A list of synthetic GC used.
\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"},{slug:"intechopen-s-chapter-awarded-the-guenther-von-pannewitz-preis-2020-20200715",title:"IntechOpen's Chapter Awarded the Günther-von-Pannewitz-Preis 2020"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8292",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Oral Health by Using Probiotic Products",title:"Oral Health by Using Probiotic Products",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'One of the most prevalent and important health problems in the world is periodontal and plaque-related diseases for which antibiotic drugs with their associated side effects are used as treatment. With increasing resistance to antibiotics and a desire from the general public for "natural" therapies, there is a need to minimize antibiotic use and develop new treatments for oral diseases without antimicrobial agents. Probiotics are viable microorganisms that provide a health benefit to the host when administered in adequate amounts; studies show that probiotics have the potential to modify the oral microbiota and decrease the colony-forming unit counts of the oral pathogens being investigated to prevent or treat oral diseases, such as dental caries and the periodontal diseases. In addition, the identification of specific strains with probiotic activity is required for any oral infectious disease to determine the exact dose, the time of treatment, and the ideal vehicle.',isbn:"978-1-83968-140-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-139-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-141-7",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78421",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"oral-health-by-using-probiotic-products",numberOfPages:118,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,hash:"327e750e83634800ace02fe62607c21e",bookSignature:"Razzagh Mahmoudi",publishedDate:"December 11th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8292.jpg",numberOfDownloads:2616,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:4,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:6,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 12th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"August 2nd 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 1st 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 20th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 18th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"245925",title:"Dr.",name:"Razzagh",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoudi",slug:"razzagh-mahmoudi",fullName:"Razzagh Mahmoudi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245925/images/system/245925.jpg",biography:"Razzagh Mahmoudi, DVM, PhD, is an associate professor of Food Hygiene and Safety at Department of Food Safety and Hygiene, Qazvin University of Medical Sciences, Iran. He was Educational Deputy of the Faculty of Public Health from 2016 to 2019 (member of Founding Board at Medical Microbiology Research Center, Qazvin University of Medical Sciences, Iran). He is Editorial Board member of about 5 international journals. His specializations are in molecular food microbiology, functional foods, probiotics and prebiotics, medicinal plants, food chemistry, dairy and meat technology, food and human nutrition. His research field includes molecular food microbiology, natural preservative from medicinal plant and biological source, production of new functional foods, application of natural preservative in dairy and meat products, and innovative pharmacological and nutritional research in new drug production and food production. 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\r\n\tEvolutionary and developmental biology is focused on the investigation and the elucidation of the molecular mechanisms underlying embryonic development from one generation to the other. It started quite early with Darwin and Mendel, but soon it became apparent that it is a complicated network of interacting genes after stimuli from molecules, our microbiome, other organisms or species and the environment that we live in. However, in recent years the accumulation of big data in the fields of genomics, medical records and other relevant datasets has rendered the study of evo-devo impossible without the aid from advanced and highly sophisticated computational models, which aim to mine and fuse information from diverse disciplines in the realm of evolution and developmental biology.
\r\n\tThis book aims to address the new developments in the rapidly evolving field of evo-devo in the post genomics era. All recent biological and medical breakthroughs in the evo-devo field are welcomed. Finally, review articles encompassing recent advances, development current and future trends are also more than welcomed.
Pro-/sym-/synbiotics are important objects of human microecology and medical biotechnology [1, 2, 3, 4]. Microbes and human communicate each other by the way of recognition and binding glycoconjugates (GC) of varying pattern complexity by proteins (mainly adhesions and lectins) [5, 6, 7, 8, 9]. Lectin systems (LS) of symbiotic/probiotic microorganisms (LSSM) recognizing GC represent new multifunctional factors [8, 9, 10, 11, 12]. LSSM are relatedly useful for human protein-/peptide-containing compounds and their complexes recognizing GC. LSSM reveal features of imitators of probiotics; members of new class of bacteriocin-like destructors of biofilms of yeast-like fungal and Gram-positive pathogens; systems cofunctioning together with enzymes of all known classes; and agents possessing antipathogenic synergism of different LS in antimicrobial combinations (between LS of Lactobacillus species and Bifidobacterium species, between genera Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium, between LS of probiotic bacteria and lectins from medical plants, between LSSM and antibiotics) (see Table 2) [8, 9, 13, 14].
\nLS reveal significantly higher multifunctionality (antimicrobial, cytokine-like, others) and adaptive ability in surroundings in comparison to any component of LS. Applied prospects of LSSM in microbial associations of biotopes in the human body are of promised interest. LSSM and their reactive GC support balanced functioning in organism in respect to evolutionary created mucosal organ-like infrastructures of mutual interest for human and biotope microbiocenoses (MB) [12].
\nThe purpose of the review is to evaluate our approaches in creation of probiotic metabolite compositions influencing and improving health of human biotope microbiocenoses. The data presented will be of interest for investigators in the fields of both medical microbiology and laboratory and industrial medical biotechnology.
\nLactobacillus and Bifidobacterium strains were from the collection of microorganisms of the normal microflora of G. N. Gabrichevsky Institute for Epidemiology and Microbiology, and probiotics Bifidin and Acilact were products of our institute. Bacteria were grown in media containing casein hydrolysate and yeast autolysate. LSSM were extracted from the protein fractions 27–220 kD using isoelectrofocusing (IEF) in a plate of polyacrylamide gel (PAG) in a gradient of pH 4–8. Identification of proteins was performed by electroblotting on a hydrophobic membrane and staining with SYPRO blot stain (Bio-Rad Lab.). Nonstained proteins were evaluated by other spectrophotometric methods. The distribution of LSSM among proteins was determined by treatment of blots with biotinylated GC (GC-b) containing multiple residues of sugar(s) linked to the polyacrylamide (PA) linear core (like in external phenotypes of mucins and mucin-type glycans) (
1. | \nα/β-D-GalNAc-PA-b (animal mucins, T antigens)* | \n
2. | \nβ-D-GalNAc-PA-b (animal mucins) | \n
3. | \nβ-D-GlcNAc-PA-b (insect chitins and chitosans) | \n
4. | \nβ-D-Gal-PA-b (plant or animal galactans) | \n
5. | \nβ-D-Gal-3-sulfate-PA-b (acidic animal galactans) | \n
6. | \nα-D-Man-PA-b (yeast mannans) | \n
7. | \nα-D-Man-6P-PA-b (yeast phosphomannans) | \n
8. | \nα-L-Fuc-PA-b (fucans from brown algae) | \n
9. | \nα-L-Rha-PA-b (Gram-negative rhamnans) | \n
10. | \nMDP-PA-b (bacterial peptodoglycans) | \n
11. | \nAdi-PA-b (A-blood group substance GalNAcβ1-3GalβА1-) | \n
12. | \nFs-PA-b (Forssman antigen GalNAcβ1-3GalNAcβА1-) | \n
13. | \nTαα-PA-b (bacterial antigen Galα1-3GalNAcα1-) | \n
A list of synthetic GC used.
In brackets—natural substances which are imitated
LSSM function as metabolomebiotics regulating metabolome according to the principle “LSSM network—whole organism metabolome network or interactome” [15]. The network of LSSM is created in the following manner: lectin molecule of determined molecular weight (in the Laemmli system) is represented by LS including forms of varying charge and possessing a range of biological and physiological activities; such a minimal LS can be further transformed in a natural manner into extended network of complexes and supramolecular ensembles as a result of directional and sequential cascade binding of carbohydrates and GC. As a result of forming complexes and ensembles, lectin specificity of complexes and ensembles can be modified or changed during further development of recognition cascade network that will change the summary vector of specificity of LS. The latter will result in dynamic qualitative and quantitative changes of the local biotope surrounding. Thus, the final whole resulting network of LSSM (as metabolomebiotics) will regulate the whole metabolome and interactome of organism involving human glycome (carbohydrates and GC: glycoproteins, glycoenzymes, glycolipids, receptors, and others [16]). The metabolome possesses the ability to back direct and reversible effects of LSSM representing a part of hierarchic interactome. Multiple forms of adapted functioning LSSM microbiocenosis in the biotope will depend on the originality developed in a joint process of evolution involving host body local infrastructures for the distribution and disposition of microbiocenoses (organ-type constructions of both host and microbiocenosis interests are possible) [11, 12]. LSSM are ready to realize biologically active GC (as prebiotics, therapeutic agents, and metabiotics) in such symbiotic organs. The network of LSSM functions as noncellular simulators of symbiotics (probiotics) in the direct or indirect (through human higher hierarchic protection systems) predictable manners. For example, of communications between LSSM and own human protection systems, LSSM (as well as phytohemagglutinins from plants of medical significance) and artificial polymeric GC influenced peritoneal macrophage mobility in a coupled manner depending on doses of agents; LSSM were involved in modulation of cytokine production by human blood leukocytes [9, 17].
\nNew useful properties of LSSM can be predicted and verified (cofunctioning to enzymes, adhesion, etc.), based on the fact that LSSM form a functional superfamily of symbiotic lectins (on example of probiotic lectins and lectins of nitrogen-fixing bacteria). In addition, LSSM are members of the new class of destructors of biofilms of yeast-like and Gram-positive pathogens that simplify antimicrobial choice of components among LSSM. Other possibilities to operate with LSSM include their potential participation in a set of hierarchic pathways of advanced human innate protective systems in biotopes for cross talks. Both types of communications allow LSSM to be a successful synergistic assistant against pathogens in biotopes together with other antimicrobials and antimicrobial physical stress factors. As a result, LSSM reveal prolonged (early and late) anti-Candida activities as cascade (coupled) actions possibly influencing microecological niches of pathogens within biotope [registered during coculturing in the first 3 days (early events; also involving probiotic-like leader strains of L. acidophilus and L. casei), 1–2 weeks, or 2–3 months (late events)] [18].
\nThe used GC are characterized with known chemical structures simplifying interpretation and prognostics of results. Such GC reveal potential of metabiotics which may use LSSM as carriers [8, 12, 19]. As highly homogenous, synthetic GC better functionally imitate natural GC targets [bacterial proteoglycans, fungal (phosphor)mannans, others] important for antimicrobial/anti-infectious actions of LSSM. As a result, LSSM are very perspective in delivery and deposition of adequate specific GC which are locally releasing as therapeutics possessing anti-infectious, prebiotic, and/or communicative signal abilities and actions.
\nIn biotopes LSSM participate in continuous (on-duty) support and periodical (biorhythmic) completion and exchange of normal GC décor of cells, tissues, and organs that must provide delaying or stopping further the development of the spot/island/mosaic-landscape-originated and directed/metastasized abnormal processes as well as conserve any negative currently developmental events (initiation of appearance and survival of tumor-like cells as a result of innate intercellular communications involving lectin receptor-coupled cell surface receptor mosaics).
\nLSSM (natural combinative sets of LSSM-GC complexes) influence all yeast-like fungal phases of life by prolonging the degradation and lysis of pathogenic microbiocenosis massifs or biofilms in human biotopes (on examples of Candida species). In respect to CFB functioning as niches, lectins of lactobacilli (LL as preferentially mucins/mucus-recognizing) and lectins of bifidobacteria (BL as preferentially mannan-recognizing) synergistically act against internal and peripheral subniche territories, respectively. The late destructive and lytic events in CFB may also take place due to LSSM cooperative complex action as metabolomebiotics together with hydrolases involved in pathogen destruction network. Synergistic actions between LSSM and other antifungals increase resulting in final (early or late [also of apoptotic origin]) antipathogenic events as shown in Table 2 [20].
\nTypes of synergism | \nLectins* | \nDistant positions (directions from left to right) | \nCBF as targets, affinity, and significance | \n
---|---|---|---|
Between PL | \n|||
Between identical PL disks | \naBL and aBL | \np-aBL, c-aBL (p-aBL—c-aBL) | \nC. albicans 991 | \n
Intra-genus (Lactobacillus) | \ncLL and aLL aLL and cLL | \nFrom p-cLL to CR (p-cLL—p-aLL) From p-aLL to CR (p-aLL—p-cLL) | \nC. albicans 515, 547 C. albicans 515, 547 | \n
Intra-genus (Bifidobacterium) | \naLL and aBL | \np-aLL and c-aBL (p-aLL—c-aBL) | \nC. albicans strains | \n
Intra-genus (Bifidobacterium) | \naBL and cBL | \n[PR aBL] and [CR aLL] | \nC. albicans strains | \n
Inter-genera (Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium) | \naBL and aLL aLL and aBL | \n[PR aBL] and [CR aLL] (p-aBL—p-aLL) [PR aLL] and [CR aBL]2* (p-aLL—p-aBL) | \nC. albicans strains S. aureus strains | \n
Between PL and phytolectins | \n|||
Between PL and grass lectins (GL) | \naLL and GL cBL and GL | \nFrom aLL to CR (p-MGBL—p-aLL) From p-cBL to CR (p-MGBL—p-cBL) | \nC. albicans 515 C. albicans 515 | \n
Between PL and antimycotics | \n|||
Between PL and amphotericin B | \naBL | \np-Amphotericin B, c-aBL (p-Amphotericin B—c-aBL) | \nC. albicans strains > C. tropicalis strains | \n
Between PL and itraconazole | \naBL | \nc-Itraconazole, p-aBL (p-Itraconazole—p-aBL) | \nC. albicans strains | \n
Between PL and ketoconazole | \naBL | \np-Ketoconazole, c-aBL (p-Ketoconazole—c-aBL) | \nC. albicans strains | \n
Between PL and nystatin | \ncLL cBL | \nFrom p-cLL to CR (p-cLL—c-nystatin) From cBL to CR (p-cBL—c-Nystatin) | \nC. albicans 515, 547 C. albicans 515, 547 | \n
Between GL and nystatin | \nGL | \nFrom p-MGBL to CR (p-MGBL—c-nystatin) | \nC. albicans 515 | \n
Multiple synergism | \n|||
Between BL and LL | \naBL, aLL | \nIn triangle of CFB landscape: p-aBL + c-aBL + p-aLL (p-aBL—c-aBL; p-aLL—c-aBL) | \nC. albicans strains (Not for C. tropicalis) | \n
Antimicrobial synergism of LSSM and antibiotics.
Diffusion between disks placed on Sabouraud agar in Petri dishes (disk positions: p, peripheral; c, central; CR, central region, between p-disk and the center; PR, peripheral region, between p-disk and the border of agar). Disks included anionic (a) and cationic and (c) lactobacillar and bifidobacterial LSSM (aLL, cLL, aBL, cBL). MGBL as the mixture of the grass lectins from the mill of plants of medical significance: Potentilla album and Stellaria media. Lectins were used in subhemagglutinating doses (less 1 microgram/ml). Standard panel of disk antimycotics (HiMedia Lab. Pvt. Ltd.) was used. CFB, communicative fungal bodies.
Endogenous LS antimicrobial actions (e.g., intestinal probiotic bifidobacterial and lactobacillar LS against intestinal yeast-like fungi) provide more directed, sensitive, and completed resulting effectiveness against pathogens (the primary absence and further late complete destruction of residual resistant colonies in external and internal regions of CFB of Candida albicans) compared to the action of phytolectin mixture from grasses of medical significance in the same conditions. In cases of antibiotic-resistant strains, relatively sensitive to LSSM C. albicans strain 547 (less potentially pathogenic compared to the strain 515, see below), the sorbed lactobacillar cationic LS revealed their synergistic ability to “regenerate” original anti-Candida effectiveness of antibiotic (on example of nystatin) in the internal region of CFB of yeast-like fungus (appearance of pathogen-free landscape connected to the border of the disk antibiotic). The phenomenon of synergistic reparation of the original ability of the sorbed antibiotic indicates prospects of additional mechanisms of LSSM combinative actions and partially describes how to increase resulting antifungal effectiveness during prolonged contact to pathogenic CFB at fungal late steps. In the case of more resistant (potentially “more pathogenic”) fungal strains (like C. albicans strain 515), the sorbed bifidobacterial cationic LS synergistically increased anti-Candida action of the grass phytolectin mixture.
\nResults indicate that LSSM may also participate in temporary separation and conservation of natural infectious biofilms to prevent early visual landscape development of diseases. The latter may be perspective as the assistant factor of improving quality of life (its prolongation, mucus and skin reparations, cosmetic significance, etc.) as it can be expected using symbiotics [21].
\nOn the whole, our experimental approach (observations of antagonistic relationships between LSSM and pathogens in prolonged stress conditions) and the data obtained are supported by the conception describing microecological stress events in organism as the normal but sensor natural reactions [22].
\nScreening, choice, and selection of new or improved antimicrobial and other useful properties of symbiotic (probiotic) cultural properties of strains and consortia of human MB are important and strategic goals in prophylaxis and therapy of diseases, increasing resistance of organism and the acceleration of patient rehabilitation [1, 2, 3, 4, 23]. Among GC investigated, glycans of mucin type (mucosal glycans) reveal special interest [24].
\nOn the basis of own results, we proposed new algorithm of screening adequate probiotic-like microorganisms and their consortia possessing increased directed anti-infectious LS to construct new multipro-/sym-/synbiotics. The algorithm using LSSM (involving complexes to GC) among a panel of key factors in creating multiprobiotics (MP) included (a) the choice of synthetic GC-imitating bacterial proteoglycans and (phospho)mannans of yeast-like fungi; (b) identification of different LSSM (GC-type-dependent) among proteins of cultural fluids of probiotic strain or consortium of strains; (c) comparison of (GC-type)-dependent LS (evaluation of summary LS intensity, length of LS distribution in pH-gradient tested, mosaic asymmetric configuration of distributed forms in LS, major forms as dominating in contribution to antimicrobial actions of LS, minor forms as expressing signal regulators of biorecognition in microbiocenoses, signals of communications to surrounding infrastructures, as well as additional participants of recognition of new types of biomarker GC); (d) identification of unique sets of components of LS significant for typing strains, species, or genera; (e) revealing and choice of combinative sets of potential antimicrobial forms of LS for further control and testing; and (f) control of antimicrobial activities initiated, supported, and/or influenced by LS-containing preparations in other (nondependent) methods.
\nThe data which were useful for constructing any multiprobiotics (Acilact-like) is presented in Table 3.
\nNo. | \nParameters of supernatants, ranging MP and its strains, proposals (P) | \nCode ranging MP and its strains* | \n
---|---|---|
1 | \nStatus of proteins | \n|
1.0 | \nContent of partially hydrolyzed protein K3III24 > MP > 100 ash > NK1 P: K3III24 as the main source of active or signal oligopeptides | \n3. 4. 2. 1. | \n
1.1 | \nAcidic proteins pI 4–5 NK1 > 100 ash > K3III24 > MP P: NK1 as the main source of basis cytoagglutinating and adhesive agents coupled to a spectrum of biological activities | \n1. 2. 3. 4. | \n
1.2 | \nCationic proteins pI 7–8 NK1 > K3III24 > 100 ash > MP P: Strains and their combinations as sources of lectins and lectin-like agents coupled to exopolymeric substances of compounds | \n1. 3. 2. 4. | \n
1.3 | \nOxidase-reductase systems pI 5–5.5 MP > 100 ash > K3III24 > NK1[absence] P: NK1 without extracellular major oxidoreductase systems | \n4. 2. 3. 1. | \n
1.4 | \nHydrolase systems MP > K3III24 > 100 ash > NK1 P: NK1 without extracellular major hydrolases (caseinases, peptidases, others) | \n4. 3. 2. 1. | \n
1.5 | \nLevel of aggregation upon storing concentrates K3III24 > 100 ash > NK1 > MP[no aggregation] P: Irreversibility for K3III24 (similar to red cell biofilm storing) | \n3. 2. 1. 4. | \n
1.6 | \nAbility in membrane ultrafiltration MP > NK1 > 100 ash > K3III24 P: Technological advantage of MP as mixture of strains (mixture of strains is needed) | \n4. 1. 2. 3. | \n
2 | \nStatus of amino acids | \n|
2.0 | \nProduction of amino acids NK1 > K3III24 > MP > 100 ash P: Low antagonism between certain strains within MP can be under consideration upon strain choice | \n1. 3. 4. 2. | \n
2.1 | \nTyr (sites for serine proteinases, fluorophores) K3III24 > 100 ash > MP > NK1 P: Tyr can serve as criterion of utilization of fluorophores | \n3. 2. 4. 1. | \n
2.2 | \nPhe (sites for serine proteinases, fluorophores) NK1 > MP > K3III24 > 100 ash P: Support of point 2, revealing mechanism for point 2 | \n1. 4. 3. 2. | \n
2.3 | \nFluorophores (Trp, Tyr) (excitation at 254 nm) 100 ash > K3III24 > NK1 > MP P: Dominated contribution of Tyr and their derivatives | \n2. 3. 1. 4. | \n
2.3.1 | \nFluorophores (excitation at 365 nm) 100 ash > K3III24 > NK1 > > MP P: Degradation/ utilization in MP (fluorophores cannot be used as targets) | \n2 3 1 4 | \n
2.4 | \nGly (hydrophobic, anti-adhesion action) NK1 > MP > K3III24 > 100 ash P: Gly as natural additive to improve signal activities and communications | \n1. 4. 3. 2. | \n
2.5 | \nLeu (hydrophobic, site for peptidases) (Parameter is slightly dependent on strain origin) K3III24 > 100 ash > MP, NK1 | \n3. 2. ¼**. 4/1. | \n
2.6 | \nIle (hydrophobic, participation in synthesis of biologically active volatile fatty acids) K3III24 > 100 ash > MP > NK1 | \n3. 2. 4. 1. | \n
2.7 | \nAla (partially from peptidoglycans, site for exopeptidases) MP > K3III24, 100 ash > NK1 P: Antagonism between strains results in partial cell wall degradation in MP | \n4. 2/3. 3/2. 1. | \n
2.8 | \nSer (sites for hydrolase splitting and O-glycosylation) MP > K3III24 > 100 ash > NK1 P: Support of point 1.4 | \n4. 3. 2. 1. | \n
2.9 | \nThr (site for O-glycosylation) NK1 > 100 ash > MP > K3III24 P: Thr as criterion for evaluation of metabolism of cluster square positions for recognition in proteins (in comparison to point 2.8) | \n1. 2. 4. 3. | \n
2.10 | \nLys (from cationic poly/oligopeptides, site for serine proteinases, participation in Maillard reaction) MP > 100 ash > K3III24 > NK1 P: Support of point 1.4 | \n4. 2. 3. 1. | \n
2.11 | \nVal (hydrophobic, participation in synthesis of biologically active volatile fatty acids) K3III24 > 100 ash > NK1 > MP P: Mostly important criterion concerning volatile fatty acids producing | \n3. 2. 1. 4. | \n
2.12 | \nGlu/Gln (also as sites for amidases) NK1 > MP, K3III24 > 100 ash | \n1. 4. 3. 2. | \n
2.13 | \nAsp/Asn (sites for amidases and N-glycosylation) MP, 100 ash > NK1 > K3III24 P: Partial support of point 1.4 | \n4. 2. 1. 3. | \n
2.14 | \nHis (participation in auto-oxidation of protein, high affinity to metal cations, activation of oxidases and heme) MP > NK1 > 100 ash > K3III24 P: Potential for metal chelate affinity chromatography and immobilization (for microassays) | \n4. 1. 2. 3. | \n
2.15 | \nArg (from cationic poly[oligo]peptides, destruction during pigments forming in Maillard reaction) MP > NK1 > K3III24 > 100 ash P: One of the way of decolorization of MP | \n4. 1. 3. 2. | \n
2.16 | \nMet (antioxidant) NK1 > MP > K3III24 > 100 ash | \n1. 4. 3. 2. | \n
2.17 | \nCys2 disulfide bonds (oxidation of SH-groups into Cys2) K3III24 > NK1 > MP > 100 ash[not observed] | \n3. 1. 4. 2. | \n
2.18 | \nPro (Pro-bends in regular structures of proteins) 100 ash > MP > K3III24 > NK1[traces] | \n2. 4. 3. 1. | \n
3 | \nStatus of biosurfactants | \n|
3.0 | \nAssociated biosurfactants in complexes >27 kD NK1 > MP > > 100 ash > K3III24 P: NK1 as the main source of movable permeable (detergent like) complex effectors; support point 4.3 | \n1. 4. 2. 3. | \n
3.1 | \nBiosurfactants active against mineral oil K3III24 > MP > 100 ash > NK1 | \n3. 4. 2. 1. | \n
4 | \nOther parameters | \n\n |
4.1 | \nEmulsifiers 100 ash > NK1 > MP > > K3III24 [absence] P: K3III24 needs combination to any other strain to increase cultural components (>27 kD) to be emulsified | \n2. 1. 4. 3. | \n
4.2 | \nPigment products [optical density at 420 nm] K3III24 > NK1 > 100 ash > MP P: K3III24 as the main potential source of neoglycoconjugates of nonenzymatical origin; MP as maximally decolorized product needed cofunctioning strain mixture; partial inverse correlation to point 1.3 | \n3. 1. 2. 4. | \n
4.3 | \nAntimicrobial activity (toward a panel of diagnostic mainly Gram-negative bacteria) MP > NK1 > 100 ash > K3III24 P: Support point 3; potential of K3III24 to other targets (against Gram-positive bacteria and fungi) | \n4. 1. 2. 3. | \n
Strain code ranging for multiprobiotic construction on example of Acilact (the Lactobacillus multistrain probiotic).
1, NK1 (Lactobacillus helveticus NK1); 2, 100 ash (L. helveticus 100 ash); 3, K3III24 (L. casei K3III24); 4, multiprobiotic (MP) on example of variants of Acilact.
Alternative positions.
In Table 3 the data needed for constructing formulas of any MP are presented on example of strain component compositions of Acilact (the well-known MP which served as a model). Algorithm for constructing formulas includes a few steps:
\nThe first step: For formulas of any MP of category A (formulas as sum of wishful selected superiorities): the choice of all parameters of superiorities of MP (No. 4 as MP in code notes: positions 1.3, 1.4, 1.6, 2.7, 2.8, 2.13, 2.14, 2.15, and 4.3; major ingredient strain contributors are at the second position in the code sequences [from left to right] position in code).
\nThe second step: For formulas of any MP of category B: accounting additional superiorities of MP [No. 4 as MP in code notes; selected minimal positions of parameters for No. 4 in sequence indicate maximal expression of the contrary (by implicity) parameters]. For example, in the case of No. 4 in codes 1.1 (maximal resulting hydrolytic activities in respect to acidic proteins; increased level of antimicrobial peptides), 1.2 (maximal resulting hydrolytic activities in respect to cationic proteins; increased level of antimicrobial peptides including bacteriocin-like), 1.5 (the minimal level of aggregation upon storing concentrates), 2.3 (the minimal level of fluorophores exciting at 254 nm; contribution of Tyr and Trp or their derivatives), 2.3.1 (the minimal level of fluorophores exciting at 365 nm; contribution of Trp); and 4.2 (the minimal level of colored products); the major ingredient strain contributors are accounted as the third position in code.
\nThe third step: The final formulas (formulas of category C) include combinations of formulas A and B. Multifunctionality of parameters analyzed can be extended (as in cases of amino acids [25]).
\nExtended approach for constructing more adaptive mixtures of lactobacillar and bifidobacterial MP (on the basis of Acilact extended by accounting industrial bifidobacterial strains) is presented in Table 4.
\nNo. | \nParameters of concentrate (C), their ranging, proposals (P) | \nCode ranging strains and MP | \n
---|---|---|
1 | \nAntifreeze components >27 kD, pI 4–8 (against any type of crystal forming during IEF-PAG): gall > bif1 > MS42 > NK1 > MP > K3III24, 100 аsh P: bifidobacterial C for stabilization of K3III24 and 100 аsh | \n7. 6. 5.1. 4. 3/2*. 2/3. | \n
2 | \nFormation of organic crystals in the presence of components >27 kD (in conditions of 7М urea, 5% saccharose, 8°С, night, IEF in slab of PAG): рI 4–6: 3III24, 100 аsh > MP > NK1 > MS > bif1 > gall (not) pI 6–8: K3III24, 100 аsh > MP > NK1 > gall>bif1 > MS42 P: Potential approach to micro- and nanoassembling effectors | \n2/3. 3/2. 4. 1.5. 6. 7. 2/3. 3/2. 4. 1.7. 6. 5. | \n
3 | \nComplex protein C > 27 kD: pI 4–6: NK1 > MS42 > K3III24 > gall> 100 аsh > bif1 > MP pI 6–8: NK1 > gall > K3III24 > MS42 > 100 аsh > MP > bif1 P: Donors of cationic bacteriocin-like associates with exopolymeric compounds | \n1. 5. 3. 7. 2. 6. 4. 1. 7. 3. 5. 2. 4. 6. | \n
4 | \nAdhesins as colorless transparent not water-soluble drops on polystyrene (number of drops): gall > MS42 > NK1 > bif1 > MP > K3III24 = 100 аsh(not) P: The size and numbers of drops indicate level of emulsification of C compared to original supernatant | \n7. 5. 1. 6. 4. 2/3. 3/2. | \n
5 | \nAssociated biosurfactants: bif1 > gall > K3III24 > MP > 100аsh > MS42 > NK1 P: C “NK1 + gall” and “NK1 + bif1” as synergistic antimicrobials | \n6. 7. 3. 4. 2. 5. 1. | \n
6 | \nLSSM as mucin-binding: pI 4–5.5: gall > MP > NK1 > MS42 > bif1 > K3III24, 100 аsh pI 5.5–8: MS42 > bif1 > gall > NK1 > MP > 100 аsh, K3III24 P: C for delivery into intestinal and urogenital mucosal cavities | \n7. 4. 1. 5. 6. 2/3. 3/2. 5. 6. 7.1. 4. 2/3. 3/2. | \n
7 | \nLSSM as mannan-binding: pI 4–5.5: 100 аsh, K3III24 > NK1 > MS42 > gall > MP > bif1 pI 5.5–8: gall > bif1 > MS42 > NK1 > MP > 100 аsh, K3III24 P: Potential against eukaryotic (yeast and yeast-like), prokaryotic (staphylococci), and HIV/HIV-related infections; delivery into cell and cell organelles | \n2/3. 3/2. 1. 5. 7. 4. 6. 7. 6. 5.1. 4. 2/3. 3/2. | \n
Strain code ranging for multiprobiotic construction on example of new multiprobiotics including bifidobacteria and lactobacilli.
Alternative position. Blocks of lactobacillar (boldface) and bifidobacterial (italic font) strains are shown.
1, NK1 (L. helveticus NK1); 2, 100 ash (L. helveticus 100 ash); 3, K3III24 (L. casei K3III24); 4, MP (Acilact); 5, MS42 (B. adolescentis МS42); 6, bif1 (B. bifidum No. 1); 7, gall (B. gallinarum GB); C, concentrate (>27 kD) of cultural fluid supernatant; IEF, isoelectrofocusing; PAG, polyacrylamide gel; P, prognostic proposals;
As expected, taxonomically mixed probiotics (symbiotics) will possess increased survival in biotopes of human organism. The same principles and algorithm (as for formulas of Acilact variants described above) can be applied. Combinations of Acilact ingredient strains and ingredients of Bifidin (B. longum spp. adolescentis MS-42), Bioprotectin (B. bifidum No. 1), and other bifidobacterial probiotics produced in Russia are of priority interest (also due to the possibility of their usage as standard models).
\nTable 4 demonstrates algorithm of further passage from intra-genus cases (Lactobacillus) of Gram-positive MP to inter-genus cases of MP as combinations of probiotic lactobacilli and bifidobacteria of the human gut origin.
\nSelective sets of parameters (points in Table 4) indicate principle differences between lactobacilli and bifidobacteria (as blocks of lactobacillar and bifidobacterial strains in 7-mark code). Completing lactobacillar/bifidobacterial synergism is expected and predicted. Selected combinations of strains from both blocks can be used for creation of directed MP. Other more complex cases include unblocked lactobacillar and bifidobacterial sequences within the code (additional prognostic conclusions are possible). Code positions “1” and “5” (both strains produce high levels of cytoagglutinating LS) reveal adjacent/similar behavior that indicates high level of compatibility of the strains NK1 and MS42.
\nFurther constructing other or extended multistrain symbiotics is depended on choice of important parameters of interest (to increase the number of comparable codes used in Tables 3 and 4). Important prospects in constructing taxonomically mixed symbiotic formulas are expected on the basis of identified LSSM sets of the strains as counted ingredients of multisymbiotic as well as evaluation of the relative contribution of LSSM types in resulting multifunctional activities of mixed product. For example, the general properties of LS of lactobacilli and bifidobacteria investigated by us are “recognition of mucin-type targets” more or less than “recognition of mannan-type targets” for LL or BL, respectively [8]. As a result, LSSM-dependent synergism (which can be directed and predicted using extended panel of GC for LSSM selection and choice) of new taxonomically mixed symbiotics can be achieved.
\nUniversality of approach proposed in Table 4 means that the panel of comparative parameters of investigation is unlimited for selection. As advantages of this approach for creation of perspective formulas of multipro-/symbiotics, some properties of future combinative products can be predicted and verified.
\nAforementioned codes (Tables 3 and 4) extend the potential of using traditional MP. Results open new possibilities for investigation of LSSM types among strains and constructed consortia to develop perspective GC-type-dependent LSSM combinations possessing needed actions toward human interactome. In terms of personalized medicine, individual LSSM applications are of reality. For example, LSSM could be applied as “a functional tissue biotope” or mucosal organ-specific agents and organizers of lectin-coupled reactions and activities [26, 27].
\nDue to high distribution in organism, oxidative stress (as the power destructive factor initiating diseases) needs the constant presence of the power protective antioxidant systems [28, 29]. Some therapeutic proteins regulating cellular consumption of oxygen can be involved into development of tumor and other side pathologies in organism. We isolated system anaerobic (without oxidases initiating of oxygen and peroxide radicals) preparations of acidic/anionic and alkaline/cationic LSSM from cultures of symbiotic (probiotic) industrial strains of human bifidobacteria and lactobacilli as consortia that were successfully applied. Such preparations devoid the ability to induce destructive oxidative stress (cross-linking and inactivation of therapeutic proteins, etc.) in respect to surrounding infrastructures.
\nThe used synthetic GC in our work were characterized with antioxidant properties in respect to LS as carriers of GC (prolongation of chemiluminescence of protective complexes was observed). Similar resulting protection of LSSM was also registered in the presence of neutral and cationic bifidobacterial and lactobacillar cultural exopolymeric compounds (EPC) of nonprotein origin (as observed on the blot after IEF-PAG). Acidic and alkaline anaerobic LS of bifidobacteria and lactobacilli revealed the following general antipathogenic actions: (a) own and overlapped/synergistic; (b) toward communicative bodies of microbial massifs and biofilms of the potentially pathogenic yeast-like fungi and Gram-positive bacteria. All four types of preparations of LSSM used were characterized by own mechanisms of antimicrobial actions in comparison to action of other antimicrobial systems (antibiotics, bacteriocins, phytolectins, subisotype products of isotypes С4В and С4А of the human complement component C4) [30, 31]. LS from human probiotic bacterial cultures revealed the ability to act as cascades in such reactions as initiation/changing or switching recognition of GC of different types (imitators of mannans, mucins, components of bacterial walls, Forssman antigens, Tn, blood group substance A) using the same original pool of lectin forms of taken multistrain probiotic. The presence of cations Ru2+ (ingredient of SYPRO involved in photosensibilization) strongly increased discreteness and number of forms of acidic lectins—potential carriers and deliveries of GC. Stability of obtained mosaic asymmetric landscape pictures of the systems LSSM-GC as multistrain probiotic-depending and multistrain probiotic-supporting biotope balance of recognition and reversible retaining/depositing of GC (therapeutics, biomarkers, others) was observed. Combinations of anaerobic LS-containing proteins revealed themselves in respect to yeast-like and Gram-positive pathogenic targets as more selective in the choice of the adequate regional territory of massif of pathogen and limitation of early and late time (depending on localization of targeted region of communicative body of pathogen) for the mostly effective visible actions of LS, obtaining uniform pure landscapes of LSSM action on massif of Candida albicans (the absence or minimization of LSSM-resistant residual fungal colonies in the interacting intestine system “LS of human intestinal bifidobacteria and lactobacilli—human intestinalC. albicans”). Antimicrobial activities of LSSM and phytolectins (phytohemagglutinin from the kidney bean) could be realized not only directly but also through the influence (together with synthetic mannans and mucins) in respect to macrophage migration as well as through inducing production of cytokines by stimulated blood lymphocytes (on the example of tumor necrosis factor-α). Results indicate prospects of anaerobic LSSM as assistant ingredients of the possible drug forms.
\nDuring the last time, synbiotics and symbiotics (as synergistic sum of probiotics and prebiotics) are of increased investigator interest due to their antimicrobial and other useful reactions [1, 2]. In this respect LSSM represent new class of antipathogenic proteins (possessing extended potential of application) which recognize different GC. LSSM represent multifunctional potential of relatively highly molecular mass polymeric metabolites of cultures of the human microbiota (microbiocenoses) and consortia (also multistrain probiotics) of human indigenous microorganisms. LSSM cofunction together with artificial and biologically active natural GC [32].
\nAccording to own results, we proposed suitable laboratory minisystem for screening prebiotic and therapeutical GP using LSSM and sterile heparinized insulin syringes of 1 ml volume. The following results were obtained: (1) LSSM-containing fraction stimulated production of both the whole and adhesive mass of bifidobacteria, (2) LiCl (15 mM and higher) increased dose depending on the number of adhesive colonies, (3) bifidobacterial LSSM (within pI 4–4.5) were characterized with strong affinity to anionic synthetic GC (possessing exposed residues of sulfated galactosides or, in a less extent of affinity, exposed residues of mannose-6-phosphates), and (4) sulfated glycosaminoglycans together with cations Li+ and LSSM as potential carriers of Li+ participated in functioning bioreactor imitating synbiotope (multiplication of bifidobacterial colonies and their survival were observed).
\nProposed synbiotic system is perspective for screening prebiotic GC (as it is known for prebiotic derivatives of chitin, chitosan, fucoidan, and glycopeptides [33, 34]). Table 1 includes potential prebiotic sources such as chitin and α-L-fucan which react to LSSM (LSSM may serve carriers of metabiotic GC; the list of GC can be unlimitedly extended).
\nProgress in membrane and solid-phased technologies using LS-GC interactions includes the potential of their application in microassays, biochips (membrane bound glycoarrays or lectin arrays), and biosensors [35, 36].
\nThe use of affine pore hydrophobic (uncharged) membranes predictably covered with mosaics of multifunctional sets of LSSM (additional significant purification of LSSM on membranes is reached) allows prolonged storing LSSM without decreasing samples in activities. The following prospects of LSSM-GC combinations may be of practical interest: (a) antifungal covers of prolonged action in combination with antibiotics and physical factors of stress [radiation (ultraviolet and ultrasonic), light (biorhythm “day-night”), temperature, pH, oxygen, season changes (also biorhythmic), others] and (b) chemiluminescent systems cofunctioning in regime of real time for medical and industrial biotechnology and bionanotechnologies [our results include the following coupled systems: “low acidic LSSM, low acidic oxidoreductases of lactobacilli”; “alkaline bifidobacterial LS, alkaline bifidobacterial exopolymeric compounds”; “neutral lactobacillar/bifidobacterial LS, neutral lactobacillar/bifidobacterial biosurfactants”; “LS, strongly acidic (pI 3–4) serial phyto-oxidoreductases/phyto[glycosyl]oxidases”].
\nMembrane technologies using separated proteins, oligopeptides, and their complexes (especially) together with intrinsic or exogenic (SYPRO dye) fluorescence registered in live bioimagination are especially sensitive and perspective (protein band discreteness using fluorescence technique was better compared to the chemiluminescence technique). The latter allows identification stabile boundaries of the whole protein massifs for further establishment of LSSM and other biologically and physiologically active components among protein mosaics. Bioluminescence (fluorescent technique in combination with chemiluminescence technique) in optimal (depending on the object and the goal of study) conditions allows express-ranging cultural fluid groups of proteins and LS according to molecular mass (for additional standardization and typing of strains), evaluation of interstrain synergism and contribution of protease and oxidoreductase systems of mono- and multistrain probiotics (symbiotics) and other type consortia, and identification of mosaics of complexes containing fluorochromes in extended interval of pI/pH (complexes and cell wall fragments as carriers of visible energy which is ready for energetic exchange with surrounding infrastructures as well as for monitoring directed supramolecular assembling and their reorganization).
\nAforementioned data presented develop other possible important prognostic approaches and proposals. The choice of wished prognostic (LSSM-selected-type and GC-type interactions)-directed events in biotope can be determined and regulated by involving GC types needed (panels of natural and artificial GC used in biotope; extending the list of GC indicated in Table 1 is possible). The use of artificial polymeric GC with established chemical structures allows receiving adequate, understandable, and reliable results.
\nAccording to the multifunctional potential of artificial GC used, resulting events in biotope can be the following ones: antipathogenic actions (the use of GC-imitating pathogenic cell surface structures), prebiotic and symbiotic (synbiotic) actions (the use of GC-imitating prebiotic structures), increasing own human organism protective systems (the use of GC-interacting and GC-regulating macrophages and macrophage-like lymphocytes through their systemic receptor lectins), antitumor actions (potential using antigenic GC together with LSSM as antagonists and synergists in intercellular antitumor and anti-infectious communications [37]), and cytokine lectin/lectin-like cascades initiated/regulated with LSSM potentially influencing redistribution of cytokine network in organism.
\nInnate immunity plays an important role especially when antibody immunity is under development, suppression, or alteration. So the search of new natural anti-infectious agents is of actuality. In contrast to probiotic cells, LSSM (as systems of LL or LB) are not sensitive to the presence of antibiotics and chemotherapeutics as well as do not need special conditions for survival. LSSM function as metabolomebiotics according to the principle “the network in the network”; participation of major lectins in supporting physiologically significant glycodecor of biotope mucosal probiotic compartments, and minor lectins—in signal communications; support of such compartments (compensation of the absence of probiotic cells in MB upon therapy with antibiotics, delivery of fucosylated and galactosylated prebiotics of mutual supporting influence between populations of bifidobacteria and lactobacilli, cofunctioning to anti-infectious agents (antibiotics, metabiotics, GC) and cells of organism protective systems (macrophages and leukocytes).
\nWe characterize LSSM (acidic, low acidic, cationic: aLL, laLL, cLL, aLB, and cLB) of domestic probiotics which recognize polymeric artificial GC mucin-like analogs of antigens and EPC (fungal and bacterial mannans, bifidobacterial α-L-Fuc-containing, sulfated and phosphorylated).
\nAntimicrobial directions of LSSM action were established [26, 31, 38].
\n\n
Against intestinal and urogenital Candida of epidemiologically significant species of group I (C. albicans and C. tropicalis: early action of aLB within the first 2 days; delayed action of cLL and LB within 1–2 months; synergism between acidic and cationic LSSM, cLB, and grass lectins, aLSSM/cLSSM, and some antimycotics)
Against Candida of epidemiologically significant species of group II (C. glabrata: inhibition of virulent factors such as fungal IgA1 and IgG proteinases, EC 3.4.21.72 and EC 3.4.21., respectively [9])
Against Candida of epidemiologically significant species of group III (C. krusei: delivery of potential effector GC on cell surface)
Interruption of mycosymbiosis parasitism of Candida—Aspergillus: the drugs against candidosis as predictably affective against aspergillosis)
Activities of LSSM against staphylococci (on example of patients S. aureus isolates): aLL > aLB; aLL and aLB; LSSM activities accompanied with:
Delayed degradation of microbial massifs
Partial directed lysis of microbial massif
Tearing away fragments of massif (by two mechanisms depending on lectin type)
Synergism between aLL and LB in antistaphylococcal actions
LSSM possess potential of diagnostics and prognostics of biotope diseases [37]. Results support important principle approach that diseases of MB (as in the case of CBF according to the principle “there is the body—there are diseases”) reflect own “biotope diseases” in organism [39]. LSSM can be used in phenotyping prognostics and diagnostics of infectious processes in organism; for prophylaxis and therapy of candidoses, staphylococcoses, mixed fungal-bacterial infections, mixed symbiotic mycoses; innate infections; immunodeficiency and infections against the background of immunodeficiency, upon antibiotics-/chemo-/radiotherapy. Such GC effectors as metabiotics, prebiotics, glycoantigens, and drugs of selective directed action are of availability.
\nIt is of importance to consider the participation of LSSM in supporting biotope mucosal MB in conditions of oxidative stress (cofunctioning of laLL and probiotic oxidoreductase systems) [26]. Panel combinations of LB and LL are perspective in early evaluation (before the inflammation) of status of MB of functionally different biotopes of the vaginal tract.
\nLSSM are similar (in specificities, systemic action) to communicative lectins of intercellular reception in innate immunity.
\nLSSM act as essential part of human protective supersystem (the supersystem with probiotic type action) [31]. Such supersystems contract disturbing the balance of the body’s health processes; keep and maintain the integrity of biotope microbiocenoses like healthy consortia. There are supersystems with antimicrobial or antifungal action in organism.
\nResults obtained by us in a study of probiotics can be useful as a set of approaches in study of the following aspects of clinical microbiology and medical biotechnology (in brackets—significance and prospects of results for infectology) [40, 41].
\n\n
Cultural metabolites 27–200 kD within pI 4–8 (separation of acidic and alkaline protein and nonprotein of taxonomically significant systems); phenotyping of strains in cationic region containing protected sets of proteins Subcytoagglutinating activities: initiatively coupled or non-coupled to lectin and cytoagglutinating activities (cytokine activities; synchronization of cultures for increasing vulnerability of pathogens; typing).
Functional blotting analysis of cascade cultures in combinative nutrient media (NM) (as in the case of milk followed by transfer into “casein hydrolysate-yeast autolysate” media; monitoring lectins, enzymes, and exopolymeric compounds [EPC])
Development of strain-supporting NM (comparison of blotted maps of components of cultures in identical conditions)
The use of α-S-, β/γ-, and kappa-caseinases (increase of effectiveness of NM, accumulation of physiologically active protein and nonprotein metabolites and their complexes)
Systems of proteinases, EPC depolymerases, and/or peroxidase-like catalases in cultures (revealing strain-dependent producers of enzymes, proteins, and EPC; evaluation of cytolysis populations, oxidative stress, virulent factors, changes, and aging of cultures upon passages and storage)
Lectin systems: major and minor, building and signal, cross talk and quorum sensing (standardization of cultures and analysis of communicative networks) *Evaluation of early and prolonged landscape synergism of recognizing components of cultures and antibiotics (individual choice and replacement of combinations of probiotics and antibiotics upon therapy of patient)
Natural and recombinant systems oriented to recognition of polyvalent glycoconjugate targets of known structure (standardization of strains; monitoring and revealing signals of carbohydrate metabolism)
Imitation by cultural metabolites in respect to strain or consortium effectiveness (standardization of strain multifunctionality)
The use of recognizing metabolites instead of cells or in combinations with cells for support of feeble living and antibiotic-sensitive cultures (also in cases of non-culturable microorganisms).
Constructing balanced supporting MB of probiotic cell-metabolite consortia (constructing symbiotic consortia, balanced vaccines)
\n
For Gram-positive bacteria (opportunistic and pathogenic)
Sensor microbial systems of MB (revealing and using key antagonistic systems) Directed assembling of cytokine-cell gradients: reversible functional (1–2 days) or late irreversible conserved and partially inactivated (4–6 weeks), as in cases of biofilms containing erythrocytes—in microassay (evaluation of protection and degradation of human cells in the presence of pathogens)
Biofilm forming as ranked quantitative and qualitative, early and delayed—in microassay (reactions of mono- and mixed biofilms)
Species-dependent redistribution of antagonistic MB (prediction of mutual influence between species and strains of probiotics, opportunistic microbes, and antibiotics)
Leader strains and species within MB (evaluation of temporary MB-destabilizing strains in coexistent antagonistic microbial populations)
Destabilization and synchronization of MB by recognizing components of cultures for increasing future selective synergistic action of antimicrobials and stress factors (increase of early and late suppression of pathogens) Microecological interniche early and delayed landscape relationships in cases of solid-phased and suspension microbial massifs, for microanalysis (evaluation of opportunistic microbes and MB as communicative bodies opposed to mosaics of antimicrobials)
Construction of active (involving probiotic leaders) and stabilizing (species-dependent and resistant to antibiotics, probiotic-like supporting MB) consortia (using upon therapy)
Strain-phenotyping dysbiotic MB using lectin systems (revealing early changes in patient MB in the presence of lectins of MB, for development of new strategies of therapy)
LS of probiotic consortia (directions of consortium formula actions can be predicted by constructing) as ingredients of functional food to support resistant functioning mucosal organs
The data presented consider aspects of constructing probiotic multistrain intra- and inter-genus Gram-positive bacterial metabolites on examples of bifidobacteria and lactobacilli of the human gut origin. Algorithms of creation of 4- and 7-code MP formulas are presented and argued. It is of importance to consider LSSM and their GC as a new perspective protective basis/scaffold factor influencing and supporting human interactome, involving biotope infrastructures, signaling, and anti-infectious actions as well as cofunctioning together with other protective human systems [17, 42]. Results support the use of pro-/symbiotic LS as assistant-coordinated metabolomic agents; carriers for delivery and releasing GC, metabiotics (including simulators of cell surface patterns of opportunistic microorganisms), prebiotics, therapeutics, and antigens (for cofunctioning to antibodies); and reserves for decoration elements that support stabile functioning landscapes of the human cell surfaces and mucosal tissues. Probiotic lectins (interacting with synthetic GC simulators) are important for screening, typing, and selection of useful strains and their consortia supporting organs. The proposed LSSM-containing preparations promise LSSM using a soft adaptive multidirected network synergistically acting together with other protectors (also in conditions of the absence of oxygen [involving oxidative stress and forming of covalently bound by-products] within biotope). Variants of multipro-/sym-/synbiotics constructed can be perspective for prophylaxis for individuals and contingents as well as for supporting treatments of patients (before and postoperative period, during chemotherapy, etc.). Approaches developed are useful in study of interniche relationships of extended set of Gram-positive and fungal microorganisms in mono- and mixed cultures. Procedures can be applied in different fields of clinical microbiology and medical biotechnology.
\nThe authors declare the absence of conflict of interest.
Today, information has become the main component of what we produce, do, buy, and consume. Having an economic value in almost all products and services that meet the needs of today’s societies, it has been now obligatory for individuals and organizations to obtain information technologies and to actively use them in both work and social life domains. Hence, in the current information age, where information is seen as power, this situation has made it imperative for organizations to become increasingly information-based and to benefit from information technologies in many processes and activities.
The intensive use of information technologies in many functions and processes has also required some changes in organizations [1]. This is due to the fact that information technologies, unlike traditional technologies, do not only change the technical fields but also affect the communication channels, decision-making functions and mechanisms, control, etc. [2]. Consequently, one of the most striking developments is on organizational structures that are becoming increasingly flattened and horizontal. Relatedly, information technologies have begun to take over the role of middle management, which supports decision-making processes of senior management and has reduced the importance of this level [3, 4, 5]. Similarly, while information technologies enable managers to obtain faster, more accurate, and more information [6, 7, 8], it also provides lower-level managers with more information about the general situation of the organization, the nature of current problems, and important organizational matters [9, 10, 11, 12].
Moreover, information technologies also have an important potential in determining whether organizations have a mechanical or an organic structure [13]. Within the mechanical organizational structures, people do not have much autonomy, and behaviors expected from employees are being careful and obedience to upper authority and respect for traditions. In such organizations, predictability, consistency, and stability are desirable phenomena. In contrast, people in organic structures have more freedom in shaping and controlling their activities, and being enthusiastic, creative, and taking risks have important places among the desired behaviors [14].
Accordingly, information technologies begin to influence the cultural values of the organization over time, through these transformations they create on organizational structures, processes, and operations. In other words, the fact that organizational structures are mechanical or organic causes the formation of diverse cultural values in organizations [15]. Therefore, the desired cultural values in mechanical organizations are quite different from those in organic structures [1, 16, 17]. In this context, this chapter deals with the influences of information technologies on cultural characteristics of organizations along with the reflections of the use of these technologies on organizational structures and their functioning.
When we look at studies on the relations between organizational culture and information technologies, we generally see the studies on the effects of culture on technology adaptation or use [18, 19, 20, 21], as well as on the effects of certain specific information technologies and applications (e.g., e-mail use, group support practices, etc.) on some aspects of any organizational culture [22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31]. However, the number of studies that consider the use of information technologies as a “whole” and that address “why” and “how” its effects on organizational culture occurred is still limited. And so, this chapter aims to examine and discuss the overall effects of the usage and intensity of information technologies established in organizations on the cultural life within.
In this context, the chapter plan is as follows: Firstly, the basic concepts related to information and information technologies are included. Emphasis is placed on the meaning differences between knowledge and information, and their connections to information technologies are tried to be explained briefly. Secondly, the effects of information technologies on organizational structure are given particular attention. The reason for this is that as a system of values, beliefs, assumptions, and practices [32], organizational culture encompasses many features closely related to structures of organizations. Thirdly, possible links between organizational structure and organizational culture are included. Fourthly, important theoretical approaches and studies on the relationships between information technologies and organizational culture are provided. Finally, by deepening a bit more and by emphasizing key points, some important arguments are discussed.
In the literature, the concepts of information and knowledge are sometimes expressed by a single term, “information.” However, although the concepts of knowledge and information are intertwined, they are two different concepts that have different meanings and describe different phenomena. The reason for this is that knowledge is also included in the concept of information as it is transformed into a commodity when it begins to be processed, stored, and shared by information technologies.
Becoming the basic elements of today’s economic, social, and cultural systems, information is obtained in a certain hierarchy. The images are at the beginning of the process, and the process is completed with a hierarchical staging in the form of data, information, and knowledge, respectively [33]. Image is located in the first step of the process. Humans copy the picture of any object and event they previously perceived by sensory organs. When faced with a similar phenomenon in the later stages of life, these pictures in the mind are redesigned. We call these pictures of realities occurring in the human mind as images [33]. The next stage, the data, contains symbols that represent events and their properties. For this reason, data are expressed as figures and/or facts without content and interpretation [34]. Information that constitutes the next stage of the process and is mixed with knowledge and used interchangeably is expressed as a reporting of one system’s own status to another system [33]. In information, associated data are combined for a specific purpose. Therefore, we can explain information as meaningful data [35]. Knowledge, on the other hand, is defined as personalized information that allows people to fully and accurately grasp what is happening around them and manifests itself in the form of thoughts, insights, intuition, ideas, lessons learned, practices, and experiences [36]. According to Kautz and Thaysen [37] who stated that knowledge is found only in the people’s minds, knowledge is, therefore, a subjective formation. In other words, knowledge is the form of information enriched with interpretation, analysis, and context [38]. However, here, it should be emphasized again by highlighting a very important issue that knowledge is also accepted as information when this knowledge begins to be processed, stored, shared, and used over information technologies. Therefore, after this, when talking about information, one should consider not only the information created by the data brought together in a meaningful way but also the knowledge shared and used over information technologies.
On the other hand, information technologies, used as the most important tool of generating value today, are defined as the technologies that enable processes such as recording and storing data, producing information through certain operational processes, and accessing, storing, and transmitting this produced information effectively and efficiently [39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46]. The term information technologies is used to cover computer and electronic communication technologies, as they are now inseparably intertwined in literature and everyday use and are generally used in this way [47]. In this context, data processing systems, management information systems (MIS), office automation systems, executive support systems, expert systems, intranet and extranet, electronic mail (e-mail), group applications (groupware), database management systems, decision support systems, artificial intelligence, and telecommunication systems can be given as examples of information technologies [33, 48, 49].
Towards the end of the twentieth century, the rapid changes with the impact of developments in information technologies led to the emergence of customer satisfaction-based, learning, knowledge-based, and constantly changing organizations [50]. The fact that organizations have become considerably information-based and benefit from information technologies intensively in their activities and processes has made also the changes in their organizational structures mandatory [1]. Accordingly, the effects of information technologies on organizational structure will be summarized under the subtitles of differentiation, centralization, and standardization/formalization, which are the three main components of organizational structure [15].
Differentiation within an organization occurs in three ways: Specialization/division of labor, horizontal and vertical differentiation, and hierarchy and size [15]. Specialization refers to the amount of different expertise or types of work [51, 52]. Specialization generally increases the number of subunits and makes it harder to understand the larger structure that people contribute to with their skills and expertise [53]. Information technologies have the potential to reduce this tendency by providing more access to information and experts at this point. In this way, access to information resources provides synergy [54].
Vertical and horizontal differentiation refers to the amount of hierarchical levels in an organization [55]. Information technologies, with the support of problem solving and decision-making, lead to the emergence of more flattened organizational structures as they require fewer levels within the hierarchy [56]. Since information technologies give employees in lower positions more autonomy to harmonize their activities, this can allow them to find and try better methods while performing their work. In this context, we can increasingly see that organizational structures have become horizontal and strengthened and that virtual organizations have begun to emerge as the most cost-effective structure [17].
In terms of hierarchy and size, Heinze and Stuart [4] argue that the mid-level management staff is unnecessary, increases bureaucracy, reduces efficiency, and has no function in organizations any more. Since most of the tasks performed by mid-level executives can be fulfilled by computers, both less costly and faster, information technology has begun to take over the role of mid-level management, which supports the decision-making process of senior management [5]. Sharing the same opinion, Fulk and DeSanctis [57] also stated that the largely witnessed situation in modern organizational designs is the reduction of intermediate-level managers and administrative support.
Centralization points to the extent to which decision-making power within an organization is scattered or centered [58]. Due to increasing local and global competition, many companies have started to leave their strategic decision-making task further down the organization to benefit from the expert people with more precise and timely local knowledge [10]. Information technologies affect these efforts directly in two ways. Firstly, information technologies increase local knowledge by contributing to obtaining closer information about market trends, opportunities, and customers. Secondly, information technologies can create synergies for organizations because, thanks to information technologies, communication and coordination between distributed decision makers, central planners, and senior managers can be realized more effectively and efficiently [59].
However, whether information technologies will lead to centralization or decentralization is a very controversial question. Regarding centralization, it enables managers to acquire faster, more accurate, and more information, reduces uncertainty, and allows them to make decisions that they cannot make before [6, 7, 8]. Conversely, by the use of other forms of information technologies (e.g., electronic bulletin boards), decentralization provides more information to lower- and mid-level managers about the general situation of the organization and the nature of current matters and problems [9, 10, 11, 12]. Raymond et al. [60] argued that because information technologies facilitate the use and transmission of information by all levels and units in the organization, it enables top management, which is the decision authority, to be disabled in certain areas and the decentralization of control. Thach and Woodman [61] maintained that this is due to the fact that as a result of sharing information at lower levels with the help of information technologies, this power of senior management has decreased to a certain extent, and the knowledge and participation of the staff in organizational matters have increased.
The literature shows that information technologies allow both centralization and decentralization. Researchers are in the agreement that information technologies make it possible for organizational managers to leave their decision-making power to a large part of the hierarchical levels without compromising the quality and timeliness of the decision [62, 63]. Keen [64] combined the concepts of centralization and decentralization and used the term “federated organization” in which organizations do not have to choose either because information technologies simultaneously allow centralization-decentralization [64, 65].
Formalization is the process of detailing how activities are coordinated for organizational purposes in order for employees and organizational units to respond routinely to recurring situations [51, 66]. Formalization involves rules, instructions, shared values, and norms [67]. In fact, formalization is based on the objective of more efficiency and less uncertainty [13].
Information technologies provide the ability to reduce the negative effects of formalization by facilitating the documenting and retrieving of information on organizational occurrences and endeavors that make behaviors and processes more consistent through formalization [63]. The more information technologies assist in reducing search times and preventing downtime, the more the administrative cost of formalization decreases and the productivity increases, which ultimately benefits the path to innovation [68].
Different organizational structures lead to the development of different cultural values [15]. The fact that the structure which an organization has established to control its activities and is defined as a formal system consisting of duties and authority relations is mechanical or organic causes the emergence of completely different cultural values, rules, and norms [69]. While mechanical structures are vertical, highly centralized, and almost everything in them are standardized, organic structures are horizontal, decentralized, and based on mutual adaptation [14]. People feel relatively less autonomous in vertical and centralized organizations, and being careful, obeying the upper authority, and respecting traditions are among the desired behaviors. Therefore, in a mechanical organizational structure, there are cultural values where predictability and stability are important [69]. In contrast, in horizontal and decentralized organizations, people can freely choose their own activities and control them. Creativity, courage, and risk-taking are given importance as desired behaviors. Therefore, organic structures contribute to the formation of cultures that value innovation and flexibility [15].
Organizational structure is also important for the development of cultural values that support integration and coordination. In a structure with stable task and role relations, sharing of rules and norms is more since there will be no communication problems and the information flow will be fast [70]. In organizations where the sharing of cultural values, norms, and rules is at a high level, the level of performance also increases [15]. Particularly in team or matrix structures where face-to-face communication is intense, the sharing of these cultural values and common reactions to the problems develop more rapidly [9].
Whether an organization is centralized or not causes different cultural values to emerge. In decentralized structures, authority is divided into subordinate levels, and an environment is created for the formation of cultural values in which creativity and innovation are rewarded [13]. Employees are allowed to use the organization’s resources and work in projects that they want, by spending some of their time in these projects, thus contributing to the production of innovative and creative products and services [15]. The structures of such organizations constitute the cultural values that give their employees the message “as long as it is in the interest of the organization, it is okay to do things in an innovative and the way you want.”
Conversely, in some organizations, it may be more important for employees not to decide on their own and all activities to be followed and controlled by their superiors. In such cases, a centralized structure is preferred to create cultural values that will ensure accountability and obedience [71]. Through norms and rules, all employees are expected to behave honestly and consistently and inform their superiors about wrongs or mistakes, because this is the only acceptable form of behavior within these structures [72].
Since working on the factors that determine the consequences of the adoption and use of information technologies, researchers have focused on people’s beliefs, values, assumptions, and codes of conduct. As a result, they have given names to this research field such as “socio-technical systems,” “social system,” “social structure,” and most recently “culture” [73]. For example, Markus and Robey [23] using “social elements” and Barley [26] using “social system” or “social structure” tried to explain this phenomenon. When examined more closely, it is seen that the details that these authors emphasize while depicting the case are the assumptions, beliefs, and values that exist in common among the group members, and this corresponds to the definition of organizational culture.
Research examining the relationships between information technologies and values, beliefs, and norms belonging to a particular group has gone through certain stages and used rich and complex research models to explain the relationships in each of these stages [74]. In the first studies on information technology applications, it has been suggested that information technologies cause changes in various organizational phenomena including structural features and thus have certain effects on organizations [74]. For instance, in some studies on adoption of groupware software, several researchers have used this deterministic approach to describe how groupware use affects communication and collaboration among employees and their productivity [27, 28]. These studies assume that certain results will certainly emerge after the adoption of information technologies, without considering the motives or activities that shape the use of information technologies by managers and employees. Like much more deterministic studies, these authors often assumed that information technologies would have predetermined influences on the adoption of information technologies, regardless of the environment in which information technologies were applied, how they were applied, and the users’ specific behaviors and particular purposes.
The second group of views concerning the relationships between organizational culture and information technologies includes the fact that information technologies are seen as a tool that can be used for any change that managers desire to make in organizational practices [22]. In studies in this approach, researchers believe that there is a wide range of possibilities to identify changes in organizational culture, structure, processes, and performance [22, 75]. Researchers from this tradition presume that with the right choice of information technologies and appropriate system design, managers can achieve whatever goals they desire.
These works were mostly adopted in the 1980s and reflect a perspective that managers think can manipulate organizational culture in the way they want. Often called “management and control,” “a functional or instrumental approach” to organizational culture, this methodology has caused serious debate in the literature [76]. This approach attributes great powers to the management level in this regard, which conflicts with anthropologists’ views that culture cannot be consciously controlled and goes much deeper to understand it [76]. Robey and Azevido [77] also do not accept the rational thought on the assumption that culture can be manipulated directly in this way.
Studies with this rational perspective in the information technology literature assume that managers can use information technologies as a leverage to make changes in the norms of behavior, strategy, structure, and performance among members within the organization. For example, in studies on group support systems (GSS), we find managers’ beliefs that they can use collaborative technologies to create a more cooperative organizational culture. This perspective was not accepted by Karsten [78] and some experimental research on GSS [30, 79]. Organizational necessity is no longer accepted, as it is viewed by information technology researchers as an overly simple approach [23, 80].
Researchers who take another approach suggest that information technologies and organizational culture can interact with each other to produce various results [22, 23]. These results can be in the form of adoption and effective use of information technologies (if there is a harmony between organizational culture and information technologies) or user reluctance, refusal, or sabotage (if no fit). Researchers who have been working on information systems since the 1980s have focused on understanding information technology features and functionality that cause effective or problematic information technology applications and the interaction between users’ values, assumptions, and other elements of organizational culture. In this regard, Romm et al. [81] argued that many forms of information technologies comprise cultural assumptions embedded within themselves and these assumptions may conflict with existing values of a particular organization. The authors argued that these embedded assumptions present information technologies as a “cultural boundary” and that a cultural analysis should be made to predict compliance or incompatibility. The authors in this approach warn managers to think of organizational culture as a binding limitation in information technology applications. In a warning by Pliskin et al. [76], managers are advised not to try to change the culture of the organization. Regarding this issue, Orlikowski [30] cites Lotus Notes (a group software) application at Alpha Corporation, a consultancy company. In this example, this system, which was established by the CEO of the company only with the benefits to be obtained, did not create the expected effects, became unsuccessful, and disappointed due to reasons such as no cultural analysis and inadequate training. Employees responded to the use of Notes with resistance and refrained from using it. The reason for this was that the employees in this organization, which had a competitive culture where information was seen as a power, avoided sharing information with others. As a result, this incompatibility between the collaborative culture that Notes had in itself and the competitive culture of the organization in question had failed this application of information technologies.
In a different approach, it is stated that information technologies and culture are not fixed and they are more flexible in terms of change [23, 75]. Managers in this approach may set specific goals for the use of information technologies, but actual results of the use of information technologies are not deterministic, and results cannot be predicted or controlled even under the best conditions [23]. The effects of information technologies are not deterministic because technology has interpretable flexibility considering that it can have different meanings for different employees. Similar technology can be interpreted in a different way by distinct people, based on certain assumptions, beliefs, and values. Robey and coauthors [24, 25], for instance, showed that it would be an empty attempt for organizational managers to try to intentionally manipulate the effects of these technologies, since there are many ways that diverse employees can configure a particular technology in different social environments.
Gopal and Prasad [31] also achieved similar results in their work on group support system (GSS), claiming that for researchers seeking fixed laws or regulations on how information technologies affect user behaviors, this would be an impossible goal to pursue. Conversely, the results of using information technologies depend on the symbolic meanings that information technologies have for a particular user. This work of Gopal and Prasad [31] expresses similar results with the work of Barley [26] and Robey and Sahay [25]. The authors stated that the symbolic meanings of certain technologies for users affect their perceptions of information technologies and their specific behaviors.
In the light of the above-mentioned approaches, arguments, and important studies in the literature, it will be useful to discuss some important points by deepening a little more and by emphasizing the key features related to the concepts of information, information technologies, and organizational culture.
First, organizational culture is a complex phenomenon that develops and changes in a historical process [32, 82, 83]. Thus, although it might seem like a plain and simple concept, organizational culture includes many subdimensions and processes. When considered as a complex pattern of these interactions of many factors with each other, it is also a difficult process to identify the direct and indirect effects of information technologies on organizational culture within this cluster of relationships and interactions. Moreover, culture is not a phenomenon that changes and develops in a short time and is therefore open to manipulations of managers. On the contrary, from this point of view, it is not possible to easily achieve control over cultural changes, and it is necessary to go much deeper [76]. So, it is not rational to expect that the rapid developments and changes in information technologies will cause changes in cultural characteristics at the same speed. In this sense, it could be inaccurate to seek direct relationships between two phenomena in question, whose rates of change are quite different.
Second, for cultural changes, there must also be changes in the basic assumptions, beliefs, and values on which the culture is built [84]. It would be misleading to expect little or intensive use of information technologies to cause changes in these rooted assumptions. For the desired changes in these basic assumptions, beliefs, and values, it is necessary to design the structure accordingly, to recruit employees who are qualified for the targeted culture, and to set ethical values and property rights to employees in accordance with this culture [15]. In this sense, information technologies may only catalyze the contribution of organizational structure to organizational culture.
Third, there are many and different types of hardware and software that fall under the scope of information technologies. It is not logical to accept all of them as homogeneous technologies in all aspects (with the same functions and features, similar usage areas, standard conditions they are applied, similar intentions, and behaviors of all users), and it can be, therefore, misleading to carry out research under a single “IT” concept from this perspective. The reason for this is that, as stated in the sections above, cultural features of each information technology application or product embedded in it might be different. The interactions between the cultural characteristics of the environment in which information technologies are applied and the unique cultural contents of information technologies may cause different results on the culture of the organization.
Fourth, contrary to what is believed, some of cultural features that we anticipate to support information technology applications and products may be interpreted otherwise by diverse people contingent on different assumptions, beliefs, and values. In fact, Robey et al. [24, 25] showed that managers cannot control the effects of these technologies, since different users can configure a particular technology in numerous ways in different social environments. Also, Gopal and Prasad [31] argued that this would be an impossible achievement for researchers looking for fixed laws or regulations on how information technologies affect user behaviors.
Fifth, information technologies were defined above as technologies that enable processing, storage, and sharing of information. The key concept in this definition is “knowledge-based” information and not the technology itself. Therefore, what makes information technologies essential and important is the information itself. According to the definition of knowledge, the most significant characteristic that differentiates it from information is its being a product of the human mind [37]. Because knowledge is the interpretation of information and expresses the value produced from it, qualifying information technologies as good-bad, useful-useless, and necessary-unnecessary can be a meaningless evaluation. So, the basic thing that creates value-added for organizations is not the technology used but the information itself, which is processed, stored, and shared on this technology. In this context, even if it is the latest, most advanced, and most expensive technology in the world, if the organization does not have a qualified human resource capable of producing knowledge that will create value-added, an appropriate organizational structure and culture that will activate this creative potential, and a management approach, all investments in these technologies will also be wasted.
This chapter has aimed to examine the impacts of information technologies on organizations’ cultures, and for this purpose, a special emphasis is given to the concept of “organizational structure” within the theoretical framework presented above. The most important reason for this is that relevant literature shows that organizational culture and organizational structure are in a very close relationship. Indeed, when the question items in the Denison organizational culture scale [85], which is the most frequently used in the literature, are examined, it is possible to see that most of these items point to many features of organizational structure concerning centralization, formalization, and differentiation dimensions. Therefore, it is a very rational approach to expect that information technologies can have direct and indirect effects on organizational cultures based on the influences of information technologies on structures of organizations. However, it should be underlined that different and controversial approaches and findings in the literature mentioned above on the relations between information technologies and organizational culture generate question marks in the minds as well.
In this regard, it is already quite difficult to draw a clear picture of the impacts of information technologies on cultural characteristics of organizations. The number of studies on the subject in the literature is still very limited. Accordingly, it is necessary to underline the great need for interdisciplinary studies in this field. But still, this study argues that the main factor that determines the actual impact and value of information technologies, which have become an integral part of human life in today’s world, is the information itself rather than technology, and it should be kept in mind that information technologies can only function as a means or tool in this knowledge-based social, economic, and cultural life. In other words, the determinant of the benefits, meaning, and importance of information technologies might be the conditions created by organizational factors such as cultural environment and organizational structure where knowledge is created, developed, and used and human resources have become the most important capital element and source of wealth.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
The Internet has irrevocably changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing. Consequently, we find it necessary to indicate, unambiguously, our definition of what we consider to be a published scientific work.
",metaTitle:"Prior Publication Policy",metaDescription:"Prior Publication Policy",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/prior-publication-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar work in progress are openly shared online between members of the scientific community. It has become common to announce one’s own research on a personal website or a blog to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are, indeed, published in the sense that they are made publicly available. However, this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\\n\\nThe significance of Peer Review cannot be overstated when it comes to defining, in our terms, what constitutes a published scientific work. Peer Review is widely considered to be the cornerstone of modern publishing processes and the key value-adding contribution to a scholarly manuscript that a publisher can make.
\\n\\nOther than the issue of originality, research misconduct is another major issue that all publishers have to address. IntechOpen’s Retraction & Correction Policy and various publication ethics guidelines identify both redundant publication and (self)plagiarism to fall within the definition of research misconduct, thus constituting grounds for rejection or the issue of a Retraction if the work has already been published.
\\n\\nIn order to facilitate the tracking of a manuscript’s publishing history and its development from its earliest draft to the manuscript submitted, we encourage Authors to disclose any instances of a manuscript’s prior publication, whether it be through a conference presentation, a newspaper article, a working paper publicly available in a repository or a blog post.
\\n\\nA note to the Academic Editor containing detailed information about a submitted manuscript’s previous public availability is the preferred means of reporting prior publication. This helps us determine if there are any earlier versions of a manuscript that should be disclosed to our readers or if any of those earlier versions should be cited and listed in a manuscript’s references.
\\n\\nSome basic information about the editorial treatment of different varieties of prior publication is laid out below:
\\n\\n1. CONFERENCE PAPERS & PRESENTATIONS
\\n\\nGiven that conference papers and presentations generally pass through some sort of peer or editorial review, we consider them to be published in the accepted scholarly sense, particularly if they are published as a part of conference proceedings.
\\n\\nAll submitted manuscripts originating from a previously published conference paper must contain at least 50% of new original content to be accepted for review and considered for publication.
\\n\\nAuthors are required to report any links their manuscript might have with their earlier conference papers and presentations in a note to the Academic Editor, as well as in the manuscript itself. Additionally, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the publisher of their conference paper if copyright transfer occurred during the publishing process. Failure to do so may prevent Us from publishing an otherwise worthy work.
\\n\\n2. NEWSPAPER & MAGAZINE ARTICLES
\\n\\nNewspaper and magazine articles usually do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense. Articles appearing in newspapers and magazines rarely possess the depth and structure characteristic of scholarly articles.
\\n\\nSubmitted manuscripts stemming from a previous newspaper or magazine article will be accepted for review and considered for publication. However, Authors are strongly advised to report any such publication in an accompanying note to the External Editor.
\\n\\nAs with the conference papers and presentations, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the newspaper or magazine that published the work, and indicate that they have done so in a note to the External Editor.
\\n\\n3. GREY LITERATURE
\\n\\nWhite papers, working papers, technical reports and all other forms of papers which fall within the scope of the ‘Luxembourg definition’ of grey literature do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense.
\\n\\nAlthough such papers are regularly made publicly available via personal websites and institutional repositories, their general purpose is to gather comments and feedback from Authors’ colleagues in order to further improve a manuscript intended for future publication.
\\n\\nWhen submitting their work, Authors are required to disclose the existence of any publicly available earlier drafts in a note to the Academic Editor. In cases where earlier drafts of the submitted version of the manuscript are publicly available, any overlap between the versions will generally not be considered an instance of self-plagiarism.
\\n\\n4. SOCIAL MEDIA, BLOG & MESSAGE BOARD POSTINGS
\\n\\nWe feel that social media, blogs and message boards are generally used with the same intention as grey literature, to formulate ideas for a manuscript and gather early feedback from like-minded researchers in order to improve a particular piece of work before submitting it for publication. Therefore, we do not consider such internet postings to be publication in the scholarly sense.
\\n\\nNevertheless, Authors are encouraged to disclose the existence of any internet postings in which they outline and describe their research or posted passages of their manuscripts in a note to the Academic Editor. Please note that we will not strictly enforce this request in the same way that we would instructions we consider to be part of our conditions of acceptance for publication. We understand that it may be difficult to keep track of all one’s internet postings in which the researcher´s current work might be mentioned.
\\n\\nIn cases where there is any overlap between the Author´s submitted manuscript and related internet postings, we will generally not consider it to be an instance of self-plagiarism. This also holds true for any co-Author as well.
\\n\\nFor more information on this policy please contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2017-03-20
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar work in progress are openly shared online between members of the scientific community. It has become common to announce one’s own research on a personal website or a blog to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are, indeed, published in the sense that they are made publicly available. However, this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\n\nThe significance of Peer Review cannot be overstated when it comes to defining, in our terms, what constitutes a published scientific work. Peer Review is widely considered to be the cornerstone of modern publishing processes and the key value-adding contribution to a scholarly manuscript that a publisher can make.
\n\nOther than the issue of originality, research misconduct is another major issue that all publishers have to address. IntechOpen’s Retraction & Correction Policy and various publication ethics guidelines identify both redundant publication and (self)plagiarism to fall within the definition of research misconduct, thus constituting grounds for rejection or the issue of a Retraction if the work has already been published.
\n\nIn order to facilitate the tracking of a manuscript’s publishing history and its development from its earliest draft to the manuscript submitted, we encourage Authors to disclose any instances of a manuscript’s prior publication, whether it be through a conference presentation, a newspaper article, a working paper publicly available in a repository or a blog post.
\n\nA note to the Academic Editor containing detailed information about a submitted manuscript’s previous public availability is the preferred means of reporting prior publication. This helps us determine if there are any earlier versions of a manuscript that should be disclosed to our readers or if any of those earlier versions should be cited and listed in a manuscript’s references.
\n\nSome basic information about the editorial treatment of different varieties of prior publication is laid out below:
\n\n1. CONFERENCE PAPERS & PRESENTATIONS
\n\nGiven that conference papers and presentations generally pass through some sort of peer or editorial review, we consider them to be published in the accepted scholarly sense, particularly if they are published as a part of conference proceedings.
\n\nAll submitted manuscripts originating from a previously published conference paper must contain at least 50% of new original content to be accepted for review and considered for publication.
\n\nAuthors are required to report any links their manuscript might have with their earlier conference papers and presentations in a note to the Academic Editor, as well as in the manuscript itself. Additionally, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the publisher of their conference paper if copyright transfer occurred during the publishing process. Failure to do so may prevent Us from publishing an otherwise worthy work.
\n\n2. NEWSPAPER & MAGAZINE ARTICLES
\n\nNewspaper and magazine articles usually do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense. Articles appearing in newspapers and magazines rarely possess the depth and structure characteristic of scholarly articles.
\n\nSubmitted manuscripts stemming from a previous newspaper or magazine article will be accepted for review and considered for publication. However, Authors are strongly advised to report any such publication in an accompanying note to the External Editor.
\n\nAs with the conference papers and presentations, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the newspaper or magazine that published the work, and indicate that they have done so in a note to the External Editor.
\n\n3. GREY LITERATURE
\n\nWhite papers, working papers, technical reports and all other forms of papers which fall within the scope of the ‘Luxembourg definition’ of grey literature do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense.
\n\nAlthough such papers are regularly made publicly available via personal websites and institutional repositories, their general purpose is to gather comments and feedback from Authors’ colleagues in order to further improve a manuscript intended for future publication.
\n\nWhen submitting their work, Authors are required to disclose the existence of any publicly available earlier drafts in a note to the Academic Editor. In cases where earlier drafts of the submitted version of the manuscript are publicly available, any overlap between the versions will generally not be considered an instance of self-plagiarism.
\n\n4. SOCIAL MEDIA, BLOG & MESSAGE BOARD POSTINGS
\n\nWe feel that social media, blogs and message boards are generally used with the same intention as grey literature, to formulate ideas for a manuscript and gather early feedback from like-minded researchers in order to improve a particular piece of work before submitting it for publication. Therefore, we do not consider such internet postings to be publication in the scholarly sense.
\n\nNevertheless, Authors are encouraged to disclose the existence of any internet postings in which they outline and describe their research or posted passages of their manuscripts in a note to the Academic Editor. Please note that we will not strictly enforce this request in the same way that we would instructions we consider to be part of our conditions of acceptance for publication. We understand that it may be difficult to keep track of all one’s internet postings in which the researcher´s current work might be mentioned.
\n\nIn cases where there is any overlap between the Author´s submitted manuscript and related internet postings, we will generally not consider it to be an instance of self-plagiarism. This also holds true for any co-Author as well.
\n\nFor more information on this policy please contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2017-03-20
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