",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8b3c5c4439c736e81433536f7a5447eb",bookSignature:"Prof. Prof Nasser S Awwad and Dr. Ali Abdullah Shati",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9936.jpg",keywords:"Gadolinium Enhancement, Diagnostic Tool, Alloys, Salts, Magnetic Cooling, E. Coli, Bacillus Subtillis, Gadolinium as Burnable, Selective Separation, F-Block Elements, Adsorption, Kinetics",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 16th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 14th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 13th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 3rd 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 2nd 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"5 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Awwad edited a book for Lanthanides and published more than 25 papers about the elements at f blook, especially Gadolinium. He is a supervisor for 5 Master thesis in the field of Adsorption, removal, purification, kinetics, and modeling of Gadolinium.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Shati has a lot of applications about the utilization of gadolinium enhancement. 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He has published two chapters in the following books \\"Natural Gas - Extraction to End Use\\" and “Advances in Petrochemicals”. Pro Awwad has edited four books (Uranium, New trends in Nuclear Sciences, Lanthanides, and Nuclear Power Plants) and he has co-edited two books (“Chemistry and Technology of Natural and Synthetic Dyes and Pigments” and “Chromatography - Separation, Identification, and Purification Analysis”). He has also published 95 papers in ISI journals. He has supervised 4 Ph.D. and 18 MSc students in the field of radioactive and wastewater treatment. He has participated in 26 international conferences in South Korea, the USA, Lebanon, KSA, and Egypt. He has reviewed 2 Ph.D. and 13 MSc theses. He participated in 6 big projects with KACST at KSA and Sandia National Labs in the USA. He is a member of the Arab Society of Forensic Sciences and Forensic Medicine. 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His research interests focus on studying the physiological and molecular changes invertebrates as a result of various environmental impacts, in addition to the cytotoxicity of Nano-materials, the therapeutic and protective effect of different bio-extracts, and antioxidant research, He has published more than eighty-seven online papers in international journals indexed in Clarivate Analytics and Scopus, with high impact factor. He has supervised MSc students specialized in the Physiological and Molecular effects of various components on vertebrate's functions. He participated in fourteen international conferences in the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Brazil. In the last ten years, he has awarded several research grants from the deanship of scientific researches at King Khalid University, as a principal investigator. 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1. Introduction
Carbon is an important element to various sciences, from physics, chemistry, and materials science to life science, but conventional carbon formulation in the micron scale may not be the optimal implant material [1]. Then the nanomaterial’s such as the carbon nanotubes (CNTs), with unique electrical, mechanical, and surface properties, have captured the attention and aroused the interest of many scientists, since CNTs were discovered by Iijima in 1991 and up to now appear well suited as a biomaterial [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. CNTs are substances with cylindrical structure of about 1 nm diameter and 1–10 m length, consisting of only carbon atoms. In general, CNTs contain single-wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) and multiwall carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs).
SWCNTs are viewed microscopically as rolled-up structures of single sheets of graphene and individual carbon structures, approximately 1 nm in diameter and up to a millimeter or more in length, and MWCNTs are similar to hollow graphite fibers, except that they have a much higher degree of structural perfection, which are having a diameter of 10–200 nm [8, 9, 10, 11]. Lu and Tsai investigated the load transfer efficiency in double-walled carbon nanotubes (DWCNTs, a hollow cylindrical structure, which contains two concentric graphene layers) using multiscale finite element modeling, and the results showed that increasing of CNTs’ length can effectively improve the load transfer efficiency in the outermost layers, while the DWCNTs with incremental covalent exhibit increasing load transfer efficiency in the inner layer. Besides, compared with single walled, the double walled nanotubes have decreased potential of load transfer efficiency [12].
Several studies proved increase mechanical properties of CNTs-based reinforced composites by the adding of carbon nanotubes (Figure 1). CNTs reinforced composites have been investigated thoroughly for numerous aspects of life and biomedical applications. The review introduced fabrication of CNTs reinforced composites, CNTs reinforced with ceramic and metal matrix composites their biocompatibility (in vivo), cell experiments (in vitro) and mechanical properties.
1.1 Early thinking
The late Nobel prize winning physicist Richard P. Feynman in 1959 speculated the potential of nano size devices as early as 1959. In his historic lecture in 1959, he concluded saying, “this is a development which I think cannot be avoided” [13].
1.2 Nanomaterials in dentistry
Inspite of the better understanding and use of chemistry and materials, recent developments in physical properties, no material has been found to be ideal for any kind of dental application [14]. Silver amalgam, as a dental restorative material has been used for more than a century, but for the toxicity and esthetics which has been of major concern for many many years [15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20]. In contrast the composite restorative materials have very good esthetics, and are very technique sensitive [21]. Nature has arranged complex biominerals in the best possible way from the micro to the nano-scale and no one can yet combine biological and physical properties to get ideal structures [22].
1.3 Access to nanodentistry
The practical applications in dentistry has various approaches [23, 24]. Broadly, two key approaches in nanotechnology are present for creating smaller or better materials. One being the top-down and the other is bottom-up. Top-down approach is based on solid-state processing of materials. The “top-down” approaches are used to fabricate functional structures at micro and nanoscales such as chemical vapor deposition (CVD), monolithic processing, wet and plasma etching [25]. These approaches are used in electronics industry as well as for coatings of medical implants and stent using chemical vapour deposition technology for increased blood flow [26].
The “bottom-up” approach entangles the fabrication of materials via edifice up particles by harvesting atomic elements. Bottom-up processing is based on extremely organized chemical synthesis and growth of materials [27] which occurs in repairing of cells, tissues or organ systems and protein synthesis as well.
Nanodentistry will make possible the maintenance of near-perfect oral health through the use of nanomaterials, biotechnology, including tissue engineering, and nanorobotics. Oral health and disease trends may change the focus on specific diagnostic and treatment modalities [28, 29].
1.3.1 Hypersensitivity cure
Dentin hypersensitivity is due to changes in pressure transmitted hydrodynamically to the pulp. Hence, teeth having hypersensitivity have eight times increased surface density of dentinal tubules and tubules with diameters twice as large than nonsensitive teeth. Dental nanorobots could precisely and selectively obstruct selected tubules in minutes using native biological materials.
1.3.2 Local anesthesia
A colloidal suspension with millions of active analgesic micron-size dental robots will be introduced in the gums of the patient. On coming in contact with the surface of tooth or mucosa, the ambulating nanorobots enter the pulp via the gingival sulcus, lamina propria, and dentinal tubules. Once introduced in the pulp, the dentist commands analgesic dental robots to stop all sensitivity and reactions in any specific tooth that needs treatment. The dentist orders the nanorobots to restore all sensation, after finishing all the oral treatments to relinquish control of nerve traffic, and to egress from the tooth by similar pathways used for ingress.
1.3.3 Orthodontic treatment
Orthodontic nanorobots could directly stimulate and manipulate the periodontal tissues, leading to rapid and painless tooth straightening, rotating, and vertical repositioning in few hours. Nanotechnology derived orthodontic wire is a new and advanced stainless steel wire which has the following properties (a) ultra-high strength (b) good deformability (c) corrosion resistance (d) good surface finish.
1.3.4 Nanoimpression
The introduction of Nanofillers into Polyvinylsiloxanes yields a siloxane impression material with properties superior to conventional impression materials.
Advantages (a) Better flow (b) Improved hydrophilic properties leading to fewer voids at margin and better model pouring (c) Enhanced detail precision.
Nanosolutions: These are unique, dispersible nanoparticles with superior properties that can be produced from nanosolutions. This can be made use of dentin bonding agents (AdperTM) because of better dentin bond strength and better performance.
Nanorobotic dentifrice [dentifrobots]: subocclusal nanorobotic dentifrice present in tooth paste or mouthwash could monitor all supragingival and subgingival surfaces, metabolizing the organic matter which is trapped into odorless and harmless vapors required for continuous calculus debridement. These invisibly small dentifrobots [1–10 μm], crawling at 1–10 μm/s are purely mechanical devices which are inexpensive. They would safely get deactivated themselves when swallowed and would be programmed with strict occlusal avoidance protocol.
Dental durability and cosmetics: durability of the tooth along with aesthetics may be improved by replacing layers of upper enamel with pure sapphire and diamond embedded carbon nanotubes as they are more fracture resistant as nanostructured composites.
Photosensitizers and carriers: quantum dots can be used as photosensitizers and carriers as they are bound to bind to the antibody present on the surface of the target cell. They can give rise to reactive oxygen species and when stimulated by UV light and thus will be lethal to the target cell.
Diagnosis of oral cancer.
2. Nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS)
They transform biochemical to electrical signals. NEMS biosensors exhibit specificity and sensitivity to detect the presence of abnormal cells at molecular level.
Oral fluid nanosensor test (OFNASET) used for multiplex detection of salivary biomarkers for oral cancer.
Optical Nano Biosensor - The nanobiosensor is a unique fiberoptics-based tool which allows the minimally invasive analysis of intracellular components (Cytochrome C1).
2.1 Treatment of oral cancer
Nanotechnology in field of cancer therapeutics has offered highly specific tools in the form of multifunctional Dendrimers. Nanoshells are miniscule beads with metallic outer layers designed to produce intense heat by absorbing specific wavelengths of radiations that can be used for selective destruction of cancer cells leaving aside intact, adjacent normal cell [30].
2.2 Nanocomposites
Nanocomposites are produced by homogeneously distributed nanoparticles in resins or coatings. Nanofillers used includes an aluminosilicate powder with mean particle size of 80 nm and a 1:4 M ratio of alumina to silica and a refractive index of 1.508 [31].
2.3 Advantages
Increased hardness.
Increased flexural strength, translucency.
50% reduction in filling shrinkage.
excellent handling properties.
2.4 Challenges faced by nanodentistry
Precise positioning and assembly of molecular scale virus in humans [31].
Economical nanorobot mass production technique.
Biocompatibility.
Simultaneous coordination of activities of large numbers of independent micron-scale robots.
Social issues of public acceptance, ethics, regulation.
2.5 Nanomaterials used for dental tissue regeneration
Pulp stem cells are purified in the lab and grown in sheets on scaffolds composed of nanofibers of biodegradable collagen type I or fibronectin used for pulp regeneration [32, 33]. Self-assembling polypeptide hydrogels have been used for pulp tissue regeneration with the formation of a nanofiber mesh for supporting the growing cells [34]. Puramatrix proven to enhance cell growth contains amino acids repeats of alanine, arginine and aspartate [35]. Natural silk based nanomaterials are being used for various tissue regeneration applications [36]. Injectable self-assembly collagen I scaffold containing exfoliated teeth stem cells led to the formation of pulp like tissue and functional odontoblasts [37]. Collagen type I is found in the form of nanofibers in dentin (~80–90% of organic matrix) and bone with abundant fibrous protein [38]. Odontogenic differentiation and mineralization was promoted in the presence of type I collagen scaffolds [39, 40].
2.6 Nanomedicine
Nanomedicine is the application of nanotechnology (the engineering of tiny machines) to the prevention and treatment of disease in the human body. This evolving discipline has the potential to dramatically change medical science.
2.7 Current status of nanomedicine
2.7.1 Diagnostics
Nanorobots are expected to circulate in the vascular system and send out signals when imbalances appear in the circulatory and lymphatic system. To monitor brain activity fixed nanomachines could be inserted in the nervous system of the human body. Latest nanomedical heart trackers are present in the major hospitals to accurately track and treat the heart beat and its downfalls as needed in the body [41]. The present and potential diagnostic uses is large being fullerene-based sensors, imaging (cellular, etc.), monitoring, lab on a chip, nanosensors, scanning probe microscopy, protein microarrays intracellular devices, intracellular biocomputers and intracellular sensors/reporters, endoscopic robots and microscopes.
2.7.2 Protein and peptide delivery
Protein and peptide molecules form the functional units of cells. Their molecular derangements lead to many illnesses. Targeted or controlled delivery of these molecules using nano particles and dendrimers is an emerging field called nano bio pharmaceutics.
2.7.3 Drugs dispersion and drug delivery
Drug delivery is based on developing nanoscale molecules to improve drug bioavailability. Nanomedicine based tools and devices are being developed for imaging. By the use of nanoparticle contrast agents, images such as ultrasound and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) have improved distribution and contrast [42]. Triggered response is one way for drug molecules to be used more efficiently. The strength of drug delivery systems is their ability to alter the bio distribution and pharmacokinetics of the drug. Drugs are placed in the body and only activate on encountering a particular signal. For example, a drug with poor solubility will be replaced by a drug delivery system where both hydrophilic and hydrophobic environments exist thus improving its solubility.
2.7.4 Oncology
The small size of nanoparticles enhances their use in oncology. Quantum dots (nanoparticles with quantum confinement properties, such as size-tunable light emission), when used in conjunction with MRI, produces exceptional images of tumor sites [43]. Diagnosis of cancer at early stages can be detected from a few drops of the patient’s blood by using sensor test chips containing thousands of nanowires, able to detect proteins and other biomarkers left behind by cancer cells [44]. Prof. Jennifer West has demonstrated the use of 120 nm diameter nanoshells coated with gold to kill cancer tumors in mice. By irradiating the area of the tumor with an infrared laser, which passes through flesh without heating it, the gold is heated sufficiently to cause death of the cancer cells [45].
2.7.5 Surgery
With the help of gold-coated nano shells, infrared laser and flesh welder bloodless surgery can be done with greater efficiency [46].
The blood-brain barrier/more effective treatment of brain tumors, Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s in development.
2.7.8 Nanovectors for gene therapy
Non-viral gene delivery systems.
2.7.9 Cell repair machines
Direct cell and tissue repair can be done using molecular machines, however by using drugs and surgery only tissues can repair themselves. Access to cells by inserting needles into cells by molecular machines without killing them is possible [47].
2.7.10 Ethics and nanomedicine
Currently the most significant concerns involve risk assessment, risk management and risk communication of ENMs in clinical trials [48]. Implanting a computing chip in humans raises many ethical concerns. The chip can diagnose diseases and can also analyze our DNA to determine the diseases to which one may be susceptible to in later stages. Ethical issues concerning a patient’s right-to know, right-not-to-know and the duty-to-know arise [49]. Increase in the current level of accuracy and efficiency of diagnostic and therapeutic procedures by augmenting the targeting and distribution by nanoparticles, the dangers of nanotoxicity becomes a paramount next step in better understanding of their medical needs [50].
2.7.11 Adverse reactions
Multiwalled carbon nanotubes led to asbestos like effects on the mesothelium due to high doses of intracavitary injection in rodents. Whether the inhalation of MWCNT will translocate to sensitive mesothelial sites has not been answered yet [51]. It will also be important to know their adverse effects, if any, in pediatric, geriatric and differing pathophysiological conditions like pregnancy, lactation, congestive heart failure, uremia, etc. (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
CNTs-based reinforced composites
3. Conclusions
Nanomedicine and nanodentistry will have an impact on many medical applications. The usefulness of these are not only therapeutic but also diagnostic. Development of applications of nanomedicine and nanodentistry is very complex and needs an integrated approach of all stakeholders. Future applications of nanodentistry will include nanorobotics, carbon nanotubes, nanocomposites whereas nanomedicine will include activity monitors, biochips, insulin pumps, needle less injectors, medical flow sensors and blood pressure, glucose monitoring devices and drug injecting systems. What nanomedicine and nanodentistry will be able to achieve in the future is beyond current imagination. However, it will be a tough task to handle the ethical issues which will be arising with the same pace.
Conflict of interest
Authors have no ‘conflict of interest’ declaration.
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Evolution of gene therapy, cancer treatments, and innovative new answers for life-threatening diseases on the horizon, the science of nanomedicine has become an ever growing field that has an incredible ability to bypass barriers previously thought unavoidable.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/67045",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/67045",book:{slug:"perspective-of-carbon-nanotubes"},signatures:"Neeraja Turagam and Durga Prasad Mudrakola",authors:[{id:"179724",title:"Dr.",name:"Neeraja",middleName:null,surname:"Turagam",fullName:"Neeraja Turagam",slug:"neeraja-turagam",email:"neer222@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Asian Institute of Medicine, Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"180400",title:"Dr.",name:"Durga Prasad",middleName:null,surname:"Mudrakola",fullName:"Durga Prasad Mudrakola",slug:"durga-prasad-mudrakola",email:"docmdp@rediffmail.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 Early thinking",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2 Nanomaterials in dentistry",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"1.3 Access to nanodentistry",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"1.3.1 Hypersensitivity cure",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"1.3.2 Local anesthesia",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"1.3.3 Orthodontic treatment",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"1.3.4 Nanoimpression",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9",title:"2. Nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"2.1 Treatment of oral cancer",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"2.2 Nanocomposites",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"2.3 Advantages",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"2.4 Challenges faced by nanodentistry",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"2.5 Nanomaterials used for dental tissue regeneration",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"2.6 Nanomedicine",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"2.7 Current status of nanomedicine",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"2.7.1 Diagnostics",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"2.7.2 Protein and peptide delivery",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"2.7.3 Drugs dispersion and drug delivery",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_3",title:"2.7.4 Oncology",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19_3",title:"2.7.5 Surgery",level:"3"},{id:"sec_20_3",title:"2.7.6 Nanomaterials for brachytherapy",level:"3"},{id:"sec_21_3",title:"2.7.7 Drug delivery across",level:"3"},{id:"sec_22_3",title:"2.7.8 Nanovectors for gene therapy",level:"3"},{id:"sec_23_3",title:"2.7.9 Cell repair machines",level:"3"},{id:"sec_24_3",title:"2.7.10 Ethics and nanomedicine",level:"3"},{id:"sec_25_3",title:"2.7.11 Adverse reactions",level:"3"},{id:"sec_28",title:"3. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_32",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Mortier J, Engelhardt M. Foreign body reaction to a carbon fiber implant in the knee: Case report and literature survey. Zeitschrift für Orthopädie und Ihre Grenzgebiete. 2000;138(5):390-394'},{id:"B2",body:'Iijima S. Helical microtubules of graphitic carbon. Nature. 1991;354(6348):56-58'},{id:"B3",body:'Li X, Liu X, Huang J, Fan Y, Cui F-Z. Biomedical investigation of CNT based coatings. Surface and Coatings Technology. 2011;206(4):759-766'},{id:"B4",body:'Firkowska I, Olek M, Pazos-Peréz N, Rojas-Chapana J, Giersig M. Highly ordered MWNT-based matrixes: Topography at the nanoscale conceived for tissue engineering. Langmuir. 2006;22(12):5427-5434'},{id:"B5",body:'Li XM, Feng Q , Liu X, Dong W, Cui F. The use of nanoscaled fibers or tubes to improve biocompatibility and bioactivity of biomedical materials. 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Faculty of Dentistry, AIMST University, Kedah, Malaysia
Faculty of Dentistry, AIMST University, Kedah, Malaysia
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Kelkar",authors:[{id:"146591",title:"Dr.",name:"S",middleName:null,surname:"Venkatachalam",fullName:"S Venkatachalam",slug:"s-venkatachalam"}]},{id:"39419",title:"Degradation of Polyesters in Medical Applications",slug:"degradation-of-polyesters-in-medical-applications",signatures:"Mashiur Rahman",authors:[{id:"144696",title:"Dr.",name:"Mashiur",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",fullName:"Mashiur Rahman",slug:"mashiur-rahman"}]},{id:"39412",title:"Fibre Reinforced Polyester Composites",slug:"fibre-reinforced-polyester-composites",signatures:"Salar Bagherpour",authors:[{id:"147978",title:"MSc.",name:"Salar",middleName:null,surname:"Bagherpour",fullName:"Salar Bagherpour",slug:"salar-bagherpour"}]},{id:"39416",title:"Unsaturated Polyester Resin for Specialty Applications",slug:"unsaturated-polyester-resin-for-specialty-applications",signatures:"Bharat Dholakiya",authors:[{id:"144754",title:"Dr.",name:"Bharat",middleName:"Z",surname:"Dholakiya",fullName:"Bharat Dholakiya",slug:"bharat-dholakiya"}]},{id:"39406",title:"Tribological Properties of Polyester Composites: Effect of Vegetable Oils and Polymer Fibers",slug:"tribological-properties-of-polyester-composites-effect-of-vegetable-oils-and-polymer-fibers",signatures:"Ibrahim Refaay Ahmed and Ali Waheed Yousry",authors:[{id:"145746",title:"Dr.",name:"Refaay",middleName:"Ahmed",surname:"Ibrahim",fullName:"Refaay Ibrahim",slug:"refaay-ibrahim"}]},{id:"39409",title:"Time Dependent Behavior of Polymer Concrete Using Unsaturated Polyester Resin",slug:"time-dependent-behavior-of-polymer-concrete-using-unsaturated-polyester-resin",signatures:"Ghi Ho Tae and Eun Soo Choi",authors:[{id:"146893",title:"Prof.",name:"Ghi Ho",middleName:null,surname:"Tae",fullName:"Ghi Ho Tae",slug:"ghi-ho-tae"}]},{id:"39410",title:"Characterizations of Polyester-Cement Composites Used for the Immobilization of Radioactive Wastes",slug:"characterizations-of-polyester-cement-composites-used-for-the-immobilization-of-radioactive-wastes",signatures:"Hosam El-Din Saleh, Talat Bayoumi and Samir Eskander",authors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam",middleName:"M.",surname:"Saleh",fullName:"Hosam Saleh",slug:"hosam-saleh"},{id:"151513",title:"Dr.",name:"Talat",middleName:null,surname:"Bayoumi",fullName:"Talat Bayoumi",slug:"talat-bayoumi"},{id:"152026",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"Eskander",fullName:"Samir Eskander",slug:"samir-eskander"}]},{id:"39414",title:"Hand Evaluation and Formability of Japanese Traditional ‘Chirimen’ Fabrics",slug:"hand-evaluation-and-formability-of-japanese-traditional-chirimen-fabrics",signatures:"Takako Inoue and Masako Niwa",authors:[{id:"146295",title:"Dr.",name:"Takako",middleName:null,surname:"Inoue",fullName:"Takako Inoue",slug:"takako-inoue"},{id:"147547",title:"Dr.",name:"Masako",middleName:null,surname:"Niwa",fullName:"Masako Niwa",slug:"masako-niwa"}]},{id:"39417",title:"Compressive Stress Relaxation and Creep Properties of Synthetic Fiber and Regenerated Fiber Assemblies",slug:"compressive-stress-relaxation-and-creep-properties-of-synthetic-fiber-and-regenerated-fiber-assembli",signatures:"Yoneda Morihiro and Nakajima Chie",authors:[{id:"145634",title:"Dr.",name:"Yoneda",middleName:null,surname:"Morihiro",fullName:"Yoneda Morihiro",slug:"yoneda-morihiro"}]},{id:"39411",title:"Giving Functional Properties to Fabrics Containing Polyester Fibres from Poly (Ethylene Terephthalate) with the Printing Method",slug:"giving-functional-properties-to-fabrics-containing-polyester-fibres-from-poly-ethylene-terephthalate",signatures:"Ewa Skrzetuska, Wiesława Urbaniak-Domagała,\nBarbara Lipp-Symonowicz and Izabella Krucińska",authors:[{id:"146998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ewa",middleName:null,surname:"Skrzetuska",fullName:"Ewa Skrzetuska",slug:"ewa-skrzetuska"}]},{id:"39408",title:"Electric Breakdown Model for Super-Thin Polyester Foil",slug:"electric-breakdown-model-for-super-thin-polyester-foil",signatures:"Haiyang Wang and Zhengzhong Zeng",authors:[{id:"144746",title:"Dr.",name:"Haiyang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Haiyang Wang",slug:"haiyang-wang"}]},{id:"39407",title:"Improvement of the Electrochemical Behavior of 2024-T3 Alclad Using Polyester Coatings",slug:"improvement-of-the-electrochemical-behavior-of-2024-t3-alclad-using-polyester-coatings",signatures:"Willian Aperador Chaparro",authors:[{id:"147431",title:"Dr.",name:"Willian",middleName:null,surname:"Aperador Chaparro",fullName:"Willian Aperador Chaparro",slug:"willian-aperador-chaparro"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"63095",title:"Understanding Low-Dose Exposure and Field Effects to Resolve the Field-Laboratory Paradox: Multifaceted Biological Effects from the Fukushima Nuclear Accident",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79870",slug:"understanding-low-dose-exposure-and-field-effects-to-resolve-the-field-laboratory-paradox-multifacet",body:'\n\n
“Everything should be made as simple as possible, but not simpler.”
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--- Albert Einstein
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1. Introduction
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In terms of economic loss, the Fukushima nuclear accident that occurred in 2011 and the Chernobyl nuclear accident that occurred in 1986 are the worst nuclear accidents in the history of mankind [1]. Although considerable research results have accumulated for the Chernobyl disaster, there are still considerable debates concerning its biological effects [2, 3, 4]. The reasons for these disagreements among researchers are likely multifaceted, but one reason stems from the fact that the Chernobyl nuclear accident occurred in the former Soviet Union, which made it difficult for international researchers to easily access the contaminated areas and the critical data. In addition, some important tools and methods for biological analyses, such as those for genomic analysis and computational applications, were not yet available at that time. Considering these points, the Fukushima nuclear accident is the first historical case in which researchers have been politically and technically allowed to perform field work and laboratory experiments after such a major nuclear accident. In other words, scientists working in the second decade of the twenty-first century are responsible for correctly evaluating the biological effects of the Fukushima nuclear accident.
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Because of the large-scale nature of the accident, many research questions have been developed for studies on the biological consequences of the accident at the ecological, organismal, and molecular levels [5]. However, the most important question is to determinehow severe the biological impacts from the accident are. This is different from questions that investigate how severe the biological impacts from radiation exposure (or, more precisely, effective radiation doses) are. That is, the direct impacts from the exposure to radiation are possibly only one type of the impacts from the accident. However, many researchers have tried to understand the biological impacts of the Fukushima nuclear accident by exclusively studying the effective doses based on radiation dosimetry. And dosimetric data are often exclusively used for risk assessment and management. The idea behind this approach is that radioactivity (and its direct exposure) is the sole “pollutant” that causes any biological impacts. There is no question that radiation doses are important; however, this cannot justify the exclusion of other factors that may cause more powerful effects on biological systems.
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Another important presumption of using the dosimetric approach to determine biological impacts is that researchers completely understand the system in question (at least at first), enabling a precise level of prediction of the biological impacts that often reference the recommendations and mathematical simulations of the International Commission of Radiological Protection (ICRP) (e.g., [6, 7, 8]). That is, it is presumed that reference levels of the effects of radiation exposure on certain organisms such as humans are completely known and these references are credible and applicable to the case of the Fukushima nuclear accident. It is to be understood that the reference levels are just for protection purposes only as experience-based values to balance risk and benefit for residents, patients, workers, and researchers. Nonetheless, it can be said that dosimetric predictions mostly take a we-know-all approach regardless of researchers’ awareness. Although there are many studies that support these reference levels, some dosimetric studies for the Fukushima nuclear accident often lack efforts to perform or incorporate field and laboratory studies that look for possible phenotypic and genetic effects; in other words, these studies often appear to conclude that such field and laboratory experiments are not necessary because the system has already been known well.
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In contrast, the biological and ecological approach may be called a we-know-little approach; in other words, the biological impacts of the accident reflect the things that we do not know well, and these are the topics that should be evaluated in field work and laboratory experiments in the real world. For example, studies using the biological approach may admit that organisms face many different stress conditions in the wild, and they are found in unique positions in the ecological network; as a result, sometimes unexpected consequences in terms of an organism’s response to pollutants may be observed.
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As discussed in the next section, we have been using the pale grass blue butterfly for Fukushima research since 2011; research began immediately after the Fukushima nuclear accident [9]. One of the most important types of experiments in the research on the pale grass blue butterfly in Fukushima is the so-called the internal exposure experiment. In this experiment, the field-collected host-plant leaves, which are contaminated at various levels (judged by the radiation levels of 137Cs and 134Cs), were given to butterfly larvae collected from the least-contaminated area, i.e., Okinawa (approximately 1700 km southwest of the Fukushima Dai-ichi Nuclear Power Plant); these experiments resulted in high mortality and abnormality rates [9, 10, 11, 12]. These results support the field reports of high rates of abnormality [9, 13, 14, 15]. A mutagenesis study of this butterfly produced similar phenotypes [16], and the effects on body size detected in the first paper [9] were also supported by the field and experimental results [17]. Although these field and experimental results may be surprising in light of the conventional view of radiation biology and physics, the experimental procedures were rigorous enough to support these conclusions [18].
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Furthermore, in recent years, many field reports have accumulated on the possible effects on various organisms [5], and these are consistent with our results. Such studies include the bird and arthropod populations [19, 20, 21], gall-forming aphids [22], Japanese monkey [23, 24], barn swallow [25], goshawk [26], rice plant [27, 28], fir tree [29], red pine tree [30], and intertidal species populations including the rock shell [31]. Furthermore, the possible changes induced by the nuclear accident have been reported at the biochemical level. For example, stress responses in cattle may have been induced in contaminated areas [32]. Changes in gene expression have been reported in the small intestine of pigs [33]. Other reported cases include DNA damage in bovine lymphocytes [34], enhanced spermatogenesis [35], and chromosomal aberrations [36, 37] in large Japanese field mice; however, there are reports in which mammalian testes collected from bull, bore, Inobuta, and large Japanese field mice in the contaminated area did not show any noticeable abnormalities [38, 39, 40].
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In contrast, one of the most recent results of ours came from a series of similar internal exposure experiments in which radioactive 137Cs was supplied to larvae as a form of chemically pure cesium chloride solution in an artificial diet; however, the results have not yet been published. It is likely that the pale grass blue butterfly is highly resistant to internal irradiation alone, as expected from the conventional understanding of insects’ high resistance to irradiation. This discrepancy between the two systems may be called the field-laboratory paradox. The difference between the two systems is clear. The former system used contaminated leaves from the real world, while the latter system used an “ideal” pure source of cesium chloride in an artificial diet. I conclude that the latter system is not entirely relevant to the case of the Fukushima nuclear accident, and the former system may be heavily influenced by several different modes of the indirect field effects that are not well known to researchers. A similar situation has already appeared in mammals and aphids. An experiment on internal 137Cs irradiation in mice did not indicate any detectable change in the litter size and sex ratio [41]; in contrast, at least some of the field data have suggested adverse effects in mammals, as discussed above. Striking morphological abnormalities of aphids reported from the polluted areas [22] were not reproduced in the process of embryogenesis and egg hatching by irradiation experiments, although a change in developmental time was detected [42].
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Precise dosimetric analysis of larvae may provide additional information that satisfies dosimetrists; however, dosimetric analysis does not play a major role in reaching the conclusions stated above if the radioactivity concentration of the diet is known to us. What is important is the fact that the same experimental system was employed in studies of the pale grass blue butterfly; the two experiments simply used different types of food, i.e., either the field-harvested contaminated leaves or the artificial diet containing 137Cs. Moreover, the results from the former experiment are fully supported by the field work. Based on the butterfly case and the mammalian case discussed above, this kind of field-laboratory paradox is likely widespread among organisms of various taxa. Indeed, a literature survey showed that the controlled laboratory effects and field effects were very different in terms of their sensitivity levels; the field cases from Chernobyl were eight times more sensitive than the laboratory-controlled external irradiation cases [43].
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Undoubtedly, dosimetric analysis provides a different level of insight. For example, the inferred genetic mutations that are heritable over generations in this butterfly [9] are likely caused by the high-level acute exposure immediately incurred after the accident rather than by the low-level chronic exposure [12, 44, 45]. To evaluate these effects, it is important to dosimetrically understand the absorbed doses of the butterfly at the initial time of the event.
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In this chapter, I will discuss several important issues associated with “low-dose” radiation exposure and field effects; additionally, I propose the importance of non-dosimetric studies in conjunction with conventional dosimetric studies. Borrowing the famous phrase from Shakespeare’s Hamlet, researchers who engage in the biological consequences of the Fukushima nuclear accident may consider the following: “To be or not to be (i.e., dosimetry), that is the question.” However, the answer is clear: both approaches are necessary to advance this scientific field to a higher level. In other words, the final answer to this question is “to be and not to be.” I believe that this is the only way to reveal a holistic picture of the biological impacts of the Fukushima nuclear accident, which would serve as a basis for risk assessment and management of nuclear pollution.
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2. The pale grass blue butterfly: a versatile indicator
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Multiple biological approaches should be used to understand the real-world phenomena resulting from the Fukushima nuclear accident. Furthermore, to understand biological phenomena in general, it is customary for biologists to concentrate on a few surrogate species or model species. For example, in developmental genetics, the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster is an important model species [46]. In conservation biology, many types of surrogate species are often proposed, including indicator, umbrella, keystone, and flagship species, to evaluate the quality of the natural environment [47]. The simultaneous use of multiple indicator species from different taxonomic groups is generally favorable [47] but may be difficult in practice. To understand biological impacts of the Fukushima nuclear accident, studies that use indicator species are likely required.
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If only a single (or a few) species is used in biological studies of the Fukushima nuclear accident, the pale grass blue butterfly is one of the ideal systems of choice in that it is associated with (and almost dependent on) the living environment of humans; as a result, the butterfly reflects the health of the human environment [12, 44, 45, 48]. Using this butterfly, efficient field work can be performed, and relatively fast and precise experiments can be performed in the laboratory [49, 50]. Other advantages of using this butterfly have been discussed elsewhere [12, 44, 45, 48].
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It should be noted that using nonhuman model organisms to obtain information relevant to humans is not a novel approach in biomedical sciences. In fact, it is a common practice to use the fruit fly and even yeast to infer the molecular mechanisms of human diseases. The fruit fly is used not because it is the invertebrate most similar to humans but because it is practically useful for experimental manipulation. This model organism approach to human-related research is valid because, at the molecular level, there are many commonalities among organisms. Furthermore, as discussed in Taira et al. [12] and Otaki [48], radiation effects are molecular events. DNA may be damaged “directly” by radiation or “indirectly” by other ionized molecules, such as water (note that the usage of “direct” and “indirect” here is different from the terminology discussed in most parts of this chapter). The molecular-level ionizing mechanisms are universal in all organisms, including humans and this butterfly species. In this sense, the butterfly data are applicable to humans. Likely, the unconventional field effects that are discussed below may also occur in universal molecular events. Thus, the field effects that were detected in the butterfly are also likely applicable to humans, at least to some extent; however, the precise mechanistic understanding of the field effects on the molecular events is still unclear.
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In contrast to the uniform molecular markings found in many organisms, the manifestation of these effects (i.e., phenotypic effects) may be very different among species. In butterflies, morphological abnormalities such as leg and wing deformation are relatively frequent; however, no suitable counterpart of this phenotypic effect can be identified in humans. Such organismal-level phenotypic effects (i.e., disease manifestations) in humans are not readily inferable from butterfly data.
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3. Targeted and nontargeted effects
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The dosimetric approach often states that ionizing radiation targets DNA directly or indirectly through the ionization of water molecules (hence, they are called targeted effects) and that the degree of DNA damage is linearly reflected in the biological consequences. These statements mean that biological effects can be predicted by the effective dose. Although this approach is widely accepted and utilized for assessing the biological impacts of nuclear disasters, the approach entirely ignores other potential molecular pathways and dismisses the complexity of the biological and ecological responses to the various known and unknown materials that are released from nuclear reactors.
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In contrast to the conventional targeted effects, the last two decades have experienced a surge of nontargeted effects of ionizing radiation [51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56]. The nontargeted effects include bystander effects, genomic instability, adaptive responses, and other modes, and these nontargeted effects are likely caused by the reactive oxygen species produced by irradiation [51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56]. In this sense, the nontarget effects may be referred to as the indirect effects (note that in this chapter, nontargeted effects are classified into the same category as the direct effects as a matter of convenience to some extent). In terms of the nontargeted effects, it is important to remember that they are not readily predictable by doses, and many of them are latent. Therefore, the nontarget effects may not be detected in acute irradiation experiments, but they may manifest in the field. Furthermore, the field-laboratory paradox discussed above may have originated, at least partly, from the influence of the nontargeted effects in the field. In fact, the nontargeted effects, such as genomic instability, may have played significant roles in the observed increase in butterfly morphological abnormalities in the fall of 2012 [9, 13].
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However, even the nontarget effects may not adequately explain the all effects that manifest in the field. For example, there could be possible nonradioactive by-products released from a reactor and naturally occurring nonradioactive materials that are “activated” by the radioactive materials released from a reactor. There may also be ecological interactions that could amplify small irradiation effects to larger levels throughout a food web. These possibilities may be potential sources of the field effects (or more precisely, field-specific effects), which would not be observed in controlled laboratory experiments that use an artificial source of radiation, such as 60Co and chemically pure 137Cs. However, these field-specific effects should not be confused with (or dismissed as) confounding factors because these field effects are elicited by the nuclear accident. Similarly, nontargeted effects do not have to be field-specific effects; nontargeted effects may be observed in controlled laboratory experiments that use an artificial radiation source and a simple biological system, such as a cell culture system. In other words, the nontargeted effects may be uncovered with conventional radiation biology, which investigates universal mechanisms of radiation effects, but the field-specific effects may be uncovered with pollution biology, which investigates the real-world phenomena; however, these two fields cannot be separated in a meaningful way in the case of nuclear accidents.
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In this chapter, I refer to both the conventional targeted effects and the nontargeted effects as the “direct” effects (or “primary” effects) (Figure 1); however, in some literature, the nontargeted effects or one mode of the nontargeted effect are referred to as the indirect effects. It is understood that laboratory-based controlled irradiation experiments, irrespective of high or low doses, primarily examine the direct effects of ionizing radiation. In contrast, as mentioned above, other potential unconventional indirect effects of nuclear pollution are collectively called the field effects (Figure 1) [48, 57]. The field effects are often dependent on a biological (including ecological) context.
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Figure 1.
Possible effects of the explosion of the Fukushima Dai-ichi Nuclear Power Plant. (a) Overall pathways. The Fukushima Dai-ichi Nuclear Power Plant released radionuclides as well as non-radionuclides that may not be fully identified. They interact with each other, and they also interact with environmental substances. Environmental substances could be natural (biotic or abiotic) or anthropogenic. The collective outputs of these interactions manifest as biological effects. The illustration of a nuclear power plant was obtained from a free illustration site called Icon-rainbow (http://icon-rainbow.com/). (b) Multifaceted radiation effects. Released substances may be radionuclides or non-radionuclides, and they may be soluble or insoluble as particulate matter. Physicochemically, ionizing radiation has direct or indirect effects on the major biological target, i.e., DNA. However, both types of effects may be considered as biological direct (or primary) effects. In contrast, there are multiple biological indirect (i.e., secondary) effects, depending on the context from which the organism in question faces. The latter is often field-specific, and thus called the field-specific effects (or simply the field effects).
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4. Field effects (1): synergistic effects
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The biological indirect effects are a collective expression of all biological effects of the nuclear accident excluding the effects of the direct radiation exposure. Because any wild biological system has diverse and complex relationships with biological and chemical species, there are numerous indirect pathways that can affect organisms. Below, the field effects are roughly categorized into three groups: synergistic effects, effects from particulate matters, and ecological effects (Figure 2).
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Figure 2.
Four possible types of effects on the larvae of the pale grass blue butterfly (green bars). Molecular ionization is the direct (i.e., primary) effect, while the other three modes (synergistic stress, particulate matter, and plant chemicals) are biological indirect (i.e., secondary) field effects.
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First, synergistic effects with other environmental factors, including climate conditions and chemical stressors, may exist in the wild. When an organism experiences stress from a single source, the stress may be managed relatively well; however, when stress is imposed by two different sources, the harmful effects may be synergistically enhanced beyond their individual actions. In laboratory conditions, the “climate” conditions are usually constant, and additional stressors are not usually provided; thus, synergy is often difficult to predict using conventional irradiation experiments alone. Logically, the synergistic effects of radiation exposure and other stressors have been an important topic in radiation biology [52, 53, 58, 59, 60, 61]. However, in my opinion, such synergistic stress effects have not been fully appreciated in radiation biology. Importantly, synergistic stress effects are not limited to exposure to radiation. Here, I briefly discuss two examples that may be insightful for this line of discussion.
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A discrepancy has been recognized between the laboratory and field results in phenotypic plasticity studies. In an authoritative textbook, Gilbert and Epel [62] stated the following: “Phenotypic plasticity means that animals in the wild may develop differently than those in the laboratory” and “This has important consequences when we apply knowledge gained in the laboratory to a field science such as conservation biology.” One specific example provided in the textbook states that some frog tadpoles are up to 46 times more sensitive to pesticides in the presence of predators that release chemicals in the wild than they are in the laboratory [63, 64]. The conclusion stated that “ignoring the relevant ecology can cause incorrect estimates of a pesticide’s lethality in nature” [63]. I believe that the same principle applies to radioactive materials from nuclear reactors.
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Another insightful case was reported in the epidemic caused by the bacterium Clostridium difficile [65, 66]. For this bacterial epidemic outbreak to occur in North America and Europe, the widespread use of a food additive, trehalose, played a crucial role. Infected mice had higher mortality rates when fed food that contained trehalose [66]. Without the trehalose-rich environment that newly emerged in this century, the deadly endemic would not have occurred. Although trehalose alone may not be a significant stressor, this case illustrates an example of an unexpected synergistic interaction between toxic substances that were otherwise benign environmental chemicals.
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5. Field effects (2): particulate matter
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Second, what was released from the Fukushima nuclear reactors was a plume of materials that caused particulate air pollution; regardless of whether these particulates were radioactive, the released materials were dispersed as atmospheric aerosols [67, 68]. There is no question that atmospheric aerosols cause respiratory and cardiovascular diseases in humans [69, 70, 71, 72]. Indeed, natural radon attaches to air dust, and when this dust is inhaled, it is believed to cause lung cancer [73]. There is no reason to believe that the particulate air pollution from the nuclear reactors was safe for butterflies or other wild organisms. However, to my knowledge, any discussion from this viewpoint is scarce.
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It should be noted that the plume from the nuclear reactors contained two types of radioactive materials: soluble and insoluble forms. Soluble materials, such as a form of inorganic salt, are solubilized quickly in environmental water. Additionally, insoluble materials have been detected as spherical particles [74, 75], and they are attached on the surface of any material. At least some of these particles (i.e., particulate matter) may bind to nonradioactive common air dust [68, 69]. Based on the results of the internal exposure experiments in which field-collected polluted leaves were fed to butterfly larvae, the ingestion of particulate matter present on the surface of leaves may have caused digestive and immunological effects [9, 10, 11, 12].
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6. Field effects (3): ecological effects
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Third, when one examines the interactions of multiple species based on a food web or an ecological system as a whole, one may be able to discover radiation effects that would not be discovered by a single-species approach; consequently, observations like this may indicate important field effects. This may be called the ecological effects. A similar concept has recently been addressed in radioecology [76]; however, this topic is often discussed from the viewpoint of the bioaccumulation of radioactive materials or organic materials in high-order consumers. Although bioaccumulation is important, it is based on a dosimetric viewpoint.
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The ecological system that the pale grass blue butterfly inhabits is relatively simple due to its monophagous nature [48]. Thus, this butterfly and its associated ecosystem may serve as a “model ecosystem” to investigate both the population dynamics and the environmental influences through the ecological food web after the Fukushima nuclear accident. It appears that in the case of the pale grass blue butterfly “model ecosystem,” the quality of its host plant, Oxalis corniculata, is probably important and is determined by the quality of the soil and air. When soil is contaminated with radioactive materials and other pollutants, such as agrochemicals, the quality of the host-plant leaves decreases. Similarly, air pollutants (i.e., particulate matter) that cover the surface of leaves, whether radioactive or not, may change the physiological functions of the leaves. Thus, the quality of the soil and air will affect the health of the larval butterflies that eat the affected leaves.
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The decrease in plant quality for larvae may originate from two different causes: a decrease in certain favorable chemicals (e.g., essential nutrients) in leaves and an increase in unfavorable chemicals (e.g., reactive oxygen species and defense chemicals) in leaves. In the former scenario, the lack of an essential vitamin in the leaves may be fatal for butterfly larvae because larvae are dependent on vitamins that are supplied through the ingestion of leaves. A similar case of thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency has been recognized as one of the major consequences of environmental pollution and destruction in Europe and North America; however, the precise causes of this deficiency are difficult to identify [77, 78, 79, 80].
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The latter possibility of the decrease in plant quality for butterfly larvae may occur if plants are stressed by even low levels of exposure to radioactive materials; this exposure can produce reactive oxygen species, defense chemicals, or another substance that is harmful to larvae. Reactive oxygen species are known to be produced by various abiotic stressors, and the production of defense chemicals are induced by insect bites in many plants [81, 82, 83]; however, whether radiation stress can trigger such responses in O. corniculata and in plants in general is unknown. The upregulation of unfavorable chemicals and the downregulation of favorable chemicals for larvae may occur simultaneously.
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Consequently, biochemical changes in producers (i.e., plants) affect primary consumers (i.e., herbivorous animals) and then secondary consumers (i.e., carnivorous animals). These food-mediated effects of pollutants can radiate through an ecological food web, and it is indirect field effects that are different from the bioaccumulation paradigm. It is reasonable to imagine that damage to keystone species that have connections with many other species may cause relatively large effects on the ecosystem; however, recent research posits that anthropogenic disturbances on a small number of any species may cause instability in an ecosystem [84, 85].
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7. Possible field effects on humans
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Among the three modes of action of the field effects discussed above, the second mode (i.e., particulate matter) is associated with immunological responses that may be prominently problematic for humans because humans have very effective (and, thus, very sensitive) immunological systems, some of which insects do not have. A small amount of radioactive or nonradioactive aerosol from a nuclear reactor can potentially cause large and fatal physiological effects in some human individuals via immunological sensitization. However, immunological responses vary among individuals, and it is known that immunological sensitivity to chemicals (i.e., allergens) greatly varies among human individuals. However, once sensitized, humans can detect a remarkably small number of molecules and manifest allergic symptoms. It is possible that radioactivity denatures proteins, which makes naturally occurring proteins immunogenic. The protein-denaturing effect of ionizing radiation as well as its association with immunogenicity may be one of the important topics that should be experimentally tested. As a whole, these effects can collectively be called the immunological effects.
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The consequences of allergic reactions are complex, but one example of a type of reaction is kidney failure, which can include nephrotic syndrome; I have reported a case in which nephrotic syndrome was likely induced by the immunological field effects of the Fukushima nuclear accident [86]. Indeed, a general relationship between immunological sensitization and nephrotic syndrome has been demonstrated [87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92]. This relationship has not been rigorously tested; however, this is not surprising because nephrotic syndrome is a collection of diseases that have various etiologies.
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Regarding the first mode of the field effect discussed above, the synergistic effects are potentially numerous in human society and in human living environments. One of the potential stressors is cedar pollen, which causes Japan-wide allergic reactions in the spring of each year, including 2011 immediately before and after the Fukushima nuclear accident. It is possible that the aerosol from the Fukushima reactors attached to cedar pollen to worsen pollen allergy (i.e., hay fever). Other potential stressors for humans may include other air pollutants, food additives, agrochemicals, and work stress. Stress resistance varies among individual humans, and some people that were not very stress resistant may have become sick after the Fukushima nuclear accident.
\n
Regarding the third mode of the field effects discussed above, changes in plant chemicals may affect human health. Additionally, the nutritional quality of fruits and vegetables may have declined. However, different from the pale grass blue butterfly, humans are not monophagous. Moreover, vitamin supplementation is now popular in many countries including Japan. As such, this type of field effect may not manifest in humans; however, this mode may cause serious adverse impacts in the pale grass blue butterfly.
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8. UNSCEAR 2017 Report
\n
Because the field effects of “nuclear” pollution may be a new concept, at least to some extent, misunderstanding or confusion about this issue may prevail. The United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR) 2017 Report [93] provides an example. This report mentioned our studies in paragraph 125, in which H8 refers to Hiyama et al. [9], and M9 and M10 refer to Møller et al. [19] and Møller et al. [20], respectively.
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125. The Committee had made reference to studies in which effects in various terrestrial biota had been observed in areas with enhanced levels of radioactive material as a result of the FDNPS accident [H8, M9, M10]. It had noted that the substantial impacts reported for populations of wild organisms from these studies were inconsistent with the main findings of the Committee’s theoretical assessment. The Committee had expressed reservations about these observations, noting that uncertainties with regard to dosimetry and possible confounding factors made it difficult to substantiate firm conclusions from the cited field studies.
\n\n
It is understandable that our study is “inconsistent with the main findings of the Committee’s theoretical assessment” (i.e., the dosimetric simulations). I agree that “uncertainties with regard to dosimetry” should be overcome in the near future; however, without precise dosimetric data, the findings that conclude the biological effects were correlated with the ground radiation dose and/or the distance from the nuclear reactors and that state the biological effects in the field were reproduced dose-dependently in laboratory experiments are entirely valid. The main reason for this discrepancy is the exclusion of the field effects in the UNSCEAR assessment. In contrast, our experiments were constructed to reflect real-world phenomena, including the direct effects and indirect field effects. Furthermore, contrary to the UNSCEAR statement above, there were no major confounding factors in our study [9] because it consisted of controlled laboratory experiments.
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Moreover, the UNSCEAR statement completely ignores the process of logical judgment in terms of the cause of the Fukushima nuclear accident. The causality of the effects of the accident should be evaluated systematically according to logical postulates such as “the Postulates of Pollutant-Induced Biological Impacts” [45]. This includes six clauses that must be met to prove the causality of the pollutant(s) from a given source, i.e., spatial relationship, temporal relationship, direct exposure, phenotypic variability or spectrum, experimental reproduction of external exposure, and experimental reproduction of internal exposure [45]. The causality should not be judged solely from a dosimetric standpoint.
\n
The UNSCEAR 2017 Report [91] further commented on our paper in paragraph 134, in which H9 and O12 refer to Hiyama et al. [14] and Otaki [48], respectively.
\n\n
134. Hiyama et al. [H9] provided further evidence to suggest that the high abnormality rates observed in the pale grass blue butterfly were induced by “anthropogenic radioactive mutagens.” However, Otaki [O12] synthesized the results from several studies of the effects on the same species of butterfly following the FDNPS accident, and reported that ionizing radiation was unlikely to be the exclusive source of the environmental disturbances observed.
\n\n
The above comments on our research are misleading; specifically, the last sentence wrongly implies that “the environmental disturbances observed” were caused by unknown confounding factors that were not related to the Fukushima nuclear accident. Rather, in Otaki [48], I mentioned the importance of the field effects from both radioactive and nonradioactive materials from the Fukushima Dai-ichi Nuclear Power Plant. In other words, “ionizing radiation” (i.e., the direct effects in the context of Otaki [48]) was not the exclusive source. It is entirely valid to say that the high abnormality and mortality rates observed in the butterfly were caused by the pollutants from the Fukushima nuclear accident. This UNSCEAR case indicates the low level of understanding regarding the field effects and the lack of fundamental logic among the researchers who contributed to the formulation of these paragraphs in the UNSCEAR 2017 Report [93]. On the other hand, these misleading comments may be understandable, considering that we presented the topic of indirect field effects only briefly in our previous papers. There is an urgent need for more precise explanations and experimental validation of this issue.
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\n
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9. Extrapolating butterfly toxicology to humans
\n
The evaluation of the field effects may not be straightforward because of its indirect nature; however, our system for the internal exposure experiments likely reflects both the direct effects and some of the indirect field effects based on the use of the field-collected host-plant leaves for butterfly larvae. Because the larvae are highly resistant against the internal exposure to pure radioactive cesium (unpublished data), the high mortality and abnormality rates from the contaminated leaves can be largely attributed to the indirect field effects. It should be noted that what was measured in our experiments was the radioactivity concentration of radiocesium; however, other radioactive and nonradioactive materials were released from the Fukushima nuclear reactors, and these materials may have also contaminated the leaves. In this sense, the radioactivity concentrations of radiocesium can be considered as an indicator of the degree of the pollution. This is an important difference from the conventional dosimetric approach. To our knowledge, quantitative toxicological data that reflected some of the field effects were available only for butterflies. Thus, it is interesting to apply these data to humans to roughly grasp the collective effects of the Fukushima nuclear accident. Although there is no rigorous reason to believe that the butterfly data are applicable to humans, this attempt can be justified because of the lack of human-specific data and data from other organisms that reflect both the direct effects and indirect field effects.
\n
The basic experimental strategy was to collect the polluted food (i.e., plants) from Fukushima and feed the plant samples to butterfly larvae from Okinawa, which was the least polluted locality in Japan. When non-contaminated leaves were fed to larvae, normal individuals emerged. However, when polluted leaves were fed to larvae, morphologically abnormal adults emerged, and the mortality of larvae and pupae was high. The abnormality rate and the mortality rate were then obtained for each polluted diet. Because the radioactivity concentration of radiocesium species (134Cs plus 137Cs) in foods (Bq kg−1 diet) and the amount of food that each larva ate (g) was available, a dose-response curve was obtained [12].
\n
The half abnormality dose (equivalent to median toxic dose, TD50; called TD50 hereafter) of radiocesium for the butterfly was first obtained in Nohara et al. [10] based on the power function fit for data points from relatively high-dose diets. Later, the data points from the relatively low-dose diets were added to the previous data [11]. The mathematical model fits for these combined data were performed using the power function and Weibull function models [12]; the sigmoidal data fit with the Weibull function model yielded a TD50 value of 0.45 Bq body−1 (meaning that a cumulative dose of 0.45 Bq per larva results in abnormality or death in 50% of the population). A loose threshold was detected at approximately 10 mBq body−1.
\n
The mean body weight of larvae was 0.0346 g. Therefore, the TD50 can be read as 13 kBq kg−1 body weight. Here, I assume an average Japanese male person (30–49 years old) has a body weight of 68.5 kg, according to a survey by the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare [94]. For this average person, 13 kBq kg−1 body weight is multiplied by 68.5 kg body weight, resulting in a TD50 of 890.5 kBq body−1 for an average Japanese male human. This average person eats 1.555 kg diet day−1 when nutritional balance is maintained [95].
\n
Based on these data, the radioactivity concentration of diets required to reach the TD50 value in a given time span in a Japanese male human can be calculated (Figure 3a). To consume 890.5 kBq in 1 day, 890.5 kBq must be contained in a 1.555 kg diet; thus, the radioactivity concentration of 573 kBq kg−1 diet must be consumed to reach the TD50 value in 1 day. To consume 890.5 kBq within 1 year (365 days), a 1.57 kBq kg−1 diet is required. Similarly, a 157 Bq kg−1 diet and a 15.7 Bq kg−1 diet are required to reach the TD50 value in 10 years and 100 years, respectively. Clearly, a 15.7 Bq kg−1 diet is mostly negligible for this average person between the age of 30 and 49 because he will naturally die before he reaches a 50% chance of becoming sick. However, a 157 Bq kg−1 diet is not negligible for this average person because there is still a 50% chance of becoming sick in the next 10 years.
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Figure 3.
Extrapolation of toxicological data from the pale grass blue butterfly to an average Japanese male human. (a) Linearly extrapolating the butterfly data to understand the relationship between radioactivity concentration in consumed diet and time to reach TD50. For example, to reach the TD50 value in 10 years, an average daily consumption of a diet containing 157 Bq kg−1 diet is required. (b) Linear relationship between cumulative radioactivity in a body and time to reach TD50. Lines with daily 100 Bq kg−1 consumption and 10 Bq kg−1 consumption are shown. When an average of 100 Bq diet is consumed daily, it takes 16.7 years for a Japanese male human to reach the TD50 value (8.9 × 105 Bq body−1).
\n
Additionally, the number of days (or years) required to reach the TD50 value when 100 Bq kg−1 diet or 10 Bq kg−1 diet is consumed can be calculated (Figure 3b). When an average Japanese male human consumes a 100 Bq kg−1 diet, it takes 16.7 years to reach the TD50 value. This is a non-negligible time span. However, a 10 Bq kg−1 diet may be negligible because it takes 167 years to reach the TD50 value, which is beyond the human lifespan.
\n
Considering that the amount (becquerel) of radioactivity concentration of 134Cs and 137Cs discussed above is as low as the amount of naturally occurring 40K, a counter argument to this discussion would be that no harmful effect is expected from the conventional dosimetric view. However, it should be remembered that the amount of radiocesium is simply an indication of pollution levels in terms of the field effects. Moreover, we have experimental evidence that artificial radiocesium is clearly harmful at radioactivity levels as low as those observed for radiopotassium (unpublished data). I will discuss this important issue if there is an opportunity to do so in the future.
\n
It should also be remembered that the discussion above completely ignored the dose-rate effects and the physiological differences between butterflies and humans, which include different biological half-lives and organ accumulation of cesium species. This study also ignored the different types of indirect field effects that may be species-specific, depending on the ecological status of a species. It should also be noted that the TD50 state is toxicologically convenient to evaluate potential effects, but it means a devastating massive outbreak of diseases in terms of public health. Another viewpoint to consider is that toxicological evaluations are often misleading and give the impression that anything that does not reach the TD50 value within a reasonable time or does not exceed the limit is completely safe for everybody. Scientists and politicians should pay special attention to minorities who may still be affected at this level [48, 96].
\n
Having mentioned these points, a discussion based on the TD50 value is probably as insightful as a discussion on the current political dose limits, which are based on the effective dose limits recommended by the ICRP [97]. In these conventional cases, no field effects were considered. Fortunately, based on the discussion above, the current regulation limit in Japan, i.e., 100 Bq kg−1 for general foods, may not be a completely wrong value. In fact, this value can be considered as a starting point for this type of discussion. I believe that the theoretical results above are an important first step from which we can at least present the potential values for risk assessment and management.
\n
\n
\n
10. Conclusions and future perspectives
\n
It can be concluded that the “low-dose” exposure from the Fukushima nuclear accident imposed potentially non-negligible toxic effects on organisms including butterflies and humans through field effects. At the high-dose exposure, the same field effects would exist, but they would likely be masked by the acute damage. The direct effects may be assessed reasonably by dosimetric analysis even in the field cases, especially for high-dose cases. The field-laboratory paradox is not really a paradox; rather, it indicates our fragmentary knowledge on the real-world pollution caused by this nuclear accident.
\n
Although this chapter sheds light on one important low-dose issue, there are many other issues associated with the field effects that should be studied both in the field and in the laboratory. One of these issues is the adaptive and evolutionary responses of organisms to environmental radiation in contaminated areas. The pale grass blue butterfly appears to have evolutionarily adapted to the environmental pollutants [98]. This adaptive evolution may be largely in response to the field effects because the butterfly is essentially very resistant to direct irradiation without any possible adaptive response (unpublished data). However, the direct ionizing damage on DNA would also play an important role in adaptive response if such damage exists.
\n
Simply because there are multiple effective pathways of the field effects, sensitivity variations to different modes may vary considerably among species and even among individuals in a given species. The net effects may be determined through synergistic amplification. To further understand the effects of the Fukushima pollution, multifaceted scientific approaches that are firmly based on field work and field-based laboratory experiments (such as the internal exposure experiments using the field-harvested leaves) are expected in the future. A mechanistic understanding of the indirect field effects is also necessary to advance this field of pollution biology.
\n
Simultaneously, studies on the mechanisms of the direct ionizing effects in the field (although the final effects may also be affected by the indirect field effects) should be advanced. As pointed out by Steen [99], multifaceted analyses at the DNA and genomic levels are expected to reveal evidence for direct DNA damage in the field after the Fukushima nuclear accident. I believe that the immediate early exposures to short-lived radionuclides impacted DNA directly, which then might have been inherited to subsequent generations. Such evidence would firmly establish the adverse biological effects caused by the Fukushima nuclear accident at the molecular level. Furthermore, spatiotemporal changes of such DNA damage would reveal population-level dynamics of adaptive evolution in the field, serving as an important case of the real-world evolution in evolutionary biology as well as in radiation pollution biology. Borrowing the famous phrase from Hamlet again, I would state, “To be and not to be (i.e., the direct and indirect field effects), that is the answer”.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
The author thanks members of the BCPH Unit of Molecular Physiology for technical help and discussion. The author also thanks professional peer reviewers for critical comments on this manuscript. This study was thankfully funded by donators for the Fukushima Project.
\n
\n',keywords:"biological effect, ecological effect, field effect, Fukushima nuclear accident, low-dose exposure, indirect effect, UNSCEAR",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/63095.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/63095.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63095",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63095",totalDownloads:654,totalViews:168,totalCrossrefCites:5,dateSubmitted:"June 26th 2018",dateReviewed:"July 2nd 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"December 12th 2018",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Many reports about the biological effects of the Fukushima nuclear accident on various wild organisms have accumulated in recent years. Results from field-based laboratory experiments using the pale grass blue butterfly have clearly demonstrated that this butterfly is highly sensitive to “low-dose” internal exposure from field-contaminated host-plant leaves. These experimental results are fully consistent with the filed-collection results reporting high abnormality rates. In contrast, this butterfly is highly resistant against the internal exposure to chemically pure radioactive cesium chloride under laboratory conditions. To resolve this field-laboratory paradox, I propose that the field effects, which are a collection of indirect effects that work through different modes of action than do the conventional direct effects, play an important role in the “low-dose” exposure results in the field. In other words, exclusively focusing on the effects of direct radiation, as predicted by dosimetric analysis, may be too simplistic. In this chapter, I provide a working definition and discuss the possible variation in the field effects. I include an example on the misunderstanding of the field effects In the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR) 2017 Report. Lastly, I discuss a theoretical application of the butterfly model to humans.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/63095",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/63095",signatures:"Joji M. Otaki",book:{id:"7287",title:"New Trends in Nuclear Science",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"New Trends in Nuclear Science",slug:"new-trends-in-nuclear-science",publishedDate:"December 12th 2018",bookSignature:"Nasser Sayed Awwad and Salem A. AlFaify",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7287.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"208068",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Joji",middleName:"M.",surname:"Otaki",fullName:"Joji Otaki",slug:"joji-otaki",email:"otaki@sci.u-ryukyu.ac.jp",position:null,institution:{name:"University of the Ryukyus",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. The pale grass blue butterfly: a versatile indicator",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Targeted and nontargeted effects",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Field effects (1): synergistic effects",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Field effects (2): particulate matter",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Field effects (3): ecological effects",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Possible field effects on humans",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. UNSCEAR 2017 Report",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"9. Extrapolating butterfly toxicology to humans",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"10. Conclusions and future perspectives",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Wheatley S, Sovacool B, Sornette D. Of disasters and dragon kings: A statistical analysis of nuclear power incidents and accidents. Risk Analysis. 2017;37:99-115\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Møller AP, Mousseau TA. Biological consequences of Chernobyl: 20 years on. Trends in Ecology and Evolution. 2006;21:200-207\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Møller AP, Mousseau TA. Strong effects of ionizing radiation from Chernobyl on mutation rates. Scientific Reports. 2015;5:8363\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Møller AP, Mousseau TA. Are organisms adapting to ionizing radiation at Chernobyl? 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Gene expression analyses of the small intestine of pigs in the ex-evacuation zone of the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant. BMC Veterinary Research. 2017;13:337\n'},{id:"B34",body:'Nakamura AJ, Suzuki M, Redon CE, Kuwahara Y, Yamashiro H, Abe Y, Takahashi S, Fukuda T, Isogai E, Bonner WM, Fukumoto M. The causal relationship between DNA damage induction in bovine lymphocytes and the Fukushima Nuclear Power Plant Accident. Radiation Research. 2017;187:630-636\n'},{id:"B35",body:'Takino S, Yamashiro H, Sugano Y, Fujishima Y, Nakata A, Kasai K, Hayashi G, Urushihara Y, Suzuki M, Shinoda H, Miura T, Fukumoto M. Analysis of the effect of chronic and low-dose radiation exposure on spermatogenic cells of male large Japanese field mice (Apodemus speciosus) after the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant Accident. 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Environmental Science and Technology. 2017;51:4632-4641\n'},{id:"B38",body:'Yamashiro H, Abe Y, Fukuda T, Kino Y, Kawaguchi I, Kuwahara Y, Fukumoto M, Takahashi S, Suzuki M, Kobayashi J, Uematsu E, Tong B, Yamada T, Yoshida S, Sato E, Shinoda H, Sekine T, Isogai E, Fukumoto M. Effects of radioactive caesium on bull testes after the Fukushima nuclear accident. Scientific Reports. 2013;3:2850\n'},{id:"B39",body:'Yamashiro H, Abe Y, Hayashi G, Urushihara Y, Kuwahara Y, Suzuki M, Kobayashi J, Kino Y, Fukuda Y, Tong B, Takino S, Sugano Y, Sugimura S, Yamada T, Isogai E, Fukumoto M. Electron probe X-ray microanalysis of boar and inobuta testes after the Fukushima accident. Journal of Radiation Research. 2015;56:i42-i47\n'},{id:"B40",body:'Okano T, Ishiniwa H, Onuma M, Shindo J, Yokohata Y, Tamaoki M. Effects of environmental radiation on testes and spermatogenesis in wild large Japanese field mice (Apodemus speciosus) from Fukushima. 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The Fukushima nuclear accident and the pale grass blue butterfly: Evaluating biological effects of long-term low-dose exposures. BMC Evolutionary Biology. 2013;13:168\n'},{id:"B45",body:'Taira W, Nohara C, Hiyama A, Otaki JM. Fukushima’s biological impacts: The case of the pale grass blue butterfly. Journal of Heredity. 2014;105:710-722\n'},{id:"B46",body:'Lawrence PA. The Making of a Fly: The Genetics of Animal Design. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific; 1992\n'},{id:"B47",body:'Caro T. Conservation by Proxy: Indicator, Umbrella, Keystone, Flagship, and Other Surrogate Species. 2nd ed. Washington: Island Press; 2010\n'},{id:"B48",body:'Otaki JM. Fukushima’s lessons from the blue butterfly: A risk assessment of the human living environment in the post-Fukushima era. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management. 2016;12:667-672\n'},{id:"B49",body:'Hiyama A, Iwata M, Otaki JM. Rearing the pale grass blue Zizeeria maha (Lepidoptera, Lycaenidae): Toward the establishment of a lycaenid model system for butterfly physiology and genetics. Entomological Science. 2010;13:293-302\n'},{id:"B50",body:'Otaki JM, Hiyama A, Iwata M, Kudo T. Phenotypic plasticity in the range-margin population of the lycaenid butterfly Zizeeria maha. BMC Evolutionary Biology. 2010;10:252\n'},{id:"B51",body:'UNSCEAR. United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. Biological Mechanisms of Radiation Actions at Low Doses. A White Paper to Guide the Scientific Committee’s Future Programme of Work. New York: United Nations; 2012\n'},{id:"B52",body:'Mothersill C, Seymour C. Implications for environmental health of multiple stressors. Journal of Radiological Protection. 2009;29:A21\n'},{id:"B53",body:'Mothersill C, Seymour C. Implications for human and environmental health of low doses of ionizing radiation. 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Ozone acts alone and synergistically with ionizing radiation to induce in vitro neoplastic transformation. Carcinogenesis. 1986;7:1611-1613\n'},{id:"B60",body:'Mothersill C, Salbu B, Heier LS, Teien HC, Denbeigh J, Oughton D, Rosseland BO, Seymour CB. Multiple stressor effects of radiation and metals in salmon (Salmo salar). Journal of Environmental Radioactivity. 2007;96:20-31\n'},{id:"B61",body:'Manti L, D’Arco A. Cooperative biological effects between ionizing radiation and other physical and chemical agents. Mutation Research. 2010;704:115-122\n'},{id:"B62",body:'Gilbert SF, Epel D. Ecological Developmental Biology: The Environmental Regulation of Development, Health, and Evolution. 2nd ed. Sunderland: Sinauer Associates; 2015\n'},{id:"B63",body:'Relyea RA. Predator cues and pesticides: A double dose of danger for amphibians. Ecological Applications. 2003;13:1515-1521\n'},{id:"B64",body:'Relyea RA. 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Particulate air pollution and acute health effects. Lancet. 1995;345:176-178\n'},{id:"B70",body:'Kappos A, Bruckmann P, Eikmann T, Englert N, Heinrich U, et al. Health effects of particles in ambient air. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health. 2004;207:399-407\n'},{id:"B71",body:'Utell MJ, Frampton MW. Acute health effects of ambient air pollution: The ultrafine particle hypothesis. Journal of Aerosol Medicine. 2009;13:355-359\n'},{id:"B72",body:'Shiraiwa M, Selzle K, Pöschl U. Hazardous components and health effects of atmospheric aerosol particles: Reactive oxygen species, soot, polycyclic aromatic compounds and allergenic proteins. Free Radical Research. 2012;46:927-939\n'},{id:"B73",body:'UNSCEAR. United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. Ionizing Radiation: Sources and Biological Effects. 1982 Report to the General Assembly, with Annexes. New York: United Nations; 1982\n'},{id:"B74",body:'Adachi K, Kajino M, Zaizen Y, Igarashi Y. Emission of spherical cesium-bearing particles from an early stage of the Fukushima nuclear accident. Scientific Reports. 2013;3:2554\n'},{id:"B75",body:'Miyamoto Y, Yasuda K, Magara M. Size distribution of radioactive particles collected at Tokai, Japan 6 days after the nuclear accident. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity. 2014;132:1-7\n'},{id:"B76",body:'Bréchignac F, Oughton D, Mays C, Barnthouse L, Beasley JC, Bonisili-Alquati A, Bradshaw C, Brown J, Dray S, Geras’kin S, Glenn T, Higley K, Ishida K, Kapustka L, Kautsky U, Kuhne W, Lynch M, Mappes T, Mihok S, Møller AP, Mothersill C, Mousseau TA, Otaki JM, Pryakhin E, Rhodes OE Jr, Salbu B, Strand P, Tsukada H. Addressing ecological effects of radiation on populations and ecosystems to improve protection of the environment against radiation: Agreed statements from a Consensus Symposium. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity. 2016;158-159:21-29\n'},{id:"B77",body:'Sañudo-Wilhelmy SA, Cutter LS, Durazo R, Smail EA, Gómez-Consamau L, Webb EA, Prokopenko MG, Berelson WM, Karl DM. Multiple B-vitamin depletion in large areas of the coastal ocean. Proceeding of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2012;109:14041-14045\n'},{id:"B78",body:'Balk L, Hägerroth P-Å, Åkerman G, Hanson M, Tjärnlund U, Hansson T, Hallgrimsson GT, Zebühr Y, Broman D, Mörner T, Sundberg H. Wild birds of declining European species are dying from a thiamine deficiency syndrome. Proceeding of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2009;106:12001-12006\n'},{id:"B79",body:'Balk L, Hägerroth P-Å, Gustavsson H, Sigg L, Åkerman G, Muñoz YR, Honeyfield DC, Tjärnlund U, Oliveira K, Ström K, McCormick SD, Karlsson S, Ström M, van Manen M, Berg A-L, Halldórsson HP, Strömquist J, Collier TK, Börjeson H, Mörner T, Hansson T. Widespread episodic thiamine deficiency in Northern Hemisphere wildlife. Scientific Reports. 2016;6:38821\n'},{id:"B80",body:'Sonne C, Alstrup O, Therkildsen OR. A review of the factors causing paralysis in wild birds: Implications for the paralytic syndrome observed in the Baltic Sea. Science of Total Environment. 2012;416:32-39\n'},{id:"B81",body:'Dicke M, van Poecke RMP. Signalling in plant-insect interactions: Signal transduction in direct and indirect plant defense. In: Scheel D, Wasternack C, editors. Plant Signal Transduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2002. pp. 289-316\n'},{id:"B82",body:'Kessler A, Baldwin IT. Plant responses to insect herbivory: The emerging molecular analysis. Annual Review of Plant Biology. 2002;53:299-328\n'},{id:"B83",body:'Taiz L, Zeiger E, Møller IM, Murphy A. Plant Physiology and Development. 6th ed. Sunderland: Sinauer Associates; 2015\n'},{id:"B84",body:'McCann KS. The diversity–stability debate. Nature. 2000;405:228-233\n'},{id:"B85",body:'Ives AR, Carpenter SR. Stability and diversity of ecosystems. Science. 2007;317:58-62\n'},{id:"B86",body:'Otaki JM. Fukushima nuclear accident: Potential health effects inferred from butterfly and human cases. In: D’Mello JPF, editor. Environmental Toxicology. Oxon: CABI Publishing; 2019 In press\n'},{id:"B87",body:'Pirotzky E, Hieblot C, Benveniste J, Laurent J, Lagrue G, Noirot C. Basophil sensitisation in idiopathic nephrotic syndrome. Lancet. 1982;319:358-361\n'},{id:"B88",body:'Yap HK, Yip WC, Lee BW, Ho TF, Teo J, Aw SE, Tay JS. The incidence of atopy in steroid-responsive nephrotic syndrome: Clinical and immunological parameters. Annals of Allergy. 1983;51:590-594\n'},{id:"B89",body:'Laurent J, Lagrue G, Belghiti D, Noirot C, Hirbec G. Is house dust allergen a possible causal factor for relapses in lipoid nephrosis? Allergy. 1984;39:231-236\n'},{id:"B90",body:'Lin CY, Lee BH, Lin CC, Chen WP. A study of the relationship between childhood nephrotic syndrome and allergic diseases. Chest. 1990;97:1408-1411\n'},{id:"B91",body:'Abdel-Hafez M, Shimada M, Lee PY, Johnson RJ, Garin EH. Idiopathic nephrotic syndrome and atopy: Is there a common link? American Journal of Kidney Diseases. 2009;54:945-954\n'},{id:"B92",body:'Cohen EP, Fish BL, Moulder JE. Late-onset effects of radiation and chronic kidney diseases. Lancet. 2015;386:1737-1738\n'},{id:"B93",body:'UNSCEAR. United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. Developments since the 2013 UNSCEAR Report on the Levels and Effects of Radiation Exposure due to the Nuclear Accident following the Great East-Japan Earthquake and Tsunami. A 2017 White Paper to Guide the Scientific Committee’s Future Programme of Work. New York: United Nations; 2017\n'},{id:"B94",body:'JATCC. Japan Association of Training Colleges for Cooks. Characteristics of Foods and Nutrients. Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare: Tokyo; 2014\n'},{id:"B95",body:'Kagawa Y. Standard Tables of Food Consumption in Japan. 7th ed. Sakado: Kagawa Nutrition University Press; 2016\n'},{id:"B96",body:'Fukunaga H, Yokoya A. Low-dose radiation risk and individual variation in radiation sensitivity in Fukushima. Journal of Radiation Research. 2016;57:98-100\n'},{id:"B97",body:'Iwaoka K. The current limits for radionuclides in food in Japan. Health Physics. 2016;111:471-478\n'},{id:"B98",body:'Nohara C, Hiyama A, Taira W, Otaki JM. Robustness and radiation resistance of the pale grass blue butterfly from radioactively contaminated areas: A possible case of adaptive evolution. Journal of Heredity. 2018;109:188-198\n'},{id:"B99",body:'Steen TY. Ecological impacts of ionizing radiation: Follow-up studies of nonhuman species at Fukushima. Journal of Heredity. 2018;109:176-177\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Joji M. Otaki",address:"otaki@sci.u-ryukyu.ac.jp",affiliation:'
The BCPH Unit of Molecular Physiology, Department of Chemistry, Biology and Marine Science, Faculty of Science, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, Japan
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"7287",title:"New Trends in Nuclear Science",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"New Trends in Nuclear Science",slug:"new-trends-in-nuclear-science",publishedDate:"December 12th 2018",bookSignature:"Nasser Sayed Awwad and Salem A. AlFaify",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7287.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoglu",email:"erkekp@yahoo.com",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",position:null,biography:"Pınar Erkekoglu was born in Ankara, Turkey. She graduated with a BS from Hacettepe University Faculty of Pharmacy. Later, she received an MSci and Ph.D. in Toxicology. She completed a part of her Ph.D. studies in Grenoble, France, at Universite Joseph Fourier and CEA/INAC/LAN after receiving a full scholarship from both the Erasmus Scholarship Program and CEA. She worked as a post-doc and a visiting associate in the Biological Engineering Department at Massachusetts Institute of Technology. She is currently working as a full professor at Hacettepe University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Toxicology. Her main study interests are clinical and medical aspects of toxicology, endocrine-disrupting chemicals, and oxidative stress. She has published more than 150 papers in national and international journals. Dr. Erkekoglu has been a European Registered Toxicologist (ERT) since 2014.",institutionString:"Hacettepe University",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109978/images/system/109978.JPG",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalEditedBooks:"5",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:{name:"Hacettepe University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},booksEdited:[{type:"book",slug:"medical-toxicology",title:"Medical Toxicology",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7847.jpg",abstract:"Medical toxicology is a sub-branch of toxicology concerned with the diagnosis, management, and prevention of poisoning and other adverse effects of drugs, cosmetics, personal care products, occupational and environmental toxicants, and biological agents. Poisoning with drugs, herbs, venoms, and toxins is a significant global public health problem. Medical toxicologists are involved in the assessment and treatment of acute or chronic poisoning, substance abuse, adverse drug reactions, drug overdoses, envenomation, industrial accidents, and other chemical exposures. As such, there is a pressing need for safe and specific antidotes, as many antidotes currently in use have a relatively low margin of safety or therapeutic index. This book focuses on poisonings with drugs, venoms, toxins, interaction in clinics, antidotes, and forensics. It provides qualified scientific knowledge on different aspects of medical toxicology, drug and substance abuse, clinical interactions between drugs and herbs, antidotes, antidote networks, and forensic toxicology.",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}},{type:"book",slug:"oncogenes-and-carcinogenesis",title:"Oncogenes and Carcinogenesis",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7281.jpg",abstract:"Oncogenes are mutated and/or overexpressed at high levels in tumor cells. Tumors of the lung, breast, pancreas, and colon may display specific oncogenetic features. These tumors have been largely associated with exposure to environmental carcinogens and a variety of biological agents, including viruses. These carcinogens can induce specific genetic and epigenetic alterations in these tissues, leading to aberrant functioning of oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes. On the microRNAs (miRNAs) there are significant modifiers of both transcription and translation of oncogenes in carcinogenesis. In the last 50 years, several oncogenes and microRNAs related to these oncogenes have been identified in different types of human cancers. It is now clear that high expression of oncogenes, DNA damage response, and regulation of the cell cycle are related to the circadian clock. This book will mainly focus on the expressions of different oncogenes in breast, colon, and lung cancers. Moreover, readers will gain qualified scientific knowledge of the alterations in miRNAs in different types of cancers and the effects of the circadian clock on the expression of oncogenes in carcinogenesis.",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}},{type:"book",slug:"glutathione-in-health-and-disease",title:"Glutathione in Health and Disease",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6486.jpg",abstract:"Reduced glutathione (GSH) is the most important thiol in living organisms. It is the key component of antioxidant system and serves as a free radical scavenger. There is a cycle of GSH in biological systems and this cycle provides higher intracellular levels of GSH. GSH depletion and apparent oxidative stress may cause toxicity and can affect the general well-being of the organism. GSH was shown to be preventive against aging, cancer, heart disease, infections and dementia. This book is mainly focused on GSH in health and disease. The readers will gain qualified scientific knowledge on the diverse functions of GSH, the importance of GSH status against oxidative stress and the interaction between GSH and nervous system-related infections from this book.",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}},{type:"book",slug:"bisphenol-a-exposure-and-health-risks",title:"Bisphenol A",subtitle:"Exposure and Health Risks",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5836.jpg",abstract:"Bisphenol A (BPA) is a synthetic compound for hardening and clearing polycarbonate plastics. BPA is mainly classified as an estrogen-like endocrine-disrupting chemical. In the last decade, attention has arisen in scientific communities that it is not safe to use this chemical in mainly polycarbonate plastics. Exposure to BPA starts in prenatal period, which is the critical period for its toxic effects on different organs. Throughout this book, the readers will obtain information on the effects of BPA on different systems. They will also get information on the prenatal and postnatal effects of BPA. We believe that readers will get qualified scientific knowledge and a general overview of the toxic effects of BPA exposure and its consequences from this book.",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}},{type:"book",slug:"nutritional-deficiency",title:"Nutritional Deficiency",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5176.jpg",abstract:"Intake of a sufficient diet will provide an individual to live a healthy and functional life. However, poor intake of different nutritional components, such as proteins, vitamins, minerals, and trace elements, may lead to health problems that can cause morbidity and finally mortality. Assessment of nutritional status involves physical examination, comprehensive evaluation of biochemical tests, body composition, and organ functions. Both high and low intake of nutritional elements may lead to significant health impairment. The main aim of the book Nutritional Deficiency is to determine the relationships between nutritional status and general health. The authors, who are contributing to the book, particularly focused on iron, vitamin D, and zinc deficiencies, which are global health problems. Besides, some chapters mention the impact of different nutritional deficiencies in susceptible periods of life, such as pregnancy and elderly. Besides, as a result of these deficiencies, different health conditions, such as depression, anemia, loss of neuronal plasticity, and cancer, are widely scrutinized in the book. One chapter mainly focuses on the effects of disasters on nutrition and disaster-caused malnutrition in underdeveloped countries. This book will widen the knowledge store of the readers on the effects of nutrition on general health, how nutritional deficiencies arise when there is a health problem, and how the nutritional status affects susceptible populations.",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Protection Studies by Antioxidants Using Single Cell Gel Electrophoresis (Comet Assay)",slug:"protection-studies-by-antioxidants-using-comet-assay",abstract:null,signatures:"Pınar Erkekoglu",authors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",surname:"Erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",email:"erkekp@yahoo.com"}],book:{title:"Gel Electrophoresis",slug:"gel-electrophoresis-advanced-techniques",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}},{title:"Environmental Effects of Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals: A Special Focus on Phthalates and Bisphenol A",slug:"environmental-effects-of-endocrine-disrupting-chemicals-a-special-focus-on-phthalates-and-bisphenol-",abstract:"Several environmental chemicals are classified as endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs). Many of them have an impact on reproductive functions and sex hormones because of their estrogenic and/or antiandrogenic properties. Phthalates and bisphenol A (BPA) are two well-known EDCs. They are abundant in the environment. Phthalates are usually classified as antiandrogens, whereas BPA is considered as estrogen-like EDC and xenoestrogen. Other than their endocrine-disrupting effects, these two chemicals are also known to have genotoxic and epigenetic effects. Besides, they are hepatotoxic and have substantial effects on other organs/systems (thyroid, kidney, neuroendocrine system, immune system, etc.). In this chapter, we will mainly focus on the toxic effects of different phthalate esters and BPA by discussing their availability in the environment, mechanism and mode of actions, their biotransformation and reproductive effects, and their effects on other systems (hepatic, renal, etc.). Besides, we discuss epidemiological studies that are conducted to reveal their effects on the reproductive and endocrine systems. This chapter provides the readers a compact piece of knowledge on these abundant substances and helps them to understand the action of these substances at the molecular and cellular levels.",signatures:"Pinar Erkekoglu and Belma Kocer-Gumusel",authors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",surname:"Erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",email:"erkekp@yahoo.com"},{id:"185037",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",surname:"Kocer-Gumusel",fullName:"Belma Kocer-Gumusel",slug:"belma-kocer-gumusel",email:"belmagumusel@yahoo.com"}],book:{title:"Environmental Health Risk",slug:"environmental-health-risk-hazardous-factors-to-living-species",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}},{title:"Introductory Chapter: A General Overview of Glutathione, Glutathione Transport, and Glutathione Applications",slug:"introductory-chapter-a-general-overview-of-glutathione-glutathione-transport-and-glutathione-applica",abstract:null,signatures:"Pinar Erkekoglu",authors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",surname:"Erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",email:"erkekp@yahoo.com"}],book:{title:"Glutathione in Health and Disease",slug:"glutathione-in-health-and-disease",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}},{title:"Introductory Chapter: Interactions between Environmental Chemicals and KRAS Oncogene in Different Cancers - Special Focus on Colorectal, Pancreatic, and Lung Cancers",slug:"introductory-chapter-interactions-between-environmental-chemicals-and-kras-oncogene-in-different-can",abstract:null,signatures:"Pinar Erkekoglu",authors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",surname:"Erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",email:"erkekp@yahoo.com"}],book:{title:"Oncogenes and Carcinogenesis",slug:"oncogenes-and-carcinogenesis",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}},{title:"Introductory Chapter: Medical Toxicology",slug:"introductory-chapter-medical-toxicology",abstract:null,signatures:"Pınar Erkekoğlu and Suna Sabuncuoğlu",authors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",surname:"Erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",email:"erkekp@yahoo.com"},{id:"329934",title:"Dr.",name:"Suna",surname:"Sabuncuoğlu",fullName:"Suna Sabuncuoğlu",slug:"suna-sabuncuoglu",email:"suna@hacettepe.edu.tr"}],book:{title:"Medical Toxicology",slug:"medical-toxicology",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"48845",title:"Prof.",name:"Orhan",surname:"Ince",slug:"orhan-ince",fullName:"Orhan Ince",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"53263",title:"Dr.",name:"Zeynep",surname:"Cetecioglu",slug:"zeynep-cetecioglu",fullName:"Zeynep Cetecioglu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"56506",title:"Prof.",name:"Bahar",surname:"Ince",slug:"bahar-ince",fullName:"Bahar Ince",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Boğaziçi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"112875",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Gizella",surname:"Győrffyné Dr. Jahnke",slug:"gizella-gyorffyne-dr.-jahnke",fullName:"Gizella Győrffyné Dr. Jahnke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/112875/images/110_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pannonia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"114982",title:"Prof.",name:"Loretto",surname:"Contreras-Porcia",slug:"loretto-contreras-porcia",fullName:"Loretto Contreras-Porcia",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/114982/images/2623_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Andrés Bello University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"115954",title:"Prof.",name:"Jesús Manuel",surname:"Cantoral Fernández",slug:"jesus-manuel-cantoral-fernandez",fullName:"Jesús Manuel Cantoral Fernández",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cádiz",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"117891",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",surname:"Fernández-Acero",slug:"francisco-javier-fernandez-acero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Fernández-Acero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cádiz",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"117934",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Esther",surname:"Rodríguez",slug:"maria-esther-rodriguez",fullName:"Maria Esther Rodríguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cádiz",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"117936",title:"Prof.",name:"Laureana",surname:"Rebordinos",slug:"laureana-rebordinos",fullName:"Laureana Rebordinos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cádiz",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"117937",title:"MSc.",name:"Eugenia",surname:"Muñoz-Bernal",slug:"eugenia-munoz-bernal",fullName:"Eugenia Muñoz-Bernal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cádiz",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},generic:{page:{slug:"our-story",title:"Our story",intro:"
The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
",metaTitle:"Our story",metaDescription:"The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/our-story",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\\n\\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n\\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\\n\\n
2004
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\\n\\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n
\\n\\n
2005
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\\n
\\n\\n
2006
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\\n
\\n\\n
2008
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\\n
\\n\\n
2009
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\\n
\\n\\n
2010
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\\n
\\n\\n
2011
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\\n
\\n\\n
2012
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\\n
\\n\\n
2013
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\\n
\\n\\n
2014
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\\n
\\n\\n
2015
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\\n\\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\\n\\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\\n
\\n\\n
2016
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\\n
\\n\\n
2017
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\n\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\n\n
2004
\n\n
\n\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\n\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n
\n\n
2005
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\n
\n\n
2006
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\n
\n\n
2008
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\n
\n\n
2009
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\n
\n\n
2010
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\n
\n\n
2011
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\n\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\n\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\n
\n\n
2012
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\n
\n\n
2013
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\n
\n\n
2014
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\n\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\n
\n\n
2015
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\n\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\n\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\n
\n\n
2016
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n
\n\n
2017
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
\n
\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). 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