:"80650",title:"Prof.",name:"Guo-Hai",middleName:null,surname:"Dong",fullName:"Guo-Hai Dong",slug:"guo-hai-dong"},{id:"84719",title:"Dr.",name:"Yun-Peng",middleName:null,surname:"Zhao",fullName:"Yun-Peng Zhao",slug:"yun-peng-zhao"},{id:"84727",title:"Mr.",name:"Yan",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",fullName:"Yan Liu",slug:"yan-liu"}]},{id:"25460",title:"Integrated Multitrophic Aquaculture: Filter Feeders Bivalves as Efficient Reducers of Wastes Derived from Coastal Aquaculture Assessed with Stable Isotope Analyses",slug:"integrated-multitrophic-aquaculture-filter-feeders-bivalves-as-efficient-reducers-of-wastes-derived-",signatures:"Salud Deudero, Ariadna Tor, Carme Alomar, José Maria Valencia, Piluca Sarriera and Andreu Blanco",authors:[{id:"73944",title:"Dr.",name:"Salud",middleName:null,surname:"Deudero",fullName:"Salud Deudero",slug:"salud-deudero"},{id:"83773",title:"MSc.",name:"Ariadna",middleName:null,surname:"Tor",fullName:"Ariadna Tor",slug:"ariadna-tor"},{id:"83774",title:"MSc.",name:"Piluca",middleName:null,surname:"Sarriera",fullName:"Piluca Sarriera",slug:"piluca-sarriera"},{id:"83775",title:"MSc.",name:"Andreu",middleName:null,surname:"Blanco",fullName:"Andreu Blanco",slug:"andreu-blanco"}]},{id:"25461",title:"Aquaculture Water Quality for Small-Scale Producers",slug:"aquaculture-water-quality-for-small-scale-producers",signatures:"Oscar Alatorre-Jácome, Fernando García-Trejo, Enrique Rico-García and Genaro M. 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Richert",authors:[{id:"75662",title:"Prof.",name:"Joseph",middleName:null,surname:"Sneddon",fullName:"Joseph Sneddon",slug:"joseph-sneddon"},{id:"79805",title:"Mr.",name:"Joel",middleName:null,surname:"Richert",fullName:"Joel Richert",slug:"joel-richert"}]},{id:"25465",title:"Chilean Salmon Farming on the Horizon of Sustainability: Review of the Development of a Highly Intensive Production, the ISA Crisis and Implemented Actions to Reconstruct a More Sustainable Aquaculture Industry",slug:"chilean-salmon-farming-on-the-horizon-of-sustainability-review-of-the-development-of-a-highly-intens",signatures:"Pablo Ibieta, Valentina Tapia, Claudia Venegas, Mary Hausdorf and Harald Takle",authors:[{id:"83697",title:"Dr.",name:"Harald",middleName:null,surname:"Takle",fullName:"Harald Takle",slug:"harald-takle"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"66196",title:"Analysis of Energy Relations between Noise and Vibration Produced by a Low-Field MRI Device",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85275",slug:"analysis-of-energy-relations-between-noise-and-vibration-produced-by-a-low-field-mri-device",body:'\n
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1. Introduction
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The magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) method is successfully used for monitoring progress in therapy after vocal fold cancer surgery or for monitoring of the implanted cartilage in legs or arms, and/or the process of regeneration in different tissues, etc. In the case of the open-air MRI device, a weak magnetic field (up to 0.2 T) is usually generated by a pair of permanent magnets. Between these magnets, the gradient system consisting of 2 × 3 planar coils is situated together with the RF receiving/transmitting coils surrounding the tested object [1]. Slices of a tested object are selected in 3D coordinates by a gradient system consisting of planar coils parallel to the magnets. A rapidly changing current flowing through the gradient coils produces significant mechanical vibration [2, 3] causing blurring of images of thin layer samples and acoustic noise significantly degrading the speech signal recorded simultaneously during MR scanning of the human vocal tract [4, 5]. Acoustic noise has always negative physiological and psychological consequences on the exposed person depending on the noise intensity and time duration of noise exposure [6]. In order to minimize these negative factors, this work is focused on mapping of energy relationship between vibration and noise signals measured in the MRI scanning area and its vicinity with the final aim to choose the proper scan sequence and its parameters—repetition time (TR), echo time (TE), orientation of scan slices, etc. Apart from real-time recording of the vibration and noise signals, the sound pressure level (SPL) was measured by a sound level meter using frequency weighting to match human perception of noise. The measured data and recorded signals were further processed off-line—the determined energetic features were statistically analyzed and the results were compared visually and numerically.
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2. Subject and methods
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As mentioned above, the open-air MRI device is primarily used in medical diagnostics, so designation of three planes formed by x, y, and z axes follows medical terminology used for human body planes [7]. The plane dividing the body vertically into ventral (anterior) and dorsal (posterior) parts is called a coronal (frontal) plane. The second vertical plane dividing the body to left and right sides is a sagittal plane. The horizontal plane that divides the human body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) parts is called a transverse (cross-sectional) plane. During sequence execution, the gradient coil pair corresponding to the chosen scan orientation is activated, it consequently vibrates, and acoustic noise is radiated in the surrounding air. Two basic types of sequences called spin echo (SE) and gradient echo (GE) arising from MRI physical principles [8] are preferred in this type of MRI device. The volume size of the tested object/subject is another important factor having an influence on the intensity of the produced vibration and noise in the scanning area of the MRI device. A tested person/sample/phantom as a part of the whole vibrating mechanical system changes the overall mass, stiffness, and damping by loading the lower gradient coil structure in the patient’s bed.
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2.1 Sensors for measurement in a weak magnetic field environment
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If the vibration and noise signals are recorded during MR scanning, interaction with the stationary magnetic field B0 in the scanning area must be eliminated; otherwise, the quality of the acquired images would not be preserved. It means that the vibration sensors placed in the MRI scanning area with the static magnetic field cannot contain any part made from a ferromagnetic material. In MRI equipment, working with a weak magnetic field the interaction problem can be solved by a proper choice of the measuring device and its arrangement. Usually, it is sufficient to locate it in an adequate distance from the noise signal source outside the magnetic field area. Since the noise intensity as well as its spectral properties depends on the position of the measuring instrument, the recording/measuring microphone must have high sensitivity, an appropriate pickup pattern, type of the microphone, and a position in regard to the central point of the MRI scanning area (distance, direction angle, working height). The best solution is to use a microphone with a variable pattern having two diaphragms that share a common back plate. Such a microphone behaves as two back-to-back cardioid microphones. If one membrane is connected to a constant polarization voltage and the second one is polarized by a variable voltage, principally any directional pattern can be created. Basic omnidirectional, figure-of-eight, and cardioid patterns corresponding to both same voltages of the same polarity, the opposite polarity, and one zero voltage are represented in an ideal form by a polar equation:
where A = 1, B = 0 for omnidirectional, A = 0, B = 1 for figure-of-eight, and A = 0.5, B = 0.5 for cardioid directional patterns.
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The noise distribution in the scanning area of the MRI equipment and its neighborhood has to be mapped prior to the selection of the proper recording microphone location. C-weighting was used for SPL measurement to accommodate the objective noise intensity to the subjective loudness at high sound levels. The C-weighting filter frequency response in s-domain is given by the equation
where f1 = 20.6 Hz, f2 = 12,194 Hz, and 20 log G = 0.062 dB [9]. To get the transfer function of the digital IIR filter, the frequency scale is warped by the bilinear transform from s-plane to z-plane
The sensors measuring vibration signals are placed inside the MRI scanning area where the basic stationary magnetic field of the MRI device is present together with the superimposed pulse magnetic field generated by the gradient system as well as the high voltage field originated during activation of the excitation RF coil. These fields would disturb a signal picked up by the sensor from ferromagnetic material or damage electronics integrated with the sensor [10, 11], which can be avoided using the vibration sensor with a piezoelectric transducer. The sensor must have good sensitivity and maximally flat frequency response with the frequency range covering the vibration and noise harmonic frequencies that fall into the low band due to frequency-limited gradient pulses. As a similar frequency range can be found in basic processing of speech signals, it is very important in the case of 3D scanning of the human vocal tract by MRI with parallel recording of a speech signal [5].
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The mentioned requirements imposed on the vibration sensor can be met by the sensor for acoustic musical instruments [12]. Its first usage in the magnetic field environment must be preceded by a calibration procedure and a measurement of its sensitivity and frequency response. The measured frequency response is used to determine a correction curve for filtering of the picked-up vibration signal and consecutive linearization operation that has effect on correctness of all analyzed spectral properties determined from the vibration signals—see the block diagram in Figure 1. The correction filter is proposed by a standard procedure of second-order shelving filter design [13]:
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Figure 1.
Block diagram of processing of the picked-up vibration signal.
For the sampling frequency fs, the polynomial filter coefficients a0,1,2 and b0,1,2 are derived from three input parameters—gain G, mid-point frequency fc, and quality factor Q—in the following manner:
The frame energy is estimated by the first cepstral coefficient c0 or the autocorrelation coefficient r0 after processing the signal x(n) in frames using NFFT-point FFT to compute magnitude spectrum and power spectrum |S(k)|2,
For basic visual comparison of spectral properties of the recorded vibration and noise signals, the periodogram representing an estimate of the power spectral density (PSD) can be successfully used. The basic spectral properties can be determined from the spectral envelope, and subsequently, the histograms of spectral values can be calculated and compared. They also include the basic resonance frequencies FV1 and FV2 and their ratios, and the spectral decrease (tilt-Stilt) as the degree of fall of the power spectrum calculated by a linear regression using the mean square method.
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The supplementary spectral features describe the shape of the power spectrum of the noise signal. The spectral centroid (Scentr) determines a center of gravity of the spectrum—the average frequency weighted by the values of the normalized energy of each frequency component in the spectrum
The spectral flatness (Sflat) is useful to determine the degree of periodicity in the signal, and it can be calculated as a ratio of the geometric and the arithmetic mean values of the power spectrum
The spectral entropy is a measure of spectral distribution. It quantifies a degree of randomness of spectral probability density represented by normalized frequency components of the spectrum. The Shannon spectral entropy (SHE) can be calculated using the following formulas:
3. Description of performed measurements and experiments
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The performed measurements were focused on analysis of vibration and noise conditions in the scanning area and in the neighborhood of the open-air MRI equipment E-scan Opera by Esaote S.p.A., Genoa [15] located at the Institute of Measurement Science, SAS, Bratislava. The experiments were realized in four steps: in the preliminary phase, the calibration was carried out, and the sensitivity and the frequency response of the used vibration sensor were determined. Next, the noise was measured using different directional patterns of the pickup microphone and the influence of the pickup pattern on the spectral properties of the recorded noise signal was analyzed. Then, the main vibration and noise measurement and recording experiment were realized. The recorded signals were subsequently processed and statistically analyzed. Finally, a detailed analysis of the influence of chosen scan parameters on the time duration of the used MR sequences and on the quality factor of the MR images was performed with the aim to find a suitable setting to minimize exposition of the examined persons to noise and vibration.
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3.1 Calibration of vibration sensors suitable for measurement in the low magnetic field environment
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The calibration and measurement experiments were realized with the help of the main devices: the Audio Precision System One including two programmable input and output channels for simultaneous measurement of electrical signals from the vibration sensors mounted on the Vibration Exciter ESE 201 located at the Institute of Electronics and Photonics, FEE&IT SUT, Bratislava. As a reference sensor, the accelerometer KD35a from the company Metra Mess- und Frequenztechnik was used. The sensor sensitivity of this standardized accelerometer is guaranteed, and it operates over a frequency range from 50 Hz to 10 kHz. Three types of vibration sensors having good response in the lower audio frequency range up to 2 kHz were tested within this work:
Cejpek SB-1 with the thin circular brass disc of 0.25-mm thickness and 27.5-mm diameter designed primarily for pickup of a musical sound of a contrabass (further called as “SB-1”),
Shadow SH-SB2 double bass pickup with two disc transducers of 0.5-mm thickness and 22.5-mm diameter (further called as “SB2a,b”),
RFT heart microphone device HM 692 comprising a piezo-electric element integrated in the 1-mm thin aluminum metal cover with 30-mm diameter (further called as “HM692”).
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The sensors were mounted on the plate of the vibration exciter as shown in the detailed photo of the arrangement of the sensors in the right part of Figure 2. The output voltage for supply of this exciter and the signal from the calibrated sensors were checked parallel by the digital oscilloscope Rigol DS1102E. Two types of the parameters of the vibration sensors were measured and compared in our experiment:
relative sensitivity at the reference frequency fref = 125 Hz,
frequency response in the range from 20 Hz to 2 kHz at the chosen output voltage of the vibration exciter (UexcBa0 = 360 mV).
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Figure 2.
Principle block diagram of the used calibration and measurement method together with a detailed photo of practical mounting of the sensors on the plate of the vibration exciter.
\n
Dependence of the sensor’s sensitivity on the excitation voltage for all three sensors is presented in Figure 3a. The reference voltage sensitivity Ba0 of the SB-1 sensor was determined from this graph. Comparison in Figure 3b shows that the measured frequency responses of SB-1, SB2ab, and HM692 are rotated by a slope of about −20 dB per decade with respect to the frequency response of KD35a. As the reference KD35a is an acceleration sensor, it emerges that the remaining three sensors are velocity ones. The calculated inverse frequency response of the SB-1 is drawn by the magenta dashed line together with the correction frequency response obtained by shelving equalization that is plotted by the cyan dot-dash line in Figure 3c. The effect of this shelving filter on the time-domain vibration signal, its frequency-domain periodogram with chosen spectral features, and the spectrogram can be seen in Figure 4.
\n
Figure 3.
Graph of: (a) measured sensors’ sensitivities, (b) frequency responses in the range 20 Hz to 2 kHz measured and recalculated in [dB], and (c) correction frequency response for the SB-1 sensor linearization using the shelving filter (b): fref = 125 Hz, UexcBa0 = 360 mV, Ba0 = {3.69 (KD35a), 12.9 (SB-1), 5.65 (SB2ab), and 2.45 (HM692)} mV/m s−2.
\n
Figure 4.
The vibration signal picked up by the SB-1 sensor without/with the applied shelving filter (left/right set of graphs): selected 150-ms ROI of the signal together with the calculated RMS value (a), corresponding periodogram including the spectral decrease-tilt (b), and spectrogram calculated from the whole 8-s duration of the vibration signal (c); Q = 0.115, fc = 120, G = 30, and fs = 16 kHz.
\n
\n
\n
3.2 Analysis of the influence of the directional pattern of the pickup microphone on the spectral properties of the recorded noise signal
\n
Acoustic noise measurement in the MRI neighborhood was realized in the directions of 30, 90, and 150°, at the distance of 60 cm from the central point of the scanning area, and at the height of 85 cm from the floor—see the principal arrangement photo in Figure 5. In this noise recording part of the experiment, the pick-up Behringer dual-diaphragm condenser microphone B-2 PRO with switchable cardioid, omnidirectional, or figure-of-eight pickup patterns was used—see the directional patterns from the manufacturer’s specification sheet in Figure 6.
\n
Figure 5.
Principal arrangement of acoustic noise recording in the vicinity of the scanning area of the open-air MRI device Opera: the pickup microphone situated at 30, 90, and 150°.
\n
Figure 6.
Example of directional patterns: cardioid (a), omnidirectional (b), and figure-of-eight (c) for the Behringer condenser microphone B-2 PRO.
\n
Subsequently, the spectral properties of the recorded noise signals were analyzed using the mentioned three microphone pickup patterns. The obtained results are presented for visual comparison in Figure 7 and summarized in numerical form in Table 1; the output statistical parameters of the supplementary spectral features are shown in Figure 8.
\n
Figure 7.
Comparison of spectral envelope values in [dB] of the noise signals with different directional patterns of the pickup microphone placed at different positions: histograms for omnidirectional, cardioid, and figure-of-eight patterns—signals recorded at 90° (a) and histograms for signals recorded at 30, 90, and 150°—with the cardioid directional pattern (b).
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Microphone pickup pattern/position
\n
At 30°
\n
At 90°
\n
At 150°
\n
\n
\n
Signal RMS [−]
\n
Stilt [deg]
\n
Signal RMS [−]
\n
Stilt [deg]
\n
Signal RMS [−]
\n
Stilt [deg]
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Omnidirectional
\n
15.3
\n
−16
\n
13.5
\n
−15
\n
14.2
\n
−13
\n
\n
\n
Cardioid
\n
15.2
\n
−11
\n
13.3
\n
−10
\n
14.0
\n
−4
\n
\n
\n
Figure-of-eight
\n
14.1
\n
−18
\n
13.1
\n
−13
\n
13.0
\n
−9
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Comparison of the noise spectral parameters of the recordings picked up by the microphone with different directional patterns placed at different positions.
\n
Figure 8.
Supplementary spectral properties of the recorded noise signals with different directional patterns of the pickup microphone—(a) omnidirectional, (b) cardioid, and (c) figure-of-eight; box-plots of the basic statistical parameters in the upper graphs, corresponding histograms of values of the spectral centroid, flatness, and Shannon entropy (in the lower set of graphs); signal recorded at 90°.
\n
\n
\n
3.3 Mapping of the acoustic noise SPL in the MRI device vicinity
\n
The acoustic noise SPL was measured using the multifunction environment meter Lafayette DT 8820. In the first step, the dependence of the SPL noise values on the distances DX was mapped. The measuring device was located successively at the distances of {45, 50, 55, 60, 70, 80, 90} cm from the central point of the scanning area, at the height of 85 cm from the floor (between both gradient coils), and in the direction of 30° from the left corner near the temperature stabilizer, producing majority of the background noise SPL0—see the experiment arrangement photo in Figure 9. Comparison of the resulting SPL values obtained during execution of two basic SE and GE types of the MR scan sequences with the background noise SPL (with no sequence running) is presented in the graphs of Figure 10.
\n
Figure 9.
Arrangement photo of SPL noise measurement and parallel recording of noise and vibration signals of the open-air MRI device Opera: (1) RF knee coil with a spherical water phantom, (2) vibration sensor, (3) pick-up microphone, (4) SPL noise meter, and (5) principal angle diagram of the scanning area.
\n
Figure 10.
Mapping of the acoustic noise SPL at different distances DX = {45, 50, 55, 60, 70, 80, 90} cm from the middle of the scanning area of the MRI device for SE/GE sequences: (a) comparison of the SPL values with those of the background noise (SPL0) and (b) box-plot of their basic statistical parameters.
\n
\n
\n
3.4 Main measurement experiments with the open-air MRI device
\n
Within the scope of our main experiments, the baseline measurement and recording of the vibration and noise signals were carried out during the execution of the MR scan sequences. For noninvasive testing of the subject/object, usually two basic classes of scan sequences are used to take MR images of human body parts with high quality:
high-resolution (Hi-Res) sequences using the basic SE/GE MRI scan methods [16],
special 3D sequences used for building or reconstruction of 3D models of biological or botanical issues [17].
\n
Five types of MR scan sequences were tested in total in the investigated MRI device Opera: SE 18 HF, SE 26 HF, GE T2 (as a typical representative of the “Hi-Res” class), SS-3Dbalanced, and 3D-CE [15]. For each of these scan sequences, different settings of the scan parameters are analyzed:
orientation of scan slices TORIENT = {Coronal, Sagittal, Transversal}—see visualization of the energy features of the vibration and noise signals in Figure 11,
echo times TTE = {18, 22, 26} ms—compare the numerical results in Table 2,
repetition time TTR = {60, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500} ms—documented by comparison of the basic statistical parameters calculated from the vibration and noise signals in Figure 12,
mass of the object inserted in the MRI device scanning area {testing phantom/lying person}—see graphical comparison of the mean values of the energy and basic spectral properties of the vibration signal in Figure 14.
\n
Figure 11.
Visualization of energy features of the vibration and noise signals for different slice orientations: {coronal, sagittal, transversal}: (a) signal RMS together with noise SPL values, (b) mean Enc0, (c) mean Enr0, and (d) mean EnTK; used Hi-Res SE scan sequence with TE = 18 ms and TR = 500 ms.
Comparison of the mean energetic parameters of the vibration signal and the acoustic noise SPL (together with std. values in parentheses) for different settings of the TE time.
Used Hi-Res SE-HF scan sequences with TR = 500 ms and sagittal orientation.
Measured at the distance of DX = 60 cm and the angle of 30°, SPL0 = 56 dB.
\n
Figure 12.
Visualization of energetic relations of the vibration (upper set of graphs) and noise (lower set) signals for different TR times; {60, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500} ms—basic statistical parameters of: (a) Enc0, (b) Enr0, and (c) EnTK; used Hi-Res GE-T2 sequences with TE = 22 ms and sagittal orientation.
\n
The slice orientations as well as the TE and TR parameters were set manually to perform measurement and comparison in the range enabled by the current sequence [15]. Practical realization of the last part of the experiment consists in placing a testing phantom or a head and a neck of a lying person in the RF scan coil between the upper and lower gradient coils of the MRI device. While the total weight of the used testing phantom in the first part of the experiment was 0.75 kg, the weighs of one male and one female voluntary person lying on the patient bed of the MRI device were approx. 80 and 55 kg.
\n
The multisignal measurement comprised real-time recording of the vibration signal by the piezoelectric sensor located inside the scanning area of the investigated MRI device and of the acoustic noise signal using the microphone in its proximity, and the additional measurement to check the noise SPL. In this part of the measurement, the microphone stand with the Behringer dual-diaphragm condenser microphone B-2 PRO was placed together with the SPL meter at the distance of DX = 60 cm, and the 140-mm diameter spherical testing phantom filled with doped water [15] was placed inside the knee RF coil. The SB-1 sensor [12, 18] was used to pick up the vibration signal inside the scanning area of the MRI Opera device. Practical position of the sensing disc was on the surface of the plastic holder of the bottom gradient coils, as can be seen in the arrangement photo in Figure 9. The stored recordings were further processed in order to evaluate and compare the measured signal properties. All the noise and vibration signals were recorded with the help of the Behringer Podcast Studio equipment. The signals with duration of about 15 s sampled at 32 kHz were next processed in the sound editor program Sound Forge 9.0a.
\n
\n
\n
3.5 Analysis of the influence of the scan parameters on the time duration and the quality factor of the MR images
\n
The chosen type of the scanning sequence and the values of the resulting basic scan parameters (TR and TE) have significant influence on the scanning time. These parameters can also be changed manually, but their final values depend on the setting of the other scan parameters—number of slices, slice thickness, number of used accumulations NACC of the free induction decay (FID) signal [8, 16], etc. Practical demonstration of the acquired MR images with increasing quality factor (QF) shows greater range of visible details in the images for three different MR scans of the human vocal tract in Figure 15.
\n
The console program “ESAMRI” of the MRI device control software [15] was used to carry out the following two parts of the analysis and comparison:
Influence of the basic setting of scan parameters on the final quality factor of MR images and on the time duration TDUR of the scan sequence execution for:
different slice thickness of {2, 2.5, 3, 4, 4.5, 5, 10} mm—the predicted QF values are presented in Table 3 for the scan sequence Hi-Res SE18 HE,
different repetition times of {60, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500} ms together with NACC—see visualization of the graphical results using the “Hi-Res” sequences of SE and GE types in Figure 16, and TDUR values in Table 4 for both Hi-Res sequences types,
increased number of applied accumulations of the FID signal: NACC = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 16}—the predicted values of QF and TDUR are shown numerically in Table 5 for the scan sequence Hi-Res SE18 HE.
Comparison of the predicted QF and TDUR values for “3D” types of MR scan sequences—numerical matching of the results for the changed number of FID signal accumulations and different number of 3D phases using:
the SS-3D-balanced 10 sequences—see the values in Table 6,
Influence of the slice thickness on the predicted quality factor of the MR image and on the time duration for the scan sequence Hi-Res SE18 HE (TR = 500 ms, NACC = 1).
TDUR = 1 min 39 sec in all cases.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
NACC [−]
\n
TR [ms]
\n
\n
\n
60
\n
100
\n
200
\n
300
\n
400
\n
500
\n
\n\n\n
\n
1
\n
0:14
\n
0:22
\n
0:41
\n
1:09
\n
1:20
\n
1:39
\n
\n
\n
8
\n
1:35
\n
2:37
\n
5:12
\n
7:46
\n
10:20
\n
12:55
\n
\n
\n
16
\n
3:08
\n
5:11
\n
10:20
\n
15:29
\n
20:38
\n
25:47
\n
\n\n
Table 4.
Dependence of the time duration TDUR [min:sec] on setting of TR and NACC parameters—merged values for both Hi-Res sequences of SE and GE types; slice thickness = 4.5 mm.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Parameters
\n
NACC [−]
\n
\n
\n
1
\n
2
\n
3
\n
4
\n
5
\n
6
\n
7
\n
8
\n
10
\n
16
\n
\n\n\n
\n
QF [−]
\n
14
\n
20
\n
24
\n
28
\n
31
\n
34
\n
37
\n
40
\n
44
\n
56
\n
\n
\n
TDUR [min:sec]
\n
0:14
\n
0:26
\n
0:37
\n
0:49
\n
1:00
\n
1:12
\n
1:24
\n
1:35
\n
1:58
\n
3:08
\n
\n\n
Table 5.
Influence of the number of FID signal accumulations on the predicted quality factor of the MR image and on the time duration for the scan sequence Hi-Res SE18 HE (TR = 60 ms and slice thickness = 10 mm).
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Parameters
\n
NACC [−]
\n
\n
\n
1
\n
2
\n
3
\n
4
\n
8
\n
16
\n
\n\n\n
\n
QF [−]
\n
59 (102)
\n
84 (144)
\n
103
\n
118 (204)
\n
167
\n
237
\n
\n
\n
TDUR [min:sec]
\n
3:14 (5:36)
\n
6:25 (11:04)
\n
9:37
\n
12:48 (22:00)
\n
25:34
\n
51:05
\n
\n\n
Table 6.
Influence of the number of FID signal accumulations on the predicted quality factor of the MR image and on the time duration for the scan sequence SS-3D balanced (TE = 10 ms and TR = 20 ms) and 3D phases = 24 (for 42 phases, the values are in parentheses).
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Parameters
\n
NACC [−]
\n
\n
\n
1
\n
2
\n
3
\n
4
\n
8
\n
16
\n
\n\n\n
\n
QF [−]
\n
134 (79)
\n
189 (122)
\n
231
\n
267 (137)
\n
378
\n
534
\n
\n
\n
TDUR [min:sec]
\n
1:04 (9:53)
\n
2:00 (19:44)
\n
2:56
\n
3:52 (29:35)
\n
7:36
\n
15:04
\n
\n\n
Table 7.
Influence of the number of FID signal accumulations on the predicted quality factor of the MR image and on the time duration for the scan sequence 3D-CE (TE = 30 ms and TR = 40 ms) and 3D phases = 8 (for 72 phases the values are in parentheses).
\n
\n
\n
\n
4. Discussion of the obtained results
\n
The performed calibration and frequency response linearization of the piezoelectric vibration sensor enables precise pick-up of vibration signals in the environment of a weak stationary magnetic field and a high-voltage RF signal disturbance that is observed in the scanning area of the MRI device.
\n
Our measurements have shown an inverse relationship between the diameter of the used sensor and the minimum frequency of the vibration picked up from the measured surface. The sensor HM692 with a massive aluminum microphone capsule used in phonocardiography had the lowest sensitivity and caused the greatest decrease of the maximum frequency. The calibration of the SB2 sensor was carried out in parallel for both pickup elements. The measured frequency responses SB2a,b are practically identical with nonlinear decrease in the range of low frequencies from 35 to 100 Hz—see the frequency responses in Figure 3a. In 3D scanning of the human vocal tract [4, 5, 19], the MRI device generates the acoustic noise of frequencies in the range from 25 Hz to 3.5 kHz that is similar to the basic frequency range of speech signals. For this reason, the SB-1 sensor was chosen for its greatest size allowing the best low-frequency sensitivity.
\n
Comparison of noise spectral properties recorded for different types of directional patterns of the pickup microphone yields the best recording conditions for the cardioid pattern (minimum spectral decrease as shown by the obtained results in Table 1). On the other hand, dispersion of the spectral envelope values is similar for all three analyzed pattern types as can be seen in histograms in Figure 7a. Comparison of different microphone positions has shown that at 30°, the background noise from the MRI temperature stabilizer degrades the recording (see the signal RMS values in Table 1) and the direction of 150° is a bit unnatural from the point of view of an examined person lying in the MRI scanning area. Therefore, the direction chosen as the best for noise and speech signal recording was in the main horizontal axis of the MRI device (at 90°). In addition, at this position, the lowest values of the noise signal RMS were measured and the smallest dispersion of the spectral envelopes was observed—see the green dash-dot line in Figure 7b.
\n
The results of a detailed measurement of the acoustic noise intensity at different distances from the central point of the scanning area for the SE and GE “Hi-Res” sequences are presented in Figure 10. The GE sequence produces noise with a slightly higher intensity, then the SE one (approx. 3-dB difference in the nearest location of 45 cm from the center of the scanning area) and variation of the SPL values depending on the measuring distance is also greater as seen in the box-plot graph in Figure 10b. The minimum distance was set to 45 cm in order to eliminate interaction of metal parts of the SPL meter with the static magnetic field of the MRI device. If the SPL meter was placed near the center, the field homogeneity would be disrupted and the warning message on the MRI control console would be followed by disabling to run any scan sequence by the software system [14]. The maximum measuring distance was set to 90 cm where the measured MRI noise was masked by the background noise originating from the temperature stabilizer. In the middle of the investigated measuring distances, the SPL values were similar for both types of MR scan sequences, so the working distance of 60 cm was used for all further measurements.
\n
Next investigation of the recorded vibration and noise signals was aimed at the influence of the choice of the slice orientation on the energy of the produced vibration and noise signals. This effect is large—the maximum can be found in the sagittal plane and the minimum in the transversal plane for the vibration signals, and in the coronal plane for the noise signals—see the column charts in Figure 11. Therefore, the remaining experiments used only the sagittal orientation.
\n
In accordance with our previous research [12, 18] the current experiments confirm the influence of the TE and TR times on the vibration and acoustic noise properties. The TE time extension causes fall of the final signal energy as documented by raised all the four determined vibration energetic parameters as well as the achieved SPL noise values in Table 2. The influence of the TR time determining the basic dominant frequency can be seen in box-plot graphs in Figure 12. This visualization of the basic statistical parameters obtained from analysis of vibration and noise signals shows the highest values of all energetic parameters for the shortest TR times (60 or 100 ms).
\n
Comparison of energetic relations of the vibration and noise signals for different sequence types brings ambiguous results and shows only small differences—see three bar-graphs in Figure 13. The 3D sequence “SS-3Dbalanced” differs from the remaining sequence types by reverse behavior: while the Enc0 and Enr0 parameters indicate the minimum values, the EnTK achieves the maximum ones (see the graph in Figure 13c). This situation can be caused by the minimum settings of the TE and TR times that were used for the “Hi-Res” types to be comparable with the “3D” types with slightly atypical values being out of the normal range of use although the control software enables their setting [15].
\n
Figure 13.
Comparison of energetic relations of vibration and noise signals for different sequence types: {Hi-Res SE-HE, Hi-Res SE-HF, Hi-Res GE-T2, SS-3Dbal, 3D-CE}: (a) mean Enc0, (b) mean Enr0, and (c) mean EnTK; in all cases, the sagittal slice orientation was used.
\n
Next comparison of energetic relations of the vibration and noise signals for different objects placed in the scanning area of the MRI device shows a relatively high effect of the mass put upon the bottom plastic holder of the gradient coils. The effective weight of the person exerting a pressure on the bottom plastic holder of the gradient coils attenuates the vibration pulses partially. The mass effect is demonstrated by increase of the vibration signal energy based on Enc0 parameter with its maximum for the lying male person with the weight of 80 kg (see the bar-graph in Figure 14a). It is also demonstrated in the spectral properties of the vibration signal as shown by lower spectral decrease in Figure 14a and by shift of the first two dominant frequencies toward higher values—see the mutual FV1,2 position in Figure 14c.
\n
Figure 14.
Comparison of mean values of the energy and basic spectral properties of the vibration signal for different objects placed in the scanning area of the MRI device: (a) energy Enc0, (b) box-plot of basic statistical properties for the spectral decrease values, and (c) mutual values of the frequencies FV1 and FV2; used Hi-Res SE-HF scan sequences with TE = 18 ms, TR = 400 ms, and sagittal orientation.
\n
Figure 15.
Examples of MR images of the human vocal tract obtained with different values of the quality factor: (a) scan sequence Hi-Res SE26 HF (TR = 500), slice thickness = 4.5 mm, QF = 100, (b) scan sequence Hi-Res SE26 HF (TR = 500), slice thickness = 7.5 mm, QF = 196, and (c) scan sequence 3D SSF 30 (TR = 10), slice thickness = 9.4 mm, and QF = 398.
\n
Figure 16.
Influence of the TR time and the number of FID signal accumulations on the predicted image quality factor for the Hi-Res sequences of—(a) SE and (b) GE type; slice thickness = 4.5 mm.
\n
Results of the preliminary analysis of influence of the slice thickness document that its increase has a positive effect on the predicted quality factor of MR images—compare the values in Table 3. Next comparison shows a positive influence of increase in the TR time on the quality factor, and this effect is more pronounced when using the SE sequence type—see the left graph in Figure 16. This figure also documents significant dependence between the applied number of FID signal accumulations and the predicted QF value. Also, in this case, the increase of QF is more distinctive for the SE sequences. Values in Table 4 describe the influence of TR and NACC values on the final time duration of the executed scan sequence. While the increased TR causes only moderately greater overall time duration, the changed NACC parameter has comparably higher influence on the final time duration. This effect is also shown in a detailed comparison of numerical results for different NACC values in Table 5. For the “Hi-Res” sequence types, the increase of the parameter NACC from 2 to 16 results in about 2.8 times greater value of QF but 6 times greater than that of TDUR. For the “3D” sequence types, the increase of the resulting time duration is also affected by the choice of the number of 3D phases (equivalent to the number of slices with selection of the slice thickness for the “Hi-Res” sequences) in parallel as shown in Tables 6 and 7.
\n
\n
\n
5. Conclusions
\n
Acoustic noise measurement in the vicinity of the investigated open-air MRI device yielded the maximum sound pressure level of about 82 dB(C) at the distance of 45 cm from the central point of the MRI scanning area for the GE scan sequence with short TE and TR times and the sagittal orientation of scan slices. For examination of other parts of the human body (leg, arm, etc.), the head is not inserted directly between the upper and the lower gradient coils, so the noise level is much lower as documented for different distances in Figure 10. Finally, the scanning times for the mostly used 3D or Hi-Res sequences are in general less than 15 minutes (typically about 3–5 minutes depending on the chosen number and thickness of the slices)—exposition of the examined person and his/her hearing system to the noise and vibration is not significant.
\n
If there is need for more detailed MR images with higher quality factor QF (e.g., in scanning of particular parts of the human brain, the eye, the middle and inner ear, etc.), the time duration TDUR can be much longer (more than half an hour). In such a case, the long exposition to the vibration and acoustic noise may impose great physiological and psychological stress on the patient. Therefore, these scan parameters should be chosen only in the urgent cases.
\n
The results of the performed measurements are useful for precise description of the process of the mechanical vibration excitation and the acoustic noise radiation in the scanning area and in the vicinity of the MRI device. The measurement results and comparisons with a similar low-field MRI tomograph can be used in optimization of the acoustic noise suppression in the speech recorded parallel with application of MRI scanning for 3D modeling of the human vocal tract [19].
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
This work was funded by the Slovak Scientific Grant Agency project VEGA 2/0001/17 and the Ministry of Education, Science, Research, and Sports of the Slovak Republic VEGA 1/0905/17, and the Slovak Research and Development Agency, project no. APVV-15-0029.
\n
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"magnetic resonance imaging, acoustic noise, mechanical vibration, statistical analysis, low magnetic field environment",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/66196.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/66196.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66196",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66196",totalDownloads:143,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,dateSubmitted:"December 17th 2018",dateReviewed:"February 18th 2019",datePrePublished:"March 19th 2019",datePublished:"October 2nd 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) tomography is often used for noninvasive scanning of various parts of a human body without undesirable effects present in X-ray computed tomography. In MRI devices, slices of a tested subject are selected in 3D coordinates by a system of gradient coils. The current flowing through these coils changes rapidly, which results in mechanical vibration. This vibration is significant also in the equipment working with a low magnetic field, and it causes image blurring of thin layer samples and acoustic noise significantly degrading a speech signal recorded simultaneously during MR scanning of the vocal tract. There are always negative physiological and psychological effects on a person exposed to vibration and acoustic noise. In order to minimize these negative impacts depending on intensity and time duration of exposition, we mapped relationship between energy of vibration and noise signals measured in the MRI scanning area and its vicinity.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/66196",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/66196",signatures:"Jiří Přibil, Anna Přibilová and Ivan Frollo",book:{id:"7778",title:"Noise and Vibration Control",subtitle:"From Theory to Practice",fullTitle:"Noise and Vibration Control - From Theory to Practice",slug:"noise-and-vibration-control-from-theory-to-practice",publishedDate:"October 2nd 2019",bookSignature:"Ehsan Noroozinejad Farsangi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7778.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"70678",title:"Dr.",name:"Ehsan",middleName:null,surname:"Noroozinejad Farsangi",slug:"ehsan-noroozinejad-farsangi",fullName:"Ehsan Noroozinejad Farsangi"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"34650",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Pribilova",fullName:"Anna Pribilova",slug:"anna-pribilova",email:"Anna.Pribilova@stuba.sk",position:null,institution:null},{id:"180699",title:"Dr.",name:"Jiri",middleName:null,surname:"Pribil",fullName:"Jiri Pribil",slug:"jiri-pribil",email:"umerprib@savba.sk",position:null,institution:null},{id:"180785",title:"Prof.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Frollo",fullName:"Ivan Frollo",slug:"ivan-frollo",email:"umerollo@savba.sk",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Subject and methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Sensors for measurement in a weak magnetic field environment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Features for description of vibration and noise signals",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. 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The novel design of a single-sided MRI probe for assessing burn depth. Sensors. 2017;17:526. DOI: 10.3390/s17030526\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Panych LP, Madore B. The physics of MRI safety. Journal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging. 2018;47:28-43. DOI: 10.1002/jmri.25761\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Moelker A, Wielopolski PA, Pattynama PMT. Relationship between magnetic field strength and magnetic-resonance-related acoustic noise levels. Magnetic resonance materials in physics. Biology and Medicine. 2003;16:52-55. DOI: 10.1007/s10334-003-0005-9\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Mainka A, Platzek I, Mattheus W, Fleischer M, Müller AS. Three-dimensional vocal tract morphology based on multiple magnetic resonance images is highly reproducible during sustained phonation. Journal of Voice. 2017;31:504. e11-5504.e20. DOI: 10.1016/j.jvoice.2016.11.009\n'},{id:"B5",body:'Kuortti J, Malinen J, Ojalammi A. Post-processing speech recordings during MRI. Biomedical Signal Processing and Control. 2018;39:11-22. DOI: 10.1016/j.bspc.2017.07.017\n'},{id:"B6",body:'Seidman MD, Standring RT. Noise and quality of life. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2010;7:3730-3738\n'},{id:"B7",body:'Diedrichsen J, Balsters JH, Flavell J, Cussans E, Ramnani N. A probabilistic MR atlas of the human cerebellum. NeuroImage. 2009;46:39-46. DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.01.045\n'},{id:"B8",body:'Liang ZP, Lauterbur PC. Principles of Magnetic Resonance Imaging: A Signal Processing Perspective. New York: Wiley-IEEE Press; 2000. 416 p. ISBN: 978-0-780-34723-6\n'},{id:"B9",body:'Rimell AN, Mansfield NJ, Paddan GS. Design of digital filters for frequency weightings (A and C) required for risk assessments of workers exposed to noise. Industrial Health. 2015;53:21-27. DOI: 10.2486/indhealth.2013-0003\n'},{id:"B10",body:'Fraden J. Handbook of Modern Sensors: Physics, Designs, and Applications. 4th ed. New York: Springer; 2016. 663 p. ISBN: 978-1-4939-0040-4\n'},{id:"B11",body:'Mechefske CK. Vibration in MRI scanners. In: Al-Jumaily A, Alizad A, editors. Biomedical Applications of Vibration and Acoustics in Therapy, Bioeffects and Modeling. New York: ASME Press; 2008. pp. 329-349. ISBN: 978-0-7918-0275-5\n'},{id:"B12",body:'Přibil J, Přibilová A, Frollo I. Comparison of mechanical vibration and acoustic noise in the open-air MRI. Applied Acoustics. 2016;105:13-23. DOI: 10.1016/j.apacoust.2015.11.013\n'},{id:"B13",body:'Zölzer U. Digital Audio Signal Processing. 2nd ed. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons; 2008. ISBN: 978-0-470-99785-7\n'},{id:"B14",body:'Boudraa AO, Salzenstein F. Teager–Kaiser energy methods for signal and image analysis: A review. Digital Signal Processing. 2018;78:338-375. DOI: 10.1016/j.dsp.2018.03.010\n'},{id:"B15",body:'SpA E. E-Scan Opera. Genoa: User’s Manual. Revision A; 2008\n'},{id:"B16",body:'Bernstein MA, King KF, Zhou XJ. Handbook of MRI Pulse Sequences. Burlington: Elsevier Academic Press; 2004. 1040 p. ISBN: 978-0-12-092861-3\n'},{id:"B17",body:'Wellard RM, Ravasio JP, Guesne S, Bell C, Oloyede A, Tevelen G, et al. Simultaneous magnetic resonance imaging and consolidation measurement of articular cartilage. Sensors. 2014;14:7940-7958. DOI: 10.3390/s140507940\n'},{id:"B18",body:'Přibil J, Přibilová A, Frollo I. Mapping and spectral analysis of acoustic vibration in the scanning area of the weak field magnetic resonance imager. Journal of Vibration Acoustic Transaction ASME. 2014;136:051005–01-051005–051010. DOI: 10.1115/1.4027791\n'},{id:"B19",body:'Přibil J, Přibilová A, Frollo I. Analysis of acoustic noise and its suppression in speech recorded during scanning in the open-air MRI. In: Ahmed N, editor. Advances in Noise Analysis, Mitigation and Control. InTech. Croatia: Rijeka; 2016. pp. 205-228\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Jiří Přibil",address:"umerprib@savba.sk",affiliation:'
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