\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
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The situation in which turned out to be power engineering of Russia in the first decade of the twenty-first century has generated heated debate about the causes of the crisis, which turned out to be a domestic machine building, as well as ways to overcome it [1, 2, 3, 4].
\nThe fact that the structural transformation in the Russian machine-building complex, which took place at the time, was associated with a number of assumptions and trends largely determines the prospects for the formation of new and operation of the existing large integrated structure.
\nMeeting the challenges, which national engineering faces, is impossible with outraising capital in the sector, experiencing an investment “hunger.” This applies to power engineering as well—a relatively prosperous industry, which was in the period of sharp decline in the domestic demand for machinery and equipment to go out of the crisis of the 1990s due to export orders with less losses than other engineering enterprises. However, the chronic underinvestment caused reducing the technical level of its production facilities.
\nIt is necessary to focus on all resources—financial, industrial, and intellectual ones for implementation of large-scale tasks by the industry, and that in turn will require improving the management structure.
\nIn the 1980s of the last century, the equipment supplies by power engineering provided the annual commissioning of at least 10 million kWh of electric power.
\nHowever, since 1991, there has been a sharp production decline in the industry, as evidenced by the data on manufacture of steam turbines and boilers, commissioning of generating facilities at the thermal power plants of Russia in 1990–2000, and the lack of orders for manufacturing NPP and HPP equipments [5].
\n“The strategy of development of power engineering of Russia,” elaborated on the basis of the “Russian Energy Strategy till 2030” approved by the Government of the Russian Federation (hereinafter—the Energy Strategy), reflects the fundamental directions of development of power engineering in Russia and contains the practical measures for their effective implementation.
\nThe availability in Russia of its own effective power engineering is one of the pillars of its national security, power independence.
\nAccording to the official data, the equipment in the power industry is currently worn by almost 60%. This means that more than half of the thermal and hydropower plants operate under high risk. Given the strategic line of the state for import substitution, it is necessary to organize the process of updating the equipment in the way when orders are placed with the Russian companies, and that is possible if there are investments into domestic engineering.
\nDescribing power engineering competitiveness, we note the peculiar feature of the domestic energy sector, which consists in the fact that almost all power plants in Russia (and CIS) are equipped with the equipment of domestic production. However, modernization and mobilization of resources in the sector can only be based on the policy of concentrating resources, pooling of capital, and formation of the effective management system. In other words, it is about solving the problem of creation of modern organizational structures.
\nIndustrial policy in power engineering should be focused on the process of system management of its activities. Products of this sector meet the needs of other sectors of the economy as a technological component of such specific product as energy. This means that manufacture of machines and mechanisms in the power engineering industry is inseparably linked with construction and engineering works, which provide the necessary conditions for its operation.
\nThe volume of this work is significant even in cases when the equipment is supplied for modernization of the existing facilities, rather than for equipping of new construction projects. And the technological chain of “design—manufacture—construction—installation—commissioning—operation” implies such requirements for all participants of the process of equipment commercial commissioning, the specifics of which do not allow “third-party” participants to participate in this chain (except for civil works at the facilities of power infrastructure).
\nThus, the logic of the process of improving quality of the products and activities related to design, manufacture, installation, and commissioning of the equipment, as well as reducing the time for putting power units in operation requires co-operation of specialists of different branches within the same structure.
\nIn fact, this principle was previously implemented in the framework of the branch management system. Within the USSR Ministry of Energy, about half the staff was engaged in the manufacture of power equipment, the other half—in the construction of power facilities. However, in the period of market reforms, the branch management system was destroyed, and privatized enterprises became independent market participants. But no one, even a very large factory, is able to meet the needs in power engineering products, given the specificity of these high-tech goods.
\nThe thing is that high technologies require coordination of activities of representatives of different trades, professions, and industries. Especially in the frame of globalization when the tone is set precisely by those companies that represent a major conglomerate that combines research and production structures, as well as structures promoting products on the world market, global high-tech companies. Exactly these companies are able to bring the Russian economy to a different path of development, when export of high-tech products will be no less weighty than export of mineral resources. But none Russian factory, no matter how large it may be, is a global company; therefore, it is not competitive in world markets. Therefore, effective restructuring of production and management is necessary in the conditions of independence of market agents under insufficiency of the branch coordination system.
\nThe process of integration of these structures, allowing to centralize development strategies and improve management and technological cooperation, will be inevitably hampered by problems of redistribution of property, as the system of securing property rights existing in Russia can be effective only if the owner is really controlling activities of all participants of the association, provided by significant proportion of ownership of assets. Given the fact that in the process of mass privatization there was no task to create an effective management system of high-tech industries, which are characterized by a high degree of co-ordination and co-operation of complex productions, formation of global companies will inevitably affect the property interests, resulting in a secondary redistribution of property. Thus, corporate conflicts are inevitable in structural transformation.
\nStructural transformations in the Russian machine-building complex are linked with a number of assumptions and trends, largely determining the prospects for formation of new and operation of the existing large integrated structures.
\nFirst, the experience of formation of large associated industrial structures accumulated in the Soviet times, unfortunately, was not properly developed further. However, foreign large industrial conglomerates were formed not only based on the experience of the Soviet industry but also based on the methodological basics that had been tested in the USSR.
\nSecond, the Soviet machinery represented a hypertrophied form of simple cooperation of the universal enterprises but with huge potential unique possibilities for development. However, this potential was not even used, but, in fact, lost, in connection with the influence of accelerated privatization and breaking of the state management.
\nThird, the breach of economic ties and collapse of the industry management system in the process of privatization caused dominance of partnerships as a protective reaction, which are based on informal contract practices, affecting not only the process of exchange of goods but also property relations.
\nFourth, the property relations established under incomplete legal frame work, regulating property relations, formed a specific model of partnership based on a system of trust relationships with contractors and the state authorities. At the same time, there were quite wide spread manifestations of economic self-interest in all aspects of the economic life, including the processes of disintegration (integration) of industrial enterprises. The new management was formed, which core competence were take over and redistribution of property.
\nFifth, the dynamics of development was influenced not only by selfish holders of economic power but also by competitive strategies of foreign companies who sought to oust domestic producers from the world markets using domestic managers. However, where the owners could find a common language, a new type of engineering companies appeared, which competitiveness was high enough not only in the domestic but also in the foreign markets. As for the numerous cases of collapse of structures, those, as a rule, were associated with numerous contradictions just due to the system of partnership [6].
\nThus, the corporate conflicts cannot be considered solely from a negative point of view: they are unavoidable in the process of consolidation of the technological chains belonging to different owners; moreover, replacing the owner does not always result in changing mismanagement by even more inefficient.
\nImplementation of major projects in the Russian power sector solves a whole range of important social and economic problems, provides employment, increases filling of regional budgets, allows to solve strategic tasks of further increase of the installed generating capacity, and increases global competitiveness of Russian equipment in particular and of Russian high-tech in general.
\nLarge integrated structures should be active participants in the process of implementation of integrated innovations. In a sense, they act both as mechanisms of social partnership, on the one hand, expressing consolidated opinion of a large group of people involved in the manufacture of industry products, and on the other—as structures that implement decisions of the central government concerning the interests of large social groups. In addition, the large integrated structures are able to participate in development of complex innovation programs, including initiation of consideration of a number of issues by the state.
\nIn the years 2004–2005 GAZPROM, following the recommendations of the higher state authorities acquired shares of ATOMSTROYEXPORT, actual monopoly in NPP construction abroad, and of the Incorporated Engineering Company (until 2004, a controlling stake in these companies was in the hands of K. Bendukidze, private entrepreneur). These actions of the state demonstrated that the corporation model, similar to that of the firm AREVA (France) was selected, with a majority stake owned by the state, as opposed to the corporation “General Electric,” USA, which is owned by private capital [3, 7].
\nWhen Sergei Kiriyenko (1998—Prime Minister) came to ROSATOM of RF in 2005, the Agency elaborated a program of accelerated development of nuclear power in Russia [8]. This program was submitted to the government on May 18, 2006, and reported to Vladimir Putin, President of the Russian Federation, who approved the program and plan of priority measures for its implementation in June 2006.
\nIn the development of these solutions, more than 6 billion dollars for implementation of this program were allocated in the budget. In accordance with this program, Russian NPPs should produce about 25% of the total electric power by 2030.
\nThe nuclear industry can play an important role in solving the energy problem both in Russia and in the world. It is necessary to build and put into operation 40 GW of nuclear power units on the territory of the Russian Federation by 2030, and in other states, the Russian nuclear specialists will be able to claim the orders of 40–60 GW in the same period of time.
\nAccording to the forecasts of ROSATOM of RF by 2030, nuclear power in the world will grow up to 300–600 GW. Up to half of this promising market will be closed for external players, and the Russian nuclear specialist scan actually qualifies for 20–25% of orders (40–60 GW) of the remaining 200–300 GW of available access.
\nIn the global nuclear fuel market, the share of Russia is now 45%. The Russian should be 50% in the markets of the USA and Canada, 42% in Europe, 35% in South Korea, 30% in Latin America, and 10% in China and Japan. To maintain its leadership, Russia has to increase capacities and implement market reforms in the sector [4].
\nThere is no enough qualified personnel for safe operation of commissioned NPPs. The today’s current system of personnel training and consolidation in the nuclear industry is clearly insufficient for its large-scale development. Working pensioners make about 25%, young workers and specialists—about 10%. Acquisition of knowledge and skills should be ahead of programs for designing and development of technologies, construction of nuclear facilities, and their commissioning. The current situation with the staff can be considered critical. With a general decline in the number of researchers (the driving force of innovation development), the share of researchers over the age of 60 years increases. The average age of leading industry experts (PhD) and university professors of “nuclear” profile is higher than the average male life expectancy in the country. Although over the past 6 years, ROSATOM has done much to address the deficiencies in training. The corporate university of 20 schools was formed on the basis of MEPI [9, 10].
\nThe long-term construction period further increases the cost and opportunities for corruption. Building “from scratch” actually takes at least 7 years, indicating shortcomings in designing and imperfect work organization.
\nROSATOM stated its desire to achieve the construction time of 4–4.5 years. To do this, it is necessary to unify designs and implement innovative construction techniques based on large-block equipment supplies to construction sites.
\nThe declared cost of 1 GW of nuclear generation has already reached $4 billion (or $4.6 billion for power unit of 1.15 GW) and continues to grow. Today the cost of NPP construction in Russia is two times higher than in China and for 30–40% higher than in Europe.
\nIn the current environment, the economically justified cost of construction of one VVER unit of 1.15 GW capacity is not more than $2.5 billion with the construction term not more than 5 years. If ROSATOM is not able to meet these indicators, the NPP construction in the country is not competitive compared with modernization of steam turbine power units to combined cycle ones at the existing gas TPP according to the main criteria—volume of replaced gas per year during electricity generation and its net cost. The unreasonably high cost of NPP construction includes not less than 40% of the corruption component.
\nThe current regulated price of electricity at the Russian NPPs on the whole sale market is 3.2 US cents per kW/h (for comparison, in the USA—1.87 cents, in France and Germany—2–2.2 cents in 2008 prices). The price of electricity for economic entities in Russia is 2–3 rubles or 7–10 cents, and a new connection of consumers reaches 4.5–5 rubles or 15–17 cents (for comparison, in the USA—6.5–7.5 cents, the average price in the EU—12 cents, in China—8–9 cents). With regard to nuclear engineering, the situation is ambiguous. On the one hand, at the moment, there is possibility of producing the necessary long lead equipment for no more than three nuclear power units per year, which is obviously not enough for realization of the ambitious plans to build nuclear power plants in Russia and abroad. On the other hand, the large-scale modernization is currently carried out at the key enterprises of the energy sector of the country [6, 11].
\nIn general, our analysis shows that in order to achieve its goals by 2030 at home and abroad, ROSATOM of RF needs to complete all the plans to modernize the machine-building enterprises in a relatively short period of time. This will allow achieving the range and scope of manufactured products to the desired level of 4–5 sets of key equipment for NPP units per year. However, given the fact that currently active negotiations are held or bidding procedures are already ongoing concerning construction of a large number of nuclear power units in a number of countries (Czech Republic, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, Kazakhstan, Nigeria, and others), more significant increase of national nuclear engineering capabilities may be required in the medium term.
\nTo perform such wide-ranging task, it is necessary for ROSATOM of RF, at least, first of all to eliminate the disadvantages mentioned above and to pay special attention to three main areas.
\nThe first main area is the completion of the package of administrative documents, which provide activities of enterprises of the industry and regulate the relations between the industry and the state authorities. The package of administrative documents also includes a set of more than 20 departmental purpose-oriented programs, and, of course, it includes improvement of ROSATOM structure.
\nThe second key area is the knowledge management. It is clear that it is the high-tech industry in that all technological solutions are based on a sufficiently large block of scientific, engineering, and methodological knowledge. And various kinds of dysfunctions and failures take place without some technologization of knowledge generation, handling, and storage. For example, the knowledge is not standardized—it means that different participants of the process are based on different data. The knowledge was generated but not used in practice—hence, there is necrosis of investments in R&D. Developments were made but not commercially used—hence, there are losses in the financial sector and lack of a sufficient set of secondary developments, in which the results of major research programs are applied that have been made previously.
\nThe third major area is the cost management. ROSATOM has been traditionally occupied in collecting data on the economy of enterprises in the industry, their processing, analysis both for planning of ROSATOM activities and in the interests of monitoring economic, financial activities of the enterprises, preparation of balance commissions, and so on. At present, this work must be carried out consistently for a radical reduction in the construction cost.
\nSubstantiation of NPP construction calculation based on needs in power capacities, including the regional context, analysis of the grid condition in order to justify NPP connection to the general layout of power facilities by 2030.
\nThe state of the national economy significantly affects the nature and methods of corporate management. This suggests the existence of specific corporate management models for each country. Thus, the formation of the corporate management national model in Russia takes place under conditions of incomplete development of the legal framework and uncertainty of ownership of privatized property, with nonexecution of the existing laws on protection of property rights and dominance of the insider control model in joint stock companies.
\nThus, the problem of corporate management, which is not a purely national one, is of particular importance in the global trends. That is because the integration processes in the national high-tech sectors are characterized by the tendency of “winding-down” of internal competition in order to accumulate resources for external expansion. Therefore, the national integrated structures are involved in global competition, in which those benefit who are able to provide customers with the most comprehensive volume of services in comparison with competitors.
\nWith regard to the real possibilities of the modern Russian nuclear power, it must be noted that over the past 15 years, five power units were constructed and put in operation abroad—in China, India, and Iran. After the long years of suspension in construction of nuclear power plants, ATOMSTROYEXPORT became the first company among its competitors, which handed over high power nuclear units complying with all safety requirements to a foreign customer. Thus, ATOMSTROYEXPORT proved to the world that the companies and organizations that make up the core of the nuclear power industry in Russia have sufficient potential and real resources to implement the most complex and demanding nuclear power projects [6].
\nIn 2016, the assets of ASE Group companies (ATOMSTROYEXPORT)—the Engineering division of the State Atomic Energy Corporation ROSATOM, a leading player in the global market for the design and construction of nuclear energy facilities, were finally integrated. The Engineering division is well known to our foreign partners. Since its foundation, it has a reputation as an effective provider of the engineering services and has gained trust in the global market.
\nBy decision of the State Atomic Energy Corporation ROSATOM, the Engineering division became the Industry competence center for the management of capital construction projects.
\nFor several years, the project management practice has been successfully implemented by ASE. The unique Multi-D technology continues to develop, being a main tool of the project management platform, which allows shortening construction time and improving labor productivity, work quality, and safety while reducing project costs. In 2016, this technology received international recognition as a winner in the WNEAWARDS competition (Le Bourget, France) presenting the “Project Management System Based on Multi-D Technologies,” and that is a witness of great recognition from the world energy community. The “Multi-D® Project Management System at the Rostov NPP” won the international CEL AWARD-2016 contest in the “Megaproject” nomination, announced by FIATECH, one of the most respected industrial associations worldwide.
\nIn addition, ASE Group companies became the first Russian company to receive an international certificate of conformity with the third competency class in the field of project, program, and portfolio management according to the International Project Management Association (IPMA Delta) model. This is another achievement internationally. Currently, certification in the field of project management according to the international IPMA standards has been passed by all top managers of the company. The division will continue to implement its strategic goals in the difficult situation of growing competition both in the NPP construction market and in the market for construction management services for the complex engineering facilities, using all resources to increase competitiveness.
\nBased on the successfully constructed five power units (in China, India, and Iran), the following areas of cooperation abroad are being implemented.
\nThe second phase of the Tianwan NPP (TAES-2), which also includes two units with VVER-1000 reactors under the NPP-91 design, is being constructed in accordance with the General Contract for units 3 and 4 of TAES-2, signed in 2010, and entered into force in 2011. The Russian side has obligations to develop the complete engineering and operation designs of the Nuclear Island (NI) for TAES-2 units 3 and 4, providing the related services. ASE JSC also undertakes the overall technical responsibility for the design of units 3 and 4, is responsible for managing interfaces throughout the project, and provides warranty obligations.
\nThe General Contract provides for commissioning of unit 3 in February 2018 and unit 4 in December 2018. All activities were going on schedule.
\nOn December 30, 2017, power was launched at unit 3.
\nIt is planned to bring the number of Russian power units in China to 8.
\nThe implementation of the Bushehr-1 NPP project made it possible to sign the Protocol to the Intergovernmental Agreement of 08.25.1992 in 2014, which provides for the possibility to construct eight NPP units in Iran.
\nAt the same time, on November 11, 2014, the Contract was signed under which ATOMSTROYEXPORT will construct the second and third power units of the Bushehr NPP. On September 10, 2016, the solemn laying of the “first stone” took place. The start of activities under the Contract was scheduled on December 28, 2016, when the Russian side received an advance from the Iranian customer.
\nDuring 2017, work was carried out to prepare the site. On March 14, 2001, the earthworks were started on the Bushehr-2 NPP site. On October 31, 2017, a ceremony was held to begin activities at the foundation pit of the main buildings of power unit 2. In 2018, engineering and geological surveys of the marine area and the site for spillway facilities were planned.
\nIt was planned to coordinate the Bushehr-2 NPP design with the Customer and begin procedures related to the examination and obtaining a license for construction from the Iranian regulator. For 2018, completion of the pit for power unit 3 was scheduled, and for 2019—the “first concrete” at power unit 2. In accordance with the Contract, provisional acceptance of unit 2 is planned in 2026, of unit 3—in 2027.
\nUnder the Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of India on cooperation in the construction of additional nuclear power units at the Kudankulam site, as well as in the construction of nuclear power plants under the Russian designs at new sites in the Republic of India, dated December 5, 2008, the parties started the project realization plan for construction of power units 3 and 4 of the Kudankulam NPP with VVER-1000 MW reactor units each.
\nOn October 4, 2014, the General Framework Agreement (GFA) was signed for construction of the Kudankulam NPP power units 3 and 4. In June 2017, the first concrete was poured at the second phase of the Kudankulam NPP unit 3, in October 2017—unit 4.
\nThe planned start date for warranty operation of power units 3 and 4 is 2023 and 2024, respectively.
\nOn June 1, 2017, ATOMSTROYEXPORT JSC and the Indian Atomic Energy Corporation signed the General Framework Agreement for the construction of the third phase of the Kudankulam NPP, and the Intergovernmental Credit Protocol necessary for implementation of the project was also signed. The Agreement provides for the construction of the third phase of the Kudankulam NPP power units 5 and 6 under the Russian design. On July 31, 2017, Contracts were signed between ATOMSTROYEXPORT JSC and the Indian Atomic Energy Corporation (IAEC) for the priority design activities and detailed design and supply of basic equipment for the third phase of the Kudankulam NPP. The planned first concrete for power units 5 and 6 is 2019 and 2020, respectively. Planned dates for the start of warranty operation of power units 5 and 6 are 2025 and 2026, respectively.
\nOn December 25, 2015, ATOMSTROYEXPORT JSC and the Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission signed the General Contract for the construction of the Ruppur NPP consisting of 1200 MW two power units under NPP-2006 design, including a number of Appendices thereto. The signing of the General Contract was a fundamental event that allowed to start activities at the main stage of the plant construction.
\nIn accordance with the agreement of the parties, the entry into force of the General Contract depended from fulfillment of a number of conditions. The first was signing of a credit intergovernmental agreement for the main construction period of the Ruppur NPP, then signing of Appendices to the General Contract, obtaining a license by the Bangladesh party for the NPP site and approval of the selected NPP design by the Bangladesh regulatory body.
\nOn July 26, 2016, the Intergovernmental Agreement was signed on allocation of the state loan to finance, the main stage of the Ruppur NPP construction.
\nSimultaneously with the fulfillment of the conditions for the entry into force of the General Contract, in 2016 significant work was done to coordinate and prepare for signing the related integration Contracts for the Ruppur NPP project, in particular, the Contract for supply of nuclear fuel, the Contract for technical assistance for operation, service, and technical maintenance, and repair of the Ruppur NPP.
\nIn March 2017, the parties agreed and initialed the Intergovernmental Agreement Draft on spent nuclear fuel management at the Ruppur NPP. It was planned to prepare an agreement for signing as soon as possible.
\nATOMSTROYEXPORT JSC is completing the construction and installation activities at the preliminary facilities and construction and installation base. In 2016, under the General Contract, the working documentation for the main construction period was developed, as well as the materials justifying the licenses for location and construction of power units 1 and 2 of the Ruppur NPP. The first concrete is planned for 2017. Commissioning of the first unit of the Ruppur NPP is scheduled for 2022, and of the second unit—for 2023.
\nHistory: The Hungarian-Russian cooperation in the field of nuclear energy has more than 60 years. It began in 1955 with signing of the Agreement to make a research reactor in Budapest. On December 28, 1966, the Intergovernmental Agreement was signed between Hungary and the Soviet Union on construction of the first nuclear power plant in Hungary. Currently, the Paks NPP with four VVER-440 units is successfully operating, providing more than 50% of the country\'s electricity.
\nOn January 14, 2014, the Intergovernmental Agreement between Russia and Hungary was signed in Moscow on cooperation in the field of the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, which envisages the construction of two new Paks-2 NPP units.
\nOn December 9, 2014, the Hungarian MVM Paks-2 JSC and the Russian NIAEP JSC (ASE EC JSC since December 2016) signed three Agreements regarding the construction of two NPP units with VVER-1200 Russian reactors:
EPC—the Contract (engineering, equipment supply, and construction) for two new power units, in which the tasks for the next 10 years are fixed, taking into account the physical launch of the first unit in 2023, of the second—in 2025;
the Contract that governs the terms of service for future power units; and
the Contract on the conditions of long-term fuel supply.
In April 2015, the approval procedure by the EURATOM Commission for the Contract on supply of nuclear fuel for new units of the Paks-2 NPP was successfully completed.
\nOn February 17, 2015, during the visit of the President of the Russian Federation Vladimir Putin to Hungary, the Memorandum of Understanding was signed between the State Atomic Energy Corporation ROSATOM and the Ministry of Social Resources of Hungary on training of personnel in the field of nuclear energy and related areas. According to the document, the parties will carry out cooperation in the field of education and training of personnel, educational, and scientific activities, as well as in joint educational programs in nuclear energy and related fields.
\nIn June 2015, NIAEP JSC (ASE EC JSC since December 2016) and MVM Paks-2 JSC signed all necessary Appendices for opening financing for the EPC Contract, which stipulate the time schedule, procedure and terms of payments, and insurance conditions.
\nHungary, as a member of the European Union, was obliged to carry out a total of five notification and conciliation procedures with the European Commission in connection with implementation of the Paks-2 NPP expansion project. In November 2016, the European Commission completed the expertise of the Paks-2 nuclear power plant construction project, removing all obstacles to its further development. In March 2017, construction of the new Paks-2 nuclear power units in Hungary was approved by the European Commission (EC).
\nThe parties are developing the construction time schedule. It is planned that the license for construction of the Paks-2 NPP will be ready in 2019, and the first concrete will be poured in 2020. The peak of construction work is expected in 2021–2022. The nuclear island and the primary circuit are the responsibility of the General Contractor, while other works are carried out on procurement.
\nThe main task of 2017 was preparation for the Paks-2 NPP construction. The scope of tasks includes preparation of engineering documentation, cooperation with suppliers, and application for a building license. As a part of the activities related to preparation of the documentation necessary to obtain licenses for the Paks-2 NPP construction, the technical design for 5 and 6 units, the preliminary safety analysis report (PSAR), and the probabilistic safety analysis reports are being prepared.
\nATOMPROEKT JSC, the General Designer is completing work on the conceptual design documents that precede development of the design documentation and is also completing adaptation of the VVER-1200 base design, agreed with the Paks-2 MVM Customer, to the specific conditions of the Paks site. The process of developing chapters of the PSAR and sections of the technical design is ongoing.
\nThe announcement of the first tender procedures has begun. Competitive information will be available on the specialized platform for ROSATOM tenders. Tender notices will also be widely published on the relevant Hungarian and international sites. All tender documentation will be posted in English. The Hungarian and other European companies can take part in procurement related to almost the entire process of the NPP construction, from design and construction to equipment supplies (except for the primary equipment that requires very specific knowledge and competencies) and related services (legal, translation, etc.).
\n\n
Requirements for suppliers are different, depending on what they supply or what services they provide.
\nThe El Dabaa NPP (Egypt), which includes four units with VVER-1200 reactors, is being constructed in accordance with the EPC Contract, which was signed between ATOMSTROYEXPORT JSC and the Department of Nuclear Plants of the Arab Republic of Egypt on December 31, 2016 and entered into force on December 11, 2017. The project provides for construction of four power units of 1.2 GW capacity with VVER-1200 MW reactor (water-to-water power reactor) according to the Russian design. The Russian side will also assist the Egyptian partners in developing nuclear infrastructure, supply the Russian nuclear fuel for the entire life cycle of the nuclear power plant, build a special storage facility and supply containers for storing spent nuclear fuel, increase the level of localization, provide training for national personnel, and support the Egyptian partners in operation and maintenance of the El Dabaa NPP during the first 10 years of the plant’s operation.
\nIn accordance with the EPC Contract, the first power unit of the El Dabaa NPP will be commissioned in 2026.
\nThe Intergovernmental Agreement of the Russian Federation and Turkey on cooperation in the field of construction and operation of the nuclear power plant on the Akkuyu site in the Mersin province on the south coast of Turkey was signed on May 12, 2010.
\nThe Akkuyu NPP project includes four power units of the Russian VVER-1200 3+ generation reactors. The capacity of each NPP unit will be 1200 MW. The design solutions of the Akkuyu NPP meet all modern requirements of the world nuclear community and established by the IAEA safety standards, the International nuclear security advisory group, and the requirements of the EUR Club.
\nThe start of commercial operation of the Akkuyu NPP units 1–4 was tentatively scheduled for April 2023, 2024, 2025, and 2026, respectively.
\nOn October 5, 2011, the construction site of a new nuclear power plant in Finland was announced: it will be Hanhikivi Cape in the community (municipality) of the Pyhäjoki Province, Northern Ostrobothnia (on the coast of the Gulf of Bothnia, about 100 km south of Oulu). In the media, there are various names of this plant—the Pyuhäjoki NPP, the Hanhikivi NPP, the Hanhikivi-1 NPP, but the official name is the Hanhikivi-1 NPP. It was originally planned that construction of the plant would begin in 2015, and the plant would be launched in 2020, and its maximum capacity would be 1800 MW. Initially, the negotiations were held with the companies Areva and Toshiba.
\nOn July 3, 2013, the Finnish company Fennovoima Oy and Rusatom Overseas CJSC, a subsidiary of the Russian State Corporation ROSATOM, signed the Agreement to develop the design in order to prepare for signing of the Contract for the plant construction. It was planned that this Contract would be signed before the end of 2013. In September 2014, the Finnish government approved the NPP construction project with the participation of Russia, envisaging the use of the Russian VVER-1200 reactor. The plant should be built by 2024.
\nIn the Republic of Belarus, at the Ostrovets site near the city of Grodno, the construction of the Belarusian NPP consisting of VVER-1200 two power units with the total capacity of up to 2400 (2 × 1200) MW is underway. The obligations of the General Contractor are assigned to ASE JSC. It is envisaged that the Belarusian NPP is being constructed on the basis of the full “turnkey” responsibility of the General Contractor. The “NPP-2006” design, the General Designer is ATOMPROEKT JSC, was chosen for construction of the first Belarusian NPP.
\nThe Belarusian NPP design complies with all international standards and IAEA recommendations and is characterized by the enhanced safety characteristics, technical, and economic indicators.
\nThe main advantages of the Russian design are a high degree of security provided through the use of the independent channels of active and passive safety systems, the melt trap, and other systems. Unit 1 of the plant is planned to be commissioned in 2019, unit 2—in 2020.
\nThe great prospects imply an even greater responsibility. The previous story, now of the ASE Group companies, allows to hope for successful implementation, I am not afraid of the word, of the grandiose tasks, by the nuclear power industry of Russia!
\nClinical nutrition refers to practices for supplying nutrients to individuals when oral administration is inadvisable, insufficient, or impossible [1]. These are essential to maintain the function of vital organs and systems, minimizing the effects of food deprivation and avoiding nutritional deficiencies [2]. In general, these techniques are divided between enteral nutrition, in which liquid diet is directly administered into the gastric or intestinal cavity, and parenteral nutrition, in which nutritional solutions are delivered intravenously (Figure 1; [3]).
\nEnteral (nasogastric, nasoduodenal, nasojejunal, gastrostomy, jejunostomy) and parenteral nutrition.
Most clinical nutrition specialists report that enteral nutrition has multiple advantages over parental nutrition and should be selected whenever the gastrointestinal tract can be used [3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8]. Parenteral nutrition is more expensive [6, 7, 9] and is usually more invasive in comparison to enteral nutrition, exposing patients to greater risks [10]. Notably, there are important clinical reasons for preferring the enteral administration route because of the association of parenteral nutrition with severe complications, including thromboembolism, severe metabolic fluctuations, hyper- or hypoglycemia, hyperlipidemia, blood electrolyte abnormalities, infectious complications [2, 7, 11, 12], and, more controversially [13], a greater risk of “bacterial translocation” [12, 14, 15, 16, 17].
\nBacterial translocation takes place when bacteria usually confined to the digestive tract penetrate the intestinal mucosa and invade the lymphatic system, blood system, and numerous internal organs [16, 17, 18]. This event has been described as one of the main causes of septicemia and as a risk factor for the onset and progression of multiple organ failure, characterized by the uncontrolled systemic inflammation of internal organs [14, 16, 18, 19, 20]. The main factors proposed as possible triggers for bacterial translocation include intestinal mucosal barrier break (increased mucosa permeability), intestinal microflora alteration (bacterial overgrowth), and immune system impairment [5, 17, 18, 21]. These changes are associated with parenteral but not enteral nutrition [21, 22, 23, 24].
\nUnder normal conditions, the gastrointestinal mucosa acts as an effective barrier against the migration of microorganisms into the systemic circulation [16, 21, 25]. The integrity of this barrier is determined by the renewal of epithelial cells that compose it and by the number and type of bacteria that it contains [20, 25, 26]. A key stimulus for mucosal cell proliferation and the maintenance of bacterial homeostasis appears to be the presence and availability of nutrients in the intestinal lumen [4, 5, 6, 16, 24, 25, 26, 27]. The food itself and the hormones released in its presence exert trophic effects on mucosa throughout the gastrointestinal system, from the stomach, small intestine, and colon to the gallbladder and pancreas [5, 24, 25, 26]. Both stimuli preserve the intestinal flora [5, 6, 20, 21, 22], which in turn critically modulate the immune response by producing the enzymes needed to release immunostimulant nutrients and by activating the secretion of cytokine-like molecules known as bacteriocins [23, 25, 28].
\nHence, mucosa atrophy is favored when the gastrointestinal system is not used, as in patients receiving parenteral nutrition. This increases the risk of septic complications [12, 20, 25] and compromises intestinal immunocompetence, because the expression and induction of specific immune responses critically depend on the local microenvironment [20, 25, 28]. These problems are less frequently encountered in patients receiving enteral nutrition [9, 12, 20, 21].
\nFor these reasons, enteral (rather than parenteral) nutrition is recommended in a wide range of clinical situations, including organ transplantation [11], cancer [29], pancreatitis [3, 30], Crohn’s disease [31], intestinal resection or inflammation [5], critical disease [3, 6, 7, 9], and the postoperative period [3, 8, 11, 23]. It is also preferred for premature or low-birth-weight infants [12, 32], for the elderly, for neurological patients [29, 33, 34, 35], for patients with anorexia nervosa [29], and for those with AIDS [36]. Nevertheless, enteral nutrition is not free of drawbacks, as discussed below [1, 22].
\nThere is a consensus among health-care professionals that the nutritional status of patients is lower in those receiving enteral nutrition than in those fed orally. Enteral feeding has been associated with several disorders, although it is sometimes difficult to establish whether they are caused by the disease, the specific diet, or by the food administration route [1].
\nHowever, regardless of their disease, patients on enteral nutrition often show a series of “secondary” symptoms that can be described as gastrointestinal tract reactions to diet administration, including: pain, discomfort, gastric residual volume, delayed gastric emptying, abdominal bloating and cramps, nausea/vomiting, diarrhea [1, 4, 8, 9, 12, 20, 22, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39], metabolic disorders [1, 12], and, when the enteral nutrition is longer term, ulcers and major weight loss [33, 34]. In addition, some patients are unable to tolerate enteral nutrition [9, 22], especially pediatric patients [38, 39].
\nThe causes of these problems have not been fully elucidated, although some psychobiological studies, mainly in animals, have suggested that they may in part result from the entry of food into the digestive tract in “nonphysiological” conditions [40, 41]. The absence of oral stimulation means that the digestive system is not prepared to receive the food (with the appropriate endocrine and exocrine secretions or motor activity changes, etc.), hampering the optimal digestion, absorption, and utilization of the nutrients (see below).
\nIn experimental studies, enteral nutrition is known as intragastric or intraintestinal feeding and also appears to be accompanied by numerous disorders that affect the digestion, absorption, and metabolism of nutrients. In these feeding modalities, meals are directly delivered to the gastric cavity (intragastric feeding) or lower segments of the digestive tube, such as the duodenum or jejune (intraintestinal feeding), generally using a permanently implanted catheter. A physiological variable or function is then studied and compared with results obtained for oral feeding or for sham feeding, in which the food is orally ingested but extracted
One of the first authors to document alterations in animals caused by intragastric feeding was the Russian scientist Ivan Pavlov [42], whose studies masterfully demonstrated the marked importance of the passage of food through oropharyngeal systems for its subsequent digestion [43, 44]. This oropharyngeal stimulation, designated “psychic reflex” by Pavlov, is now known as the cephalic phase of digestion, which comprises a set of autonomic and endocrinal responses to stimulation by the food of sensory perceptive systems in the head and particularly in the oropharyngeal cavity. Nevertheless, although these cephalic responses are preferentially initiated by contact with the food, they can also be effectively elicited just by seeing or anticipating it or by thoughts or any learned cues associated with it [40, 42, 44].
\nThe digestive events triggered by cephalic stimulation are mediated by vagal parasympathetic efferents except for salivary secretions, which are partly controlled by sympathetic and nonvagal parasympathetic fibers. These vagal efferents, which are distributed throughout the digestive tube and associated digestive organs (liver, pancreas, and gallbladder), largely originate in the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus (DMV), which is localized in the caudal medulla oblongata close to the floor of the fourth ventricle and is closely related to the nucleus of the solitary tract, the main structure receiving visceral signals from the digestive system [40, 41, 42, 43, 44].
\nDMV activity is directly or indirectly modulated by centers at upper levels of the nervous system that are responsible for the changes in digestive function that take place during the cephalic phase of digestion. This descending control of the DMV has been reported for such structures as the insular cortex, medial prefrontal cortex, central nucleus of the amygdala, bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, tegmental ventral area, and nucleus accumbens. Many of these signals reach the DMV through relays in hypothalamic regions (posterior hypothalamus and paraventricular nucleus) and brainstem regions (e.g., periaqueductal gray matter or parabrachial nucleus) [40, 44, 45, 46, 47].
\nPavlov reported that when food was directly introduced into the stomach, the secretion of gastric juices was delayed and scant, with weak digestive power, contrasting with the rapid and abundant cascade of gastric secretions observed when the same nutrients passed through the oropharyngeal cavity after their real or sham intake. He concluded that the low gastric juice secretion in enteral nutrition delays and considerably prolongs digestion [42].
\nThe absence of oropharyngeal stimulation also indirectly delays other digestive secretions. It was reported by Pavlov that intragastrically administered food is not accompanied by salivary secretions, whose arrival in the stomach cavity stimulates the release of gastric juices [42]. It has also been demonstrated that the digestion of carbohydrates and fats that starts in the mouth through the action of salivary amylase and lipase continues in the stomach [48, 49, 50]. Hence, the absence of saliva delays gastric secretion and hampers the digestion of some nutrients. There is also an indirect effect on the release of pancreatic juices, whose secretion is determined by the level of hydrochloric acid in the stomach [42].
\nAbsence of the cephalic phase impacts on digestion-related substances throughout the digestive system, from the mouth or stomach (e.g., salivary enzymes, hydrochloric acid, gastrin, pepsinogen, immunoglobulins, etc.), as mentioned above, to the small intestine (bicarbonate or digestive enzymes), liver, or pancreas (numerous hormones) (for review, see references [40, 44]). Many secretions triggered by cephalic stimulation are also specific and adapted to the nature of the food [42, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56]. In other words, food components appear to be identified before they reach the stomach, allowing the digestive system to be specifically prepared for their transformation and utilization [40, 57].
\nRemoval of the cephalic phase affects not only endocrine and exocrine secretions but also gastrointestinal motor activity, with an anticipatory increase in cephalic stimulation [58, 59, 60, 61]. The intragastric feeding of experimental animals has also been found to markedly accelerate the outflow of gastric contents into the duodenum [62, 63, 64], which might be responsible for the discomfort experienced by patients with “dumping syndrome” [62]. This syndrome is observed in humans who have undergone abdominal vagotomy and is characterized by the rapid emptying of gastric contents into the duodenum, producing nausea and epigastric pain [65]. In this regard, the intraintestinal administration of nutrients (fats) was found to significantly damage the intestinal mucosa [63, 66].
\nDisorders induced by the absence of oropharyngeal stimulation extend to postabsorptive stages [54, 57, 62, 64, 67, 68, 69, 70]. In human studies, glucose intolerance (increased blood levels) and reduced blood glucagon levels were observed after intragastric glucose administration, but not when this was accompanied by oral sensory stimulation through modified sham feeding [71]. It has also been demonstrated that lipolysis is slower with intragastric
Responses that are affected by the absence of cephalic stimulation can be observed in other levels of the digestive system and beyond, including postprandial thermogenesis, anticipatory rise in heart rate, increased respiratory rate in response to eating, and changes in the transport and intestinal absorption of nutrients and in bile flow and secretin release, among others [49, 72, 73, 74, 75].
\nTaken together, published studies confirm that the cephalic phase not only optimizes food digestion but also intervenes in processes related to nutrient absorption and metabolism. Many of these effects may be secondary to the release of gastrointestinal hormones, whose secretion is stimulated by the anticipation and presence of food in the oropharyngeal cavity [76, 77, 78, 79].
\nAccording to the above-reported studies, intragastric or intraintestinal feeding means that the digestive system is not prepared to receive, digest, process, or even appropriately utilize the administered nutrients. They would arrive in the system under nonphysiological, negative conditions, which may in part account for the digestive problems that can often make enteral nutrition nonviable.
\nTaste learning is one of the behavioral procedures used by scientists to determine whether individuals perceive the food reaching the digestive system as positive or negative. In these learning tasks, two nonnutritional flavored solutions of water are offered, with the intragastric/intraintestinal administration of a nutritional stimulus being associated with one solution and of an innocuous, nonnutritional stimulus (e.g., physiological saline) with the other. The preference of animals is determined after multiple sessions pairing the taste and visceral stimuli [80, 81, 82, 83].
\nStudies using this technique have demonstrated that the direct administration of complex food into the gastric cavity is a powerful way to establish flavor-conditioned aversions [66, 80, 84, 85, 86]. Thus, when rats were subjected to a discriminative flavor learning task using whole milk as visceral stimulus, they preferred the flavor associated with physiological saline and strongly rejected the flavor associated with the food, even after a 22-h food deprivation period [80, 84, 85, 86]. Similar results were observed with intraintestinal feeding, finding that association of the intraduodenal administration of fats or glucose with the oral intake of saccharose or water produced a strong rejection of both in subsequent presentations [66, 80, 81, 86, 87, 88].
\nResults obtained with the enteral administration of natural food markedly contrast with those obtained for the intragastric administration of food subjected to cephalic processing (aspirated from the stomachs of donor subjects shortly after its oral consumption). Unlike observations with natural food, the animals developed a strong preference for the taste stimulus associated with the administration of “predigested” food and rejected the stimulus associated with physiological saline [80, 81, 86, 87, 88]. Hence, enterally administered foods are experienced as rewarding/positive when they have undergone oropharyngeal processing, and assistance of the cephalic phase appears to adapt enteral diets more closely to digestive physiology. According to these data, the digestive system also seems perfectly prepared for the rapid assessment of the suitability of foods and for the transmission of this information to the central nervous system.
\nResults of research in animals have prompted numerous clinical studies. Although enteral nutrition was not a routine clinical practice until the 1960s, food had long been administered
One of the most famous studies in this field was published by Wolf and Wolff and known as “Tom’s case.” In 1895, at the age of 9 years, Tom underwent gastronomy after accidentally eating boiling food and was only able to consume food
In summary, these data indicate that the signals produced by food in the oropharyngeal cavity trigger a cascade of exocrine, endocrine, and motor reactions that prepare the digestive system for the reception, digestion, absorption, and metabolism of the food ingested, allowing feeding to be perceived as a satisfactory or rewarding event. When these signals are missing, a series of noxious consequences can hamper the adequate development of these processes, making the feeding experience negative or “stressful” [40, 41, 44, 62].
\nIt is therefore possible that some of the noxious effects of enteral nutrition can be palliated by administering diets that imitate “cephalic” food in some way. This possibility is currently under investigation in our laboratory.
\nIn general, two distinct procedures can be used to establish flavor learning, designated by our group as concurrent and sequential flavor learning. Two nonnutritional flavored stimuli with their respective intragastric administrations are simultaneously offered during a short time period (usually 7 min) in concurrent learning, whereas the stimuli are presented in alternating sessions in sequential learning (Figure 2). A key difference between these procedures is that animals must detect and process visceral stimuli very quickly to establish an association in concurrent learning, whereas this can be established in a more delayed fashion in sequential learning [82, 93, 88].
\nExperimental procedure followed in concurrent (A) and sequential (B) flavor learning. In the former, two flavored stimuli are presented at the same time; when the animal voluntarily consumes one of these stimuli, it is simultaneously and intragastrically administered with the associated visceral stimulus (e.g., predigested nutrients through an intragastric cannula); when the animal consumes the other stimulus, it is simultaneously and intragastrically administered with the other visceral product (e.g., physiological saline) through a second cannula. The same procedure is followed in sequential learning (B) except that each of the flavored stimuli and their respective intragastric administrations are presented in alternate sessions.
Using these procedures, and with the aim of being able to palliate the negative effects of enteral nutrition in the future, our group has studied the rapid pathway for processing information related to nutritional stimuli present in the gastrointestinal tract (concurrent learning), especially in the case of suitable or rewarding (“cephalic”) foods [81, 87, 88].
\nInformation from the gastrointestinal tract reaches the brain
Neuroanatomical and neurophysiological studies have demonstrated that the gastrointestinal tract receives both vagal and spinal nerve fibers [97], and either may have carried nutritional information to the brain in our studies. However, numerous physiological and behavioral investigations have indicated that spinal visceral afferents are less important in nutrition [98] and appear more related to nociceptive processes [99]. For this reason, we have focused on the vagal system in our experiments on the neural substrates involved in transmitting rewarding visceral information to the central nervous system.
\nVagal afferents are distributed throughout the digestive system (Figure 3) and receive detailed information on the specific nature of the nutrients present in the gastrointestinal lumen
Anatomical pathways and nuclei involved in the rapid detection and processing of nutritional rewarding visceral information (SolG: gelatinous subnucleus of nucleus of solitary tract; LPBe: external lateral parabrachial subnucleus).
In rats, the NTS is a small-sized bilateral structure that ends in a single midline nucleus caudal to the area postrema (AP), one of the main circumventricular organs of the brain (Y-shaped in horizontal plane). Three regions have been differentiated in the anteroposterior dimension of the NTS: a rostral region that extends from the rostral pole of the nucleus to the point where the medial division contacts the fourth ventricle border; an intermediate band that extends from this last point to the caudal end of the AP; and a caudal division wholly occupied by the commissural subnucleus [105, 106, 107]. Most of the subnuclei of the NTS are found in its intermediate region, especially in the medial division (localized medially to the solitary tract, a bundle of fibers that crosses the entire anteroposterior extent of the nucleus) [107].
\nThe NTS is the first relay for a wide range of special and general visceral afferent sensory fibers (oropharyngeal, gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, and respiratory), which are relatively segregated in subnuclei distributed throughout its rostrocaudal dimension. Those originating in the gastrointestinal system largely terminate in subnuclei in the medial division of the intermediate-caudal NTS [105, 106].
\nOur group has investigated the participation of vagal afferents in the rapid transmission of rewarding nutritional information to the brain using capsaicin (8-methyl N-vanillyl-6-nonenamide), the pungent component in red pepper of the genus
We applied capsaicin around the esophagus, selectively lesioning unmyelinated afferents and weakly myelinated fibers [108], which are both largely present in the vagus nerve [109, 110]. We found that information transmission mediated by capsaicin-sensitive vagal afferents is essential in concurrent taste discrimination tasks [87]. Thus, neurochemical interruption of this pathway hampers the establishment of taste preferences induced by the intragastric administration of “cephalic” foods, which is achieved without difficulty by neurologically intact animals.
\nHowever, capsaicin-sensitive afferents are not indispensable for the induction of taste preferences using sequential tasks. In this case, both capsaicin-treated and neurologically intact animals effectively learn the task and show clear preferences for taste stimuli associated with the intragastric administration of predigested nutrients. These results support the idea that information is unlikely to be transmitted to the brain
Anatomical, physiological, and immunohistochemical studies have demonstrated that vagal afferents from the upper gastrointestinal tract project toward the intermediate-caudal region of the NST (Figure 3), a gateway for visceral signal processing [111]. Thus, various subnuclei of the intermediate-caudal region of the NST (NSTic) show c-fos activity after normal food intake [112], after intragastric or intraduodenal nutrient administration [113, 114, 115], and in situations of gastric [116] and intestinal [117] distension, among others. In many of these cases, NSTic activation is abolished by the chemical or surgical lesioning of vagal afferents [114, 118].
\nGiven the time constraints implicit in the concurrent procedure, the digestive segments most likely to be involved in this learning modality (i.e., responsible for initial detection of the visceral stimulus) would be proximal ones (preferentially the stomach and duodenum). Sensory visceral information is known to be organized topographically in the NSTic with relative anatomical segregation [105, 106]. For instance, a high density of gastric vagal afferents is concentrated in the lateral portion of the dorsomedial NST in a cell cluster known as the gelatinous nucleus [105, 106, 107, 111, 119], whereas afferents from the duodenum and other segments of the small intestine are distributed in different areas of the dorsomedial nucleus, especially in more caudal and medial areas of the intermediate region [105, 106, 117].
\nOur group recently demonstrated that the gelatinous subnucleus (SolG) participates in the learning of concurrent taste preferences induced by intragastrically administered “cephalic” foods [88]. It therefore appears that the gelatinous nucleus (SolG), alongside capsaicin-sensitive vagal afferents, may participate in the neural pathway that rapidly processes rewarding nutritional information from the upper gastrointestinal tract. This subnucleus almost exclusively concentrates gastric vagal afferents [106, 113, 117, 119] and is a receptor of fine vagal afferents [120], that is, the type of fibers lesioned by capsaicin [108]. In addition, capsaicin-induced damage of small ganglion cells was found to produce axonal degeneration in the SolG, among other regions [121].
\nThe NSTic in turn relays visceral information from the gut to the lateral division of the pontine parabrachial complex (Figure 3), especially to its lateral external subnucleus.
\nThe parabrachial complex is a grouping of subnuclei that surround the superior cerebellar peduncle along its course through the dorsolateral pons. In rats, the subnuclei localized dorsally to the peduncle constitute its lateral division (LPB) and those localized ventrally the medial division [122]. The external subnucleus (LPBe), localized at the most lateral border and throughout the rostrocaudal dimension of the LPB, concentrates information from both the stomach and duodenum, receiving a large number of the afferents projected from the dorsomedial NTS, including the SolG[107, 122, 123].
\nThese anatomical connections allow modification of LPBe activity by electrical stimulation of the vagus nerve and by the intragastric administration of various nutrients [114, 124, 125]. Moreover, the intragastric application of nutrients induces c-fos expression in intermediate-caudal and dorsomedial NST subnuclei and in the LPBe, among other regions [114, 115]. This dual activation has also been observed after the administration of substances that positively or negatively affect food intake, including pharmacological agents (such as methyl palmoxirate, 2,5-anhydro-D-mannitol, or dexfenfluramine) and various hormones (e.g., cholecystokinin, bombesin, or secretin) [126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131]. These effects of neuronal activation and/or intake can also be abolished or attenuated by truncal vagotomy or perivagal capsaicin treatment [114, 126, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134].
\nOur laboratory has also addressed the possibility of the LPBe nucleus being part of the rapid processing pathway of rewarding information related to nutrients present in the upper gastrointestinal tract in our laboratory. Unlike neurologically intact animals, LPBe-lesioned animals proved unable to develop taste preferences induced by the intragastric administration of “cephalic or predigested” foods in concurrent taste learning tasks, but both groups were able to learn taste preferences in sequential taste learning tasks [81].
\nWe have also used other procedures to explore the involvement of the LPBe in rewarding processes, including the induction of taste and place preferences by electrical stimulation of this subnucleus [135]. In addition, large lesions of the LPB, including the external subnucleus, appear to reverse aversive effects of the intragastric administration of natural, nonpredigested nutrients, avoiding rejection of the associated taste stimulus and appearing to induce a flavor preference (
Considered together, these data suggest that the rapid processing of visceral information on rewarding nutrition (in upper gastrointestinal segments) is mediated by a neural pathway that originates peripherally in the vagus nerve and includes NSTic regions (e.g., SolG) and the LPBe [81, 87, 88]. In fact, this visceral vagal-NSTic-LPBe information pathway also appears to participate in other physiological processes requiring the rapid transmission of nutritional information. We recently showed that both the vagus nerve [136] and SolG [137] or LPBe [138] are essential in circumstances that require the immediate adjustment of food intake, extracting part of ingested food immediately after ending a meal and finding that approximately the same amount was reingested by neurologically intact animals but a much smaller amount by lesioned animals.
\nThe vagus nerve-NSTic-LPBe pathway also proved essential for the rapid transmission of nonnutritional visceral information. We found that the vagus nerve [83] and NSTic [139] or LPBe [140] are necessary for concurrent taste aversion learning but not for sequential TAL.
\nAccording to the studies presented in this chapter, organisms have at least two complementary neurobiological systems for the detection and processing of nutritional rewarding visceral information: one that depends on the vagus nerve, NSTic, and LPBe, and another that is independent of this pathway. The former appears to participate when rapid information processing is needed and the latter when there are no time constraints.
\nResearch into the biological mechanisms underlying nutritional behavior is exhilarating, both for the simple pleasure of unraveling these complex phenomena and for its potential importance in numerous clinical fields, including artificial nutrition. As shown in our review, enteral nutrition for any reason and of any type is frequently associated with adverse effects whose causes have yet to be fully elucidated. Studies by our group suggest that at least some of these negative effects may result from the absence of the cephalic phase of digestion. Further investigations of the physiology of this nutritional process are needed to support the design of enteral diets better adapted to digestive physiology and the development of pharmacological strategies that counteract its noxious effects.
\nThe authors are grateful to Richard and Layla Davies for their assistance with the English version of this chapter and to Alejandro Navarro for creating Figures.
\nThe authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
\nWe believe financial barriers should not prevent researchers from publishing their findings. With the need to make scientific research more publicly available and support the benefits of Open Access, more and more institutions and funders are dedicating resources to assist faculty members and researchers cover Open Access Publishing Fees (OAPFs). In addition, IntechOpen provides several further options presented below, all of which are available to researchers, and could secure the financing of your Open Access publication.
",metaTitle:"Waiver Policy",metaDescription:"We feel that financial barriers should never prevent researchers from publishing their research. With the need to make scientific research more publically available and support the benefits of Open Access, more institutions and funders have dedicated funds to assist their faculty members and researchers cover the APCs associated with publishing in Open Access. Below we have outlined several options available to secure financing for your Open Access publication.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/waiver-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"At IntechOpen, the majority of OAPFs are paid by an Author’s institution or funding agency - Institutions (73%) vs. Authors (23%).
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\\n\\nThe application process is open after your submitted manuscript has been accepted for publication. To apply, please fill out a Waiver Request Form and send it to your Author Service Manager. If you have an official letter from your university or institution showing that funds for your OA publication are unavailable, please attach that as well. The Waiver Request will normally be addressed within one week from the application date. All chapters that receive waivers or partial waivers will be designated as such online.
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\n\nThe first step in obtaining funds for your Open Access publication begins with your institution or library. IntechOpen’s publishing standards align with most institutional funding programs. Our advice is to petition your institution for help in financing your Open Access publication.
\n\nHowever, as Open Access becomes a more commonly used publishing option for the dissemination of scientific and scholarly content, in addition to institutions, there are a growing number of funders who allow the use of grants for covering OA publication costs, or have established separate funds for the same purpose.
\n\nPlease consult our Open Access Funding page to explore some of these funding opportunities and learn more about how you could finance your IntechOpen publication. Keep in mind that this list is not definitive, and while we are constantly updating and informing our Authors of new funding opportunities, we recommend that you always check with your institution first.
\n\nFor Authors who are unable to obtain funding from their institution or research funding bodies and still need help in covering publication costs, IntechOpen offers the possibility of applying for a Waiver.
\n\nOur mission is to support Authors in publishing their research and making an impact within the scientific community. Currently, 14% of Authors receive full waivers and 6% receive partial waivers.
\n\nWhile providing support and advice to all our international Authors, waiver priority will be given to those Authors who reside in countries that are classified by the World Bank as low-income economies. In this way, we can help ensure that the scientific work being carried out can make an impact within the worldwide scientific community, no matter where an Author might live.
\n\nThe application process is open after your submitted manuscript has been accepted for publication. To apply, please fill out a Waiver Request Form and send it to your Author Service Manager. If you have an official letter from your university or institution showing that funds for your OA publication are unavailable, please attach that as well. The Waiver Request will normally be addressed within one week from the application date. All chapters that receive waivers or partial waivers will be designated as such online.
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