\r\n\tThis necessitated a need to understand control theoretical concepts and system analysis in a discrete time domain, which gave rise to the area of discrete time control systems. This has helped control engineers and designers to theoretically ascertain the possibilities and limitations of a control system design implemented in a digital framework, whereas continuous time designs suffer from the essential mismatch in the nature of the underlying independent time variable in theoretical studies and practical implementation. Also, many practical systems are inherently discrete time in nature, sensors and transducers sample data only at fixed time intervals, and computers calculate the control input only in some finite time.
\r\n\tTraditionally, fundamental concepts of discrete time control systems are derived from the continuous time counterpart upon time discretization of the latter and subsequent formal analysis. This gave rise to discrete time counterparts of system models and controllers in z-domain as well as in state space form. However, discrete time control system design and analysis matured as a discipline in itself with the advent of optimal and adaptive techniques solely based on discrete time approach. Robust nonlinear discrete time controllers were also developed utilizing the ideas of sliding modes, model predictive control, etc.
\r\n\tThe techniques for parameter estimation and system identification are largely dominated by discrete time methods. Well-established Kalman filter and extended Kalman filters are developed in discrete time. Many discrete time stochastic filters are utilized in control systems to reduce the impact of noise and disturbance during practical implementation.
\r\n\tDespite the developments in discrete time control designs and their usefulness in control system implementation, there are a few challenges like discretization effect on systems stability, communication loss, etc. which are also areas of serious research. With all its usefulness and limitations, discrete time control systems have found vast areas of application from process control and automation, robotics, network control systems and internet of things, control of networks and multi-agent systems, etc.
\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with an overview of detailed control system design methodologies in discrete time which are well-established in literature. Emerging areas of interest in discrete time systems catering to new and existing challenges are also welcomed.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are chemicals of global concern due to their potential for long-range transport, persistence in the environment, ability to biomagnify and bioaccumulate in ecosystems, as well as their significant negative effects on human health and the environment. The WHO further indicates humans are exposed to these chemicals in a variety of ways: mainly through the food we eat but also through the air we breathe, in the outdoors, in the indoors and at the workplace. The WHO further explains that many products used in our daily lives may contain POPs, which have been added to improve product characteristics, such as flame retardants or surfactants. This property renders POPs to be found virtually everywhere on our planet in measurable concentrations [1].
According to the WHO report, the most commonly encountered POPs are organochlorine pesticides, such as DDT, industrial chemicals, most notably polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), as well as unintentional by-products of many industrial processes, especially polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDD) and dibenzofurans (PCDF), commonly known as ‘dioxins’ [1].
The WHO report further indicates that POPs biomagnify throughout the food chain and bioaccumulate in organisms. The highest concentrations of POPs are thus found in organisms at the top of the food chain. Consequently, background levels of POPs can be found in the human body [1].
Human exposure—for some compounds and scenarios, even to low levels of POPs—can lead, among others, to increased cancer risk, reproductive disorders, alteration of the immune system, neurobehavioral impairment, endocrine disruption, genotoxicity and increased birth defects [1].
POPs as could be seen from above summary are indeed environmental threats that need to be addressed with all seriousness. Their mode of transmission is by atmospheric, and they can find their ways in all aspects of the environment (air, water and soil), and what is making it more dangerous is their persistent nature and most of them being non-biodegradable [2].
Health risk is the most important thing to note and pay particular attention to avoid contraction of example carcinogenic diseases that are life-threatening. It is no wonder that some of the chemicals such as DDT have been banned from usage in modern times. In places where they are found such as in lake sediments and other areas are difficult to remediate and difficult to repair when any damage has been done [3].
There is therefore the urgent need to give the maximum attention and try not to contaminate fresh waters and further spread it in the environment. People should be forewarned about its imminent dangers and try to avoid the dissipation of these dangerous chemicals into the environment.
There is the need to further research into possible areas suspected to be already contaminated such as farmlands where pesticides have been applied and their possible spread around. Taking note also of the fact, some of these dangerous pesticides could reach far more areas than could be imagined, and the strict adherence to the banning of some of them should be observed [4].
Scientists should be encouraged to publish their findings from research and data compiled. The research should target specific environments and the problems well addressed to ascertain what POPs have done to those environments.
The following areas of attention need to be concentrated:
Dissemination of POP chemicals into the food chain
Effects of POPs on rural drinking water
Atmospheric transfer of POPs into the environments
Harmful effects of POPs
Managing common sources of POPS
Anthropological effects of POPs
The environmental effects of POPs from application of pesticides
Since last couple of decades, environmental issues have been increasing and traveling faster than forest fire, country to region, region to world level territory, which is a serious cause of climate change and global warming. In addition, scarcity of natural resources and air and water pollution badly affect the fauna and flora, human life with different diseases they cause definitely, such like ischaemic heart disease, lung cancer, chronic obstruction pulmonary disease, stroke, Dracunculiasis, Cholera, Hepatitis, Typhoid fever, and Norovirus [2]. While, the green supply chain concept occurs to mitigate environmental degradations and control air, water and waste pollution through the adoption of green practices in business operations. Undeniably, the basic ideology behind green concept is to enhanced environmental sustainability, but firms adopt green concept as “kill two enemies with one bullet”. Because green supply chain can reduce the environmental pollution and production costs and it also can spur economic growth, create competitive advantage in terms of greater customer satisfaction, positive image and reputation and provide better opportunity to export their products in pro-environmental countries [1]. The definition of green idea is expanding with new innovations and techniques to protect environmental sustainability, which can be recognized by corporate social responsibility, green manufacturing, waste reduction, recycling and remanufacturing sustainable/environmental friendly supply chain, green supply chain, etc.
\nThe term sustainable or green supply chain refers to the idea of integrating sustainable environmental processes into the traditional supply chain. This can include processes such as supplier selection and purchasing material, product design, product manufacturing and assembling, distribution and end-of-life management. Instead of mitigating harmful impact of business and supply chain operations, green supply chain involves value addition and/or value creation through the operations of whole chain. Undeniably, reducing air, water and waste pollution is the main goal of green supply chain, while green operations also enhance firms’ performance in terms of less waste manufacturing, reuse and recycling of products, reduction in manufacturing costs, greater efficiency of assets, positive image building, and greater customer satisfaction. Figure 1 displays a green supply chain of child’s crib manufacturer as an example.
\nGreen supply chain of child’s crib manufacturer.
Green supply chain makes the applications of the key sustainable development strategy outstand. It emphasizes how green practices can be adopted in firms to mitigate the environmental degradations and increase the economic and operational performance of firms, while Figure 2 illustrates a simple model of green supply chain. Khan et al. [2] have explained the concepts of sustainable and green supply chain management:
\nSimple model of GSCM.
Application of environmental management principles to the entire set of activities across the whole customer order cycle, including, design, procurement, manufacturing and assembly, packaging, logistics and distribution [3].
\nIntegrating environmental thinking into supply chain management, including ecological design of products, purchasing green materials and components, reengineering of manufacturing steps towards ecofriendly, reverse logistics management of the product after its useful life [4].
\nIntegrating environmental consideration onto firms’ supply chain including reverse logistics [5].
\nReducing and controlling the harmful impacts of supply chain on the environment [6].
\nAdoption of ecological design, sourcing green materials and chemicals, and provide green trainings to employees under ethical leadership [7].
\nGreen supply chain are integrating ecofriendly concept into supply chain management to improve environmental sustainability with different green practices including, green purchasing, green distribution and warehousing, green transportation with usage of biofuels, green manufacturing processes and the products’ end-of-life management [2, 7].
\nIn the World, as the environmental awareness is increasing, firms are facing heavy pressure from different stakeholders including government and customers to mitigate their harmful effect on the environment [8]. Indeed, corporate sector needs to consider integrating their business practices in service and manufacturing industry with sustainability and reducing end-to-end supply chain costs to achieve competitive advantage [1, 9]. Since last couple of decades, growing impacts of global warming, climate change, waste and air pollution issues have involved increasing world-wide attention of experts to think more ecofriendly and find optimum possible solution towards “Green” [10, 11]. Rath [12] identified GSCM (green supply chain management) plays a part in motivating organizational sustainability. With the environmental concerns rising continuously, GSCM deserves a persistent community concern in developed nations. Further, it has recently woken up the developing nations to the green movement [13].
\nThere is no doubt that green supply chain is a relatively new idea, which is gaining popularity so as to improve environmental performance in the whole chain [5, 14]. We have identified the following six key critical success factors for putting green supply chain management into practice to attain better environmental sustainability
Ethical leadership/internal management
Customer management
Supplier management
Competitiveness
Societal
Regulatory
Internal environment management contains support and encouragement from senior managers. Internal management is a key critical success factor for enterprises to adopt green practices. Pressure employees bring about, encouragement and support from environmental-protection motivate senior management. Meanwhile, the perception of environmental risks involved could bring positive change in adoption of green practices [8, 15, 16].
\nIn green supply chains, customers play an important and effective part [13]. Indeed, developing nations’ firms are facing heavy pressure to adopt green practices in their business operations of supply chain to meet their customers’ demand so that they can be competitive in the market [17]. Cooperation with customers becomes very useful to attain fruitful advantages from green supply chain management [7, 18].
\nGreen supply chain practices are unable to be adopted without active participation of customers and suppliers [19, 20]. Strong collaboration with suppliers enhances incentive systems, boosts the adoption and development of innovative ecofriendly ideas. Technologies, green partnership agreements and openness in implementation of innovative green practices may generate enhancement in operational and environmental performance so as to achieve economic goals of firms [21].
\nA number of published researches showed that competence and relevant elements could play a part in green practices implementation in their supply chain [22, 23]. Competitiveness has been perceived as a significant factor to implement green practices rather than organizations’ wish to protect environmental sustainability. Implementing green practices in firms’ business operations may also be dated back to additional voluntary for competitive factors [8].
\nA number of researchers found the significance of societal factors for attaining environmental friendly practices objectives [15, 22, 24]. With growing attention of regulatory bodies and awareness of customers on environment, firms have to exchange end-to-end information regarding their supply chain operations’ effect on local community and people lives [25]. In addition, NGOs (nongovernment organizations), electronic and social media are more effective in exerting pressure on firms to adopt green practices.
\nIncreasing prominence of environmental concerns has forced regulatory authorities to strict their environmental laws and policies [8, 26]. Governmental bodies have been farming strict environmental laws to control climate change, global warming and pollution; and firms are required to reduce their supply chain’s negative effect on environmental sustainability [27]. Hence, it becomes more and more important for firms in supply chain to have conformity with regulations so as to conducting ecofriendly strategies.
\nWith numerous green practices adopted, companies in their business and supply chain operations improve their productivity with better environmental growth. While, some well-known green practices are as follows;
\nGreen sourcing means sourcing or purchasing materials and components which have such enviable ecofriendly characteristics as reusability, recyclability and nonuse of hazardous/dangerous chemicals [28]. With more and more concerns on environmental protection, procurement professionals have been motivated to reconsider their existing sourcing, purchasing strategy and their impact on environmental sustainability [29, 30]. The role of ecofriendly purchasing is the involvement of recycling and remanufacturing. Min and Galle [31] further emphasized green sourcing supporting waste reduction enhances recycling and remanufacturing and other activities in supply chain. Carter and Rogers [32] did a research to explore the impact of green sourcing on firms’ environmental and financial performance. They concluded that owing to the successful adoption of green purchasing strategy, products’ cost is reduced and environmental performance and financial performance of firms is increased with positive reputation obtained in the market. Zailani et al. [33] highlighted that ecofriendly purchasing has positive relationship with firms’ operational and environmental performance. Yang et al. [34] green purchasing was categorized into five main facets: design operation management, supply chain management, environmental authentication, ecological, and external environmental management. They confirmed that green purchasing improved to the overall firms’ performance [35]. The adoption of green purchasing in supply chain and business operations is a reliable tool in mitigating waste, air and water pollution.
\nThe actions directed to all incorporates and consumers comprise green marketing, a broad range of marketing activities (e.g., planning, production,, process, price, promotion and after-sale service) designed to illustrate the goal of organization to mitigate the harmful effects of their products [36]. Green marketing practice promotes the products with environmental friendly properties [8, 37]. It contains the activities that can satisfy human desires of minimum negative effects on the environmental beauty. In addition, green marketing enhances firms’ competitiveness and financial and environmental performance with positive corporate reputation and image [35, 38].
\nGreen management practices (GMP) provide a firm with supplementary sources of information that can enhance their business and environmental objectives [39]. Adoption of green management practices help with improved firm image, increased efficiency, environmental compliance improvement, cost savings, achievement of societal commitment and reduction of carbon emissions etc. [40, 41].
\nGreen distribution and warehousing can reduce the waste and play an important role in energy reduction and value addition of green products in warehousing significantly improve overall performance of organization with better corporate image [7]. Green distribution helps enterprises to obtain superior financial and environmental performance [42, 43].
\nGreen manufacturing practices are to implement socially and environmentally accountable practices to mitigate harmful effects of manufacturing and increased profitability of firms [8, 29]. Green practices in production improve efficiency of processes [33]. This practice involves the application of the green resources, which may lead towards competitive advantage through reduction in products’ cost and improvement in products’ quality. Lean and green manufacturing industry both are working for eliminating waste and improving the efficiency of manufacturing processes [43]. Baines et al. [42] highlighted the benefits of green manufacturing: green practices in production processes mitigate the bad effects of manufacturing processes on environmental sustainability, while green manufacturing improve operational, environmental and financial performance of firms.
\nLuthra et al. [8] highlighted that 80% impacts on environment from product and process related could be controlled with the adoption of ecological design in supply chain management. Ecological design incorporates many ideas such like using cleaner technology processes, green raw material and components [28, 44]. Green design of products reduces ecological impacts of products during their life [8, 45]. In addition, green design of products also supports reusing, recycling and remanufacturing of products, which not only helps firms to improve their environmental performance but also provide opportunity to reduce their costs [1].
\nGreen transportation and reverser logistics practices provide opportunity to organizations, to improve their image and reduce their costs [46]. Logistics overheads can be saved through promoting transportation system’s efficiency and enhancement of customer association also can be obtained to create more profitability [8]. The logistics activities integrated with rehabilitation comprise the practice of reverse logistics (reusing, recycling, and remanufacturing), which can produce the products that can be used again for customers [29]. Green logistics practice helps firms to reduce their environmental impacts with improved quality and cost reductions [47].
\nUndeniably, global logistical and supply chain operations mainly depend on energy as well as fossil fuel, which are the main cause of climate change, global warming and pollution with greater carbon and greenhouse gas emissions [46]. Renewable energy and biofuels are required in supply chain operations so as to obtain sustainable environmental and economic growth [48]. Anable et al. [49] highlight that logistics related activities consume greater energy to accomplish their task. Renewable energy and biofuels improve economic performance of firms and also reduce carbon emissions. In addition, fossil fuel is more expensive than biofuels and green energy sources [50]. The strict governmental policies together with customer awareness build pressure on corporate sector to use biofuels and environmental friendly energy in their supply chain operations. The bioenergy mitigates the carbon emissions and also improves profitability of enterprises with better image and reputation building [7, 46].
\nThe cost minimization is considered as the most important factor for firms to implement green practices in their supply chain operations. The implementation of green supply chain initiatives would help to cut down the costs of packaging, components and materials due to use of reused, recycled and remanufactured products. Khan et al. [2, 46] highlighted that green practices provide opportunity to capture new markets and export to pro-environmental countries, while polluted firms are unable to export their products in pro-environmental countries such as USA, Germany, UK and Poland. Undeniably, green supply chain management practices have been a tool for firms to decrease their products’ cost, enhance profitability and increase market share [51]. On the other hand, to improve social performance, firms also adopt green practices in their business activities. Social performance indicates improvement of people’s quality life standard without compromising on environmental beauty. In addition, social performance includes the enhancement of firm image and the improvement of environmental sustainability, as well as reduction in environmental risks [29].
\nBy adopting GSCM practices, firms may enhance their operational performance through improving products quality and improving delivery service [15]. Green supply chain management initiatives also help organizations to improve their environmental performance such as reduction in carbon emissions, elimination of waste from end-to-end supply chain, effective and strong collaboration with suppliers would decrease their communication costs and easily promote reuse, recycling and remanufacturing [52]. Environment management system (EMS) integrated into firms’ manufacturing strategy will assist the firms to enhance its ecological performance [53].
\nSupporting women in scientific research and encouraging more women to pursue careers in STEM fields has been an issue on the global agenda for many years. But there is still much to be done. And IntechOpen wants to help.
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