Comparison of frequencies of C-C SWCNT with MD simulation for the first vibration mode.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tAdditionally, authors are expected to cover the medicinal effect of tea polyphenols viz. catechins, theaflavins and thearubigins which are the major chemical compounds of tea. Green tea contains a higher quantity of catechins as compared to black tea which becomes transformed into more complex compounds (theaflavins and therubigins) during the manufacturing of black tea. Out of many therapeutic uses these bioactive compounds, protection against cardiovascular diseases, atherosclerosis, cancer, gene mutation, and diabetics have been reported and are more promising. This book will also highlight the nutraceuticals of tea. The catechins along with other various bioactive compounds present in tea have many therapeutic properties which attribute to the development of various food products where tea constitutes as an active ingredient. That is why it is important to stress the potential use of tea and their bioactive constituents (catechins, polysaccharides, vitamins, amino acids etc.) in food products with added nutraceutical values. Finally, the contamination of tea and its effect on our health will also be covered. Tea and its food products may contain various types of contaminations which may include toxic heavy metals, pesticides, microorganisms, and environmental pollutants etc. which are present from tea infusion and from residues. These contaminations which are above the regulatory limit may pose a serious threat to public health. Submitted chapters are expected to contain novel information, be informative as well as thought-provoking.
Iijima [1] discovered the carbon nanotubes (CNTs) in 1991 and the uses of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have been originate in various areas such as electronics, optical, medicine, charge detectors, sensors, field emission devices, aerospace, defense, construction and even fashion. To study their remarkable properties, a bulk of research work was performed for their high springiness and characteristic ratio [2], a very effective Young modulus and tensile potency [3], well-bonding strength and superconductivity between carbon atoms [4]. Study of free vibrations of these tube have has been examined with regard to their properties and material behavior. For their useful applications, it needs more explorations to examine vibration characteristics of SWCNTs.
Poncharal et al. [5] and Treacy et al. [6] conducted the experiments, the resonance frequency of multi-walled carbon nanotubes for clamped-free excited by electrical loads or thermal were detected in a transmission electron microscope (TEM). Thermal vibrations of SWCNTs have been performed for natural frequencies by Molecular dynamics (MD) to predict the Young’s modulus by Zhao et al. [7].
The behaviors and material properties of CNTs using either or continuum mechanics modeling or atomistic modeling have been conducted in Wang et al. [8]. For the analysis of CNTs, when compared to continuum mechanics modeling, atomistic modeling is an easy approach and relatively inexpensive. Consequently, the development of continuum mechanics model has attracted much attention of researchers; especially after Yakobson et al. [9] showed that the results obtained using continuum mechanics modeling and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations are in good agreement.
A comprehensive molecular dynamics (MD) study for the contraction and thermal expansion behaviors on different mode of vibration analysis carried by Cao et al. [10]. The fundamental frequency for deformed clamped-clamped shift of SWCNTs under torsion, bending and axial loadings investigated by them. Lordi and Yao [11] performed molecular dynamic (MD) simulations to determine the Young’s modulus and thermal vibration frequencies of SWCNTs using the universal force field with various clamped-free conditions based on the Euler beam theory. Carbon nanotubes model of chiral SWCNTs for analyzing their resonant frequency are developed by Hsu et al. [12] and these tubes were observed under a thermal vibration. The model used for implicating the shear deformation and rotatory inertia was Timoshenko beam model. Chawis et al. [13] and Bocko et al. [14] used nonlocal theory of elasticity for the vibration analysis of SWCNTs. An analysis of vibration characteristics of SWCNTs was examined by Yang et al. [15] and initiated this analysis is based on Timoshenko beam model for nonlocal theory. A number of end conditions have interpreted by Azrar et al. [16, 17] for the vibrations of these tubes. Recently, vibration behaviors of SWCNTs have been investigated by some researchers [18, 19, 20].
To examine the feasibility of SWCNTs as a nano-resonator, the molecular structural mechanics method was employed by Li and Chou [21] .The predicted fundamental frequencies were perceptive to dimensions such as diameter, length along with boundary conditions clamped-free or clamped SWNTs, but the frequencies are correlatively imperceptive to chirality of the tubes. The vibration and buckling aspects of carbon nanotubes using nonlocal Donnell shell theory was examined by Ansari et al. [22, 23].
Vibration analysis of SWCNTs is examined by using the present approach with clamped-clamped and clamped-free vibration. Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) have three distinctive structures as: (i). armchair (ii). zigzag (iii) chiral. These structures have different properties but their vibrational behavior is less clear according to the regarding situation. Vibration analysis of armchair and zigzag type of carbon nanotubes is executed for following boundary conditions: clamped-clamped (C-C), and clamped-free (C-F). Variations of dimensionless frequencies are attained for length-to-diameter ratio.
Here an analytical investigation of single-walled carbon nanotubes is conducted for extracting their vibration characteristics. The study of free vibration of SWCNTs is done based on cylindrical shell model. This analysis based on the Donnell thin shell theory. These shell dynamics equations are solved by wave propagation approach. The Donnell shell theory based on WPA is, therefore, another choice of powerful research technique of CNTs whose results are applicable in the limit of acceptable statistical errors than the earlier used BM and other approaches [3, 4, 5, 6, 22, 23]. The shell frequency equation is formulated in the eigenvalue form. To provide the complete characteristic of vibrational behavior of SWCNTs by using wave propagation approach is studied in the present chapter. Results are obtained for various material parameters. The dimensionless frequency is also investigated in armchair and zigzag SWCNTs with in-plane rigidity. Now the gape is that there is no research to find directly the dimensionless frequencies of SWCNTs based on cylindrical shell model by using wave propagation approach. However, to the best of authors’ knowledge, to find the frequency of SWCNTs, there is no research works on the vibration analyses of zigzag, armchair SWCNTs based on cylindrical shell using wave propagation approach. These frequencies of the SWCNTs are computed with the aid of the computer software MATLAB and these results are compared against MD simulation results in order to assess the accuracy and validity of the cylindrical shell model for predicting the vibration frequencies of SWCNTs.
Carbon nanotubes have two kinds, which are single-walled carbon nanotubes and multi-walled carbon nanotubes. Actually multi-walled carbon nanotubes are singled walled carbon nanotubes that are coaxially interposed with different radii. When a graphene sheet rolled up into one time, then it becomes a SWCNTs to produce a hollow cylinder but with end caps. A schema of graphene sheet and single-walled carbon nanotube are shown in Figure 1.
Hexagonal lattice (a) graphene sheet (b) single-walled carbon nanotube.
Armchair and zigzag nanotubes are made when chiral angle is equal to 0 and 30 respectively and both are the limiting cases with (m, m) and (m, 0). The structure of single-walled carbon nanotubes is similar to the circular cylinders with regard to geometrical shapes as shown in Figure 2. So, the motion equations for cylindrical shells are utilized for studying the free vibrations of SWCNTs. According to the Donnell thin shell theory (He et al. [24]), the governing equation of motion for free vibration of a CNTs is used. Where
Geometry of SWCNTs.
It is assumed that for the representation of the modal deformation displacement functions in the axial, circumferential and radial directions are
where
An efficient and a simple technique which corporate as wave propagation approach is employed for the solution of CNT problem in the form of differential equation. Before this, present method has been successively used for the study of shell vibrations [25, 26, 27]. The axial coordinate and time variable are denoted by
where
After putting Eqs. (4)–(6), into Eqs. (1)–(3), the above equations is transmuted in matrix representation after the arrangement of terms, and to designate the vibration frequency equation for SWCNTs, an eigenvalue problem is formed:
The form of non-zero solution of
The vibration frequency spectra for SWCNTs are evaluated by Eq. (3) based on Donnell thin cylindrical shell theory. Variations of the frequencies are obtained with regard to the material properties and tube thickness. Keeping in view of this aspect, the natural frequencies of the longitudinal clamped-free vibration of SWCNTs with a length 6.92 nm are first determined by the MD simulation. The
L/d | Frequencies (THz) | ||
---|---|---|---|
Present | MD | Percentage error | |
6.67 | 0.67832 | 0.64697 | 4.85 |
8.47 | 0.44146 | 0.43335 | 1.87 |
10.26 | 0.30922 | 0.30518 | 1.32 |
13.89 | 0.17360 | 0.18311 | −5.19 |
Comparison of frequencies of C-C SWCNT with MD simulation for the first vibration mode.
L/d | Frequencies (THz) | ||
---|---|---|---|
Present | MD | Percentage error | |
4.67 | 0.17074 | 0.23193 | −26.38 |
6.47 | 0.09048 | 0.12872 | −29.70 |
7.55 | 0.06678 | 0.1000 | −31.61 |
8.28 | 0.05566 | 0.07935 | −29.85 |
10.07 | 0.03777 | 0.05493 | −31.23 |
Comparison of frequencies of clamed-free SWCNT for the first vibration mode.
It can be observed that the results which are obtained from present model, the values are nearer to the molecular dynamics results when the length-to-diameter ratio is greater than 10.26. From Table 1, one can notice that the average percentage error between MD results is approximately 3.6%. This fact shows that the results obtained by present method and earlier MD simulation model are in good agreement.
In the application of micro-oscillators and micro or nano-strain sensors, the carbon nanotube sensor is generally clamped with both ends [30]. The clamped-clamped and clamped-free single-walled carbon nanotubes have been performed by atomistic simulations [20, 21, 31]. In this section, the distinctive first and third mode frequencies for the set of clamped-clamped single-walled carbon nanotubes is given by present models for their vibration frequencies and compared with molecular dynamic simulations and Timoshenko beam model with thicknesses h = 0.34 nm. The results are in good agreement with the MD and Timoshenko beam model results showing same trend in the open literature.
The first and third mode natural frequencies accessed by present model and compared with MD simulations are depicted graphically in Figure 3 respectively. It can be observed from Tables 1 and 2 that the length-to-diameter ratio of the set of C-C SWCNTs is somewhat dissimilar from that of C-F SWCNTs. For the prediction of mechanical characters [7, 19, 20, 21] from atomistic studies and the experimental studies [5, 6, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38] are often used for the clamped-free carbon nanotubes. The frequencies for the first and third modes obtained from present model which is compared with molecular dynamic simulation and Timoshenko beam model are shown in Figure 3. It can be readily seen that higher frequencies are produced by higher modes and when length-to-diameter ratio rises at each mode then frequency falls down smoothly as shown in Figure 3. The relationship between the length-to-diameter ratios and natural frequencies is inversely proportional indicates that the vibrations are very sensitive due to long tube and since the SWCNTs are of almost the same diameter. The results for SWCNTs given by MD are little bit higher than the frequencies investigated by the present model. In MD simulation, the frequencies of length-to-radius ratio are 8.28 is 0.0793 and at 20.89 is 0.0138. But in the present model, the frequencies at 8.28 are 0.05566 and at 20.89 is 0.00883, when compared to the MD results.
Comparison of numerically obtained results for clamped-clamped and clamped-free frequencies of SWCNTs for first and third mode versus length-to-diameter ratio L/d with MD by Cao et al. [32] and Timoshenko beam model [18].
Furthermore, the parametric study for the vibrational behavior of SWCNTs with dimensionless is carried out and presented in Figure 4. Alibeigloo et al. [39, 40] and Soldatos et al. [41] used the dimensionless frequency for multi-walled carbon nanotubes and for thin cylindrical shell with respect to length-to-radius ratio respectively. This frequency is associated with frequency
Variations of dimensionless frequencies of CC and CF armchair and zigzag SWCNTs.
Figure 4 shows an armchair and zigzag CNT, vary the length-to-diameter ratio from 8.3 to 20.9 will change the dimensionless frequency from 0.0385 to 0.0063 THz in case of clamped-clamped boundary condition. Likewise, in clamped-free condition it changes from 1.2827 to 0.5094 THz in armchair case. It may be seen from the above Figure 4 that the resulting value of dimensionless frequency decreases with the increase in length-to-diameter ratio. Now in zigzag CNT, changing the length-to-diameter ratio from 4.86 to 35.53, the dimensionless frequency changes from 0.0303 to 0.0049 THz in case of clamped-clamped boundary condition. Likewise, in clamped-free condition it varies from 1.16605 to 0.4609 THz.
For the results generated so far, the nanotube in-plane rigidity has been taken to be
Variations of dimensionless frequencies Ω of CC and CF armchair and zigzag SWCNTs when Eh = 300 GPa.Nm and Eh = 425Gpa.Nm.
Previous study reveals that the bending rigidity of SWCNTs should be considered as an independent material parameter not linked to the representative thickness by the classic bending rigidity formula, i.e.,
Figure 6 is presented to investigate the influence of the mass density per unit lateral area variation on the dimensionless frequency of a (12, 12) armchair and (14, 0) zigzag SWCNT with boundary conditions: clamped-clamped and clamped-free. These figures shows that for all the selected boundary conditions, the frequency calculated via shell model are sensitive to the nanotube mass density and also the larger the mass density per unit lateral area
Variations of dimensionless frequencies of CC and CF armchair and zigzag SWCNTs when ρh=740.52nm, ρh=800.64nm and ρh=820.80nm.
The vibration behavior of CF and CC SWCNTs are extensively investigated by present model compared with MD simulation. With properly chosen parameters, the present models can reproduce satisfactory frequencies that are in reasonable agreement with those results obtained by MD simulations and Timoshenko beam model. The effects of the length-to-diameter ratio for armchair and zigzag CNTs with in-plane rigidity, mass density per unit lateral area on the dimensionless frequencies are also examined with present models. It is found that the frequencies decreases smoothly when length-to-diameter ratio would increases and higher mode of vibration occurred when the frequencies are higher. For a clamped-free SWCNT, their exist an inverse proportionality which is observed between the resulting frequency and length-to-diameter ratio. For clamped-clamped SWCNTs, the results took a similar trend but in this case frequency values are much higher. The results are obtained numerically for different boundary conditions and plotted in graphical forms. In the field of CNTs vibrations, wave propagation approach presents a good application. A better cylindrical shell model is needed to furnish more accurate prediction of the vibration frequencies of SWCNTs, such as the nonlocal shell theory that incorporates the effect of small length scale effect.
Africa is facing a growing waste management crisis. While the volumes of waste generated in Africa are relatively small, compared to developed regions, the mismanagement of waste in Africa is already impacting human and environmental health. However, Africa is set to undergo a major social and economic transformation over the coming century as its population explodes, cities urbanize and consumer purchasing habits change. This is expected to lead to exponential growth in waste generation (Figure 1), which will put considerable strain on already constrained public and private sector waste services and infrastructure, and further exacerbate the current state of waste management. In fact, the rate of growth in waste generation in Africa is expected to be so significant that any decrease in waste generation expected in other regions globally will be overshadowed by Africa, particularly Sub-Saharan Africa.
Total municipal solid waste generation by region (adapted from [1]).
The first Global Waste Management Outlook, published by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the International Solid Waste Association (ISWA) in 2015 [2], highlighted the need for greater detail on the generation and management of waste at the regional level. The first Africa Waste Management Outlook published by the UNEP in June 2018 was in response to this global call [3]. The Africa Waste Management Outlook sets out the current state of solid waste management in Africa, including the state of waste governance; the associated environmental, social and economic impacts of waste; and the opportunities that waste provides through appropriate solutions and financing mechanisms. This chapter summarizes the key findings of the Africa Waste Management Outlook and places them within the context of development in Africa.
Available data shows that 125 million tonnes per annum of municipal solid waste (MSW) was generated in Africa in 2012, of which 81 million tonnes (65%) was from sub-Saharan Africa [4]. This is expected to grow to 244 million tonnes per year by 2025. However, with an average waste collection rate of only 55% (68 million tonnes) [4], nearly half of all MSW generated in Africa, remains within our cities and towns, dumped onto sidewalks, open fields, stormwater drains and rivers. The average MSW collection rate in sub-Saharan Africa is lower at only 44%, although the coverage varies considerably between cities, from less than 20% to well above 90% (Figure 2). The average MSW collection rate for the continent is expected to increase to only 69% by 2025 [4].
MSW collection coverage for cities in Africa (adapted from [5, 6, 7]).
Good waste collection services are often only found in the city centres, while municipal waste services in suburbs and peri-urban areas are usually poor. The situation is much worse in rural areas where often no formal waste collection services exist. Current MSW collection services in most African countries are therefore completely inadequate resulting in the leakage of waste into the environment, including the freshwater and marine environment.
Considering that an estimated 80–90% of the MSW generated in Africa is recyclable, it makes little sense that more than 90% of the waste generated in Africa is still disposed of to land, typically to uncontrolled and controlled dumpsites. With so little regard for the opportunity that waste presents as secondary resource, only 4% of the waste generated in Africa is currently recycled, often by very active, but typically marginalized, informal reclaimers.
On average, 57% of MSW in Africa is wet, biodegradable, organic waste (Figure 3). This high organic waste content, relative to paper and packaging, is typical of MSW in developing countries. Biodegradable organic waste, such as food and garden waste, can be easily processed into valuable products such as compost or biogas, yet it remains largely an untapped resource for the continent. As a result, there is a growing move internationally, including in Africa, towards the decentralized management of organic waste through small-scale composting and anaerobic digestion due to the failures in municipal waste collection services [8].
MSW composition in sub-Saharan Africa and global [9].
A waste stream of growing concern for Africa is waste plastic, with an estimated 13% of the MSW generated in Africa being plastic (Figure 3), the bulk of which is also dumped to land [9].
Waste streams in Africa are also changing as consumer behavior changes and as new markets in a growing middle class emerge, with increasing volumes of packaging and waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) being generated, often with inadequate end-of-life solutions for these products [10, 11]. Cheap and substandard products are increasingly being imported into African countries leading to new and emerging waste streams. The amount and types of hazardous waste are also increasing, with little awareness of its nature or management.
Food losses and waste in Africa are significant, occurring primarily at the early stages of the food supply chain [12]. In sub-Saharan Africa, roughly 37% of all the food produced is lost or wasted [12]. For a continent with high levels of poverty, hunger and malnutrition, the loss and wastage of more than a third of all food produced, is unacceptable.
A number of policies (international, continental and regional) are already in place to address pollution and waste in Africa. However, it remains unclear as to how these policies have been translated into action and what progress, if any, has been made towards achieving their objectives and commitments. The inability of governments to enforce waste and environmental legislation in many African countries has given rise to a culture of impunity and has weakened the effectiveness of waste management in general [13]. What is clear, is the inability of governments and private industry to keep pace with growing waste streams and the timely development of policies and strategies to effectively deal with it [14].
As a result, the response from many African countries has been to implement product bans on “problematic” products, particularly on single-use plastics. According to UNEP [15], 29 countries in Africa have already implemented some sort of regulation against plastics either at local or national level (Figure 4). These regulations vary from a ban on single-use (thin) plastic bags (and associated requirements for bag thickness) to complete bans on all plastic bags. The growing public outcry against plastic is now sparking action by governments on possible further bans on other single-use plastic products, such as PET beverage bottles and food services industry products such as plastic straws, cups, containers and utensils.
African countries that have implemented local or national bans against waste plastics (dark blue shaded) (adapted from [15]).
The slow adoption, limited use and poor design of economic instruments in solid waste in Africa, including alternative policy instruments such as extended producer responsibility (EPR) represents a “lost opportunity” [16].
In addition, the non-domestication of international agreements is making Africa an easy target for illegal dumping of hazardous waste from outside of the continent [17, 18].
Weak waste collection systems in Africa combined with uncontrolled and controlled dumping of waste, often associated with open burning, are causing significant economic, social and environmental impacts. Current waste management practices in Africa are resulting in the leakage of waste into the environment. Furthermore, the indiscriminate dumping of waste in urban areas creates risks of disease, flooding and environmental pollution. Research has shown a correlation between proximity to open dumpsites and incidence of disease, including increased risk of cholera, malaria, typhoid fever, dengue fever and Zika [19, 20, 21, 22].
Open burning of waste causes significant air pollution which impacts human health and contributes to changing climates. These impacts are not always local, but can be far reaching. Methane and black carbon released through open burning of waste are short-lived climate pollutants with strong effects on regional and global climate change [2].
Africa has become a dumping ground for waste, particularly hazardous waste, often from developed countries, with many African countries, particularly in west and north Africa, becoming a global destination for end-of-life EEE and vehiclesexported from developed countries in North America, Europe and Asia [16, 23, 24, 10]. Current electronic waste recycling practices, often informal, pose potential risks to people and the environment [25, 26]. Children and women are heavily involved in WEEE recycling in Africa, constituting the most vulnerable group for this waste. Recycling of used lead-acid batteries in informal workshops in Africa is a major source of lead pollution, exposing considerable numbers of people and the environment to adverse effects [27, 28].
Plastic as a percentage of MSW for sub-Saharan Africa is higher than the global average, at 13% [9] and is a waste stream of growing concern for the continent. With weak waste collection systems and disposal of waste to uncontrolled and controlled dumpsites, the leakage of plastic into the environment poses a significant threat to the environment and economies [29, 30]. This is compounded by the lack of recycling in Africa.
Improper waste management has serious health and environmental consequences. If it persists, it will undermine Africa’s efforts to achieve the sustainable development goals (SDGs).
With only a 4% recycling rate, opportunities to develop a “secondary resources economy” are still largely unexplored in Africa. Current waste management practices have resulted in waste being overlooked for the value that it can provide to local economies. As a result, viable polymer (from plastic), fiber (from paper), metals and nutrients (from organic waste), amongst others, are being lost to Africa’s economy through disposal of waste to dumpsites and landfills. Resources which could have been reintroduced back into local and regional economies to support manufacturing and reduce the economic burden on product imports.
Preliminary calculations suggest that diverting waste away from dumpsites towards reuse, recycling and recovery could, conservatively, inject an additional US$8 billion every year into the African economy [31]. Creating significant socio-economic opportunities for the continent. And if done responsibly, at the same time address the environmental and human health impacts associated with the current mismanagement of waste. Waste therefore provides considerable opportunity for the continent if only it could be safely collected and directed towards reuse, recycling and recovery.
The informal sector has played a very active role to date in the collection and diversion of reusable and recyclable waste away from landfill in Africa. As such, integrating informal reclaimers into future waste management activities is key to unlocking these opportunities, while also ensuring their improved livelihoods. Labour-intensive collection, sorting and processing of secondary resources could also create many direct jobs and even more indirect and induced employment opportunities at higher levels of pay. Developing local end-use markets that support the local beneficiation of these secondary resources would also ensure that fewer jobs migrate with these secondary resources to other countries.
Because of the gaps that exist in current waste collection and disposal systems, and in waste reuse, recycling and recovery, many social and technological innovations have emerged on the African continent over the past decade. These include innovative waste collection models, such as Wecyclers in Nigeria or Packag-ching in South Africa. Wecyclers uses low-cost, environmentally friendly cargo bicycles called “wecycles” to provide households and businesses in Lagos with convenient collection services for recyclable waste [32]. The Wecyclers and Packag-ching collection programmes reward residents for their recyclables through convenient collection systems, often in areas with no or poor municipal waste collection systems. Innovative end-uses for waste have also emerged on the continent. The Rethaka Foundation’s Repurpose Schoolbag initiative addresses not only waste, but also aims to bring light to families and keep children safe while walking to school. The initiative collects and repurposes plastic waste such as PVC billboards into low-cost, highly visible schoolbags for local disadvantaged students, equipped with a small solar panel [32]. The PET recycling company (PETCO) model of voluntary Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) for end-of-life PET plastic bottles, has resulted in a 65% post-consumer recycling rate in South Africa [33]. Utilizing both formal and informal actors in the value chain, the PETCO model is now being replicated in other countries in Africa, including Kenya, Ethiopia and Uganda [34].
Africa has however, recently seen investment in large-scale, traditional waste treatment technologies, such as the first waste PET plastic food-grade bottle-to-bottle recycling plant, established by Extrupet in South Africa in 2015. Extrupet has the capacity to recycle over 2.5 million PET bottles per day, converting the waste PET bottles into fiber, thermoforming, food-grade and strapping-grade material, thereby producing high-quality, reliable end-products for use in packaging and other applications [35]. The Reppie 50 MW waste-to-energy plant at the Koshe dump in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia marks a significant transition in Africa’s management of waste, with the establishment of a large-scale, MSW thermal treatment plant [35].
But uptake of alternative waste treatment technologies in Africa has generally been slow, with dumping and open burning of waste remaining the dominant “technology” choice for the management of waste on the continent. While many alternative waste treatment technologies are available worldwide, only some of them are appropriate, or economically viable, for Africa, at least in the short- to medium-term.
Given the current state of waste management in most African cities, conventional waste treatment technologies are often difficult to implement. A combination of small-scale, low-cost, decentralized, community-driven initiatives and larger-scale, higher-cost, centralized initiatives will therefore be required for Africa. Low-technology (and low-cost) solutions such as cargo bicycles, motor tricycles or donkeycarts are often good alternatives for waste collection in African cities, particularly where access is constrained. Recycling technologies are already being implemented for wastes such as plastic, paper, glass, metal, oil, e-waste and organic waste, but need to be significantly scaled up through the development and strengthening of local and regional end-use markets.
Although almost all African countries have some policies that dictate how waste should be managed, there are many factors that constrain the waste management system in Africa. These factors include weak legislation, lack of enforcement, low public awareness, negative attitudes, the poor state of services, corruption, political instability and conflicts [36].
Poor financing is a major constraint to the development of the waste sector in Africa. This is largely due to the fact that the waste sector is still perceived as a high-risk investment in Africa [37]. There are tremendous challenges and constraints to waste management finance and to setting up sustainable revenue models in Africa. Existing waste management financing models currently used in Africa are limited, aggravated by weak institutional frameworks and poor governance of public resources. Strengthening institutions and regulatory frameworks is therefore paramount in reducing the perceived sector risk. There is a huge need for investment finance in the waste sector. However, raising investor confidence is a challenge, particularly in low income countries. Project costing and cost recovery is often poorly understood by government agencies in charge of waste logistics and management.
Estimated investment needs for the sector range from US$6–42 billion (in 2015), depending on the alternative waste treatment technologies implemented. These figures are expected to triple to US$17–125 billion by 2040, given current population growth and urbanization patterns and assuming investment in large-scale waste technologies [37]. Public-private partnerships will therefore be key to unlocking the opportunities that waste provides as secondary resource for the African continent.
Africa faces many challenges with respect to solid waste management. Factors such as lack of awareness; weak environmental legislation and enforcement; and limited resources, including financial resources, result in inefficient waste management in most African countries, which directly impacts upon human and environmental health. Available evidence suggests that the current poor state of solid waste management is largely due to failures in governance and organizational weaknesses resulting in poor service delivery and a perceived high risk for private sector investors. The economic, social and environmental costs of inaction—of doing nothing—far outweigh the cost of implementing waste management solutions on the continent, and if the 2030 Agenda for sustainable development is to be achieved, action has to be taken.
While the costs of implementing alternative waste treatment technologies is suggested to be in the range of US$6–42 billion, diverting waste away from dumpsites and landfills towards reuse, recycling and recovery could inject a potential US$8 billion per annum of resource value into the African economy. This will result in improved livelihoods for informal reclaimers and the creation of new job and business opportunities for the continent.
But African countries cannot harness the development opportunity that waste provides, if waste remains scattered, uncollected across our environment, and our towns and cities, and if there is no incentive (political, legislative or economic) to divert waste away from dumpsites and landfills into economically productive value chains.
The African Union has set an aspiration that “African cities will be recycling at least 50% of the waste they generate by 2023” [38, 39]. The authors of the Africa Waste Management Outlook fully support the goal of the African Union and believe that even higher rates can be achieved, by developing appropriate collection systems and end-use markets for the following opportunity waste streams
Composting, bioenergy recovery (e.g. anaerobic digestion) or higher value product recovery (biorefinery) of organic waste
Reuse and recycling of paper and packaging e.g. plastic, paper, metal, glass
Refurbishment, repair, reuse, recycling of electronic waste
The Africa Waste Management Outlook has set out a vision for Africa to “Extend regular and reliable waste collection services to all, with safe disposal of residual waste to engineered landfills, while maximizing the recovery of secondary resources from these waste streams through social and technological innovations appropriate for Africa.”
This requires that government, business and civil society “bring waste under control” (i.e. collection services for all and safe disposal of waste to engineered landfills), while simultaneously “harnessing the opportunities of waste as resource” through reuse, recycling and recovery. This will require a clear strategy for (i) capacity development and awareness raising, (ii) evidence generation and use in support of decision-making and policy development, (iii) strengthening institutions, policies and enforcing legislation, and (iv) adopting appropriate, inclusive waste services and technologies (Figure 5).
Proposed approach to addressing solid waste in Africa [3].
Good governance is crucial for creating an enabling environment for sustainable materials management (including waste management) [40]. As such, there is a need to strengthen capacity (financial, institutional, technological and infrastructural) to drive environmentally sound waste management [41]. Since solid waste management is a sustainable development issue that cuts across socio-economic activities, it must be considered a political priority for Africa.
Finally, regional and sub-regional approaches to solving solid waste issues in Africa, with sharing of information and experiences, must be explored as capacity and resources vary greatly between countries.
The authors acknowledge the role of the UNEP (through its Africa Office and its International Environmental Technology Centre—IETC), without whose leadership, the development of the Africa Waste Management Outlook would not have been possible. The financial contribution of the Governments of Japan and South Africa in the development of the Outlook are also acknowledged.
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\\n\\nOur services – The support we offer our authors and editors is second to none. Each book in our program receives the following:
\\n\\nOur end-to-end publishing service frees our authors and editors to focus on what matters: research. We empower them to shape their fields and connect with the global scientific community.
\\n\\n"In developing countries until now, advancement in science has been very limited, because insufficient economic resources are dedicated to science and education. These limitations are more marked when the scientists are women. In order to develop science in the poorest countries and decrease the gender gap that exists in scientific fields, Open Access networks like IntechOpen are essential. Free access to scientific research could contribute to ameliorating difficult life conditions and breaking down barriers." Marquidia Pacheco, National Institute for Nuclear Research (ININ), Mexico
\\n\\nInterested? Contact Ana Pantar (book.idea@intechopen.com) for more information.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'We have more than a decade of experience in Open Access publishing. The advantages of publishing with IntechOpen include:
\n\nOur platform – IntechOpen is the world’s leading publisher of OA books, built by scientists, for scientists.
\n\nOur reputation – Everything we publish goes through a two-stage peer review process. We’re proud to count Nobel laureates among our esteemed authors. We meet European Commission standards for funding, and the research we’ve published has been funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and the Wellcome Trust, among others. IntechOpen is a member of all relevant trade associations (including the STM Association and the Association of Learned and Professional Society Publishers) and has a selection of books indexed in Web of Science's Book Citation Index.
\n\nOur expertise – We’ve published more than 4,200 books by more than 116,000 authors and editors.
\n\nOur reach – Our books have more than 125 million downloads and more than 84,800 Web of Science citations. We increase citations via indexing in all the major databases, including the Book Citation Index at Web of Science and Google Scholar.
\n\nOur services – The support we offer our authors and editors is second to none. Each book in our program receives the following:
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\n\nInterested? Contact Ana Pantar (book.idea@intechopen.com) for more information.
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