Minimum RSR values for the Gulf of Mexico (API RP 2A, 2014) [9].
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83968-236-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-235-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-237-7",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c85e82851e80b40282ff9be99ddf2046",bookSignature:"Dr. Rama Sashank Madhurapantula, Prof. Joseph Orgel P.R.O. and Ph.D. Zvi Loewy",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8018.jpg",keywords:"Collagen, Proteoglycans, Arthritis, Congenital Diseases, Osteogenesis Imperfecta, Blood Vessels, ECM - Tissue Interfaces, Elasticity, Cartilage Implant, Bone Graft, Angiogenesis, Extracellular Triggers",numberOfDownloads:18,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 3rd 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 24th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 22nd 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 11th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 9th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"7 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Most recently, dr. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"65164",title:"Maintenance Management of Aging Oil and Gas Facilities",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82841",slug:"maintenance-management-of-aging-oil-and-gas-facilities",body:'\nOil and gas facilities range from both upstream and downstream assets to include offshore structures, onshore tank farm facilities. Offshore structures may include the typical fixed offshore structures, monopods, guyed wire caissons to the more complex deep water assets including Floating Production and Storage Offloading (FPSO), Mobile Offshore Production Unit (MOPU), Tension Leg Platform (TLP) and semi-submersible structures (Figures 1 and 2).
\nTypical offshore structures [1].
Typical onshore tank farm facility [2].
Extending operation facilities beyond design life presents safety risks, business risks and operational challenges to the oil and gas industry. These risks affect significant business decisions and need to be quantified and managed as we strive for continuous operations of aging assets. Aging assets and equipment present increased challenges in maintaining equipment integrity and hence, will need to be managed accordingly. These could be because of a cumulative degradation and risks over time, which includes:
Degraded materials of construction due to corrosion related mechanisms;
Erosion, wear, fatigue or cracking mechanisms;
‘Slow burn’ degradation mechanisms;
Obsolescence of equipment leading to potential lack of spares, high cost of spares, etc.;
Normalization of deviance associated with human factors (i.e. accepting degraded conditions as being the new normal);
Lack of data trending to forecast future risks to safety and business continuity;
Failure to record the accurate status of safety critical elements (SCE) over time;
Changes to engineering codes and standards;
Loss of technical competence (qualifications + training + experience) in the industry;
Introduction of foreign materials into the production systems (e.g. Chemicals for Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR), downhole sand consolidation, chemical tracers, off spec water injection, etc.).
Assets are required to predict and understand the effects of deterioration, or changing conditions associated with life extension and be prepared to intervene to ensure that this demand can be met without adverse effect on asset integrity and safety. Asset life extension (ALE) for a given design life expiry, refers to a condition whereby an asset is approaching its intended design life. The main aging factors that need to be considered when developing an ALE program are material degradation (Figure 3), obsolescence and organizational issues. This is provided within Figure 4.
\nDegradation of offshore structural component [3].
Aging management [4].
The status of the known degradation mechanisms applicable for safety barriers should be evaluated and documented. The basis for acceptance of deviations and management of change (MoC) is reviewed in as a justification for the new mode and timeframe for continuous operations. The engineering evaluations of all changes and eventually mitigation measures against all operating risks must be documented. OGPs must review, evaluate assess all damage mechanisms or defects that may impact the facilities or individual operating systems for the life extension period. This is generally applicable to damage or defects where a temporary MoC has been accepted due to a limited period of use and this period has since been changed as a result of ALE considerations. The OGP is then required to re-assess the basis for acceptance to verify that this is still valid for the new period. Components or systems with a high consequence of failure, which are not available for inspection must be identified, evaluated, analyzed, and qualified for life extension. It is required that OGPs evaluate the consequence in case of failure, monitors indications of failure and have plans for compensating actions if indications of failure are found. Latest knowledge related to degradation and life extension shall be applied.
\nA case study is provided within Section 11, to demonstrate a simple application of the ALE framework and possible outcomes.
\nAs the Asset ages, there is increasing challenge to maintaining equipment and installation integrity, compliance with Regulatory requirements and improve economic hydrocarbon recovery from depleted fields. As such, life extension analysis and evaluations must be based on the planned use of the facilities during the life extension period. Changes to the operational conditions that can have an impact on the efficiency of resource exploitation, the risk profile as well as the performance of the barriers due to aging, must be considered. The potential changes to the operational conditions that influence the degradation of barriers must be identified and used as basis for life extension evaluations.
\nBased on Norwegian Oil and Gas Recommended Assessment and Documentation for Service Life Extension of Facilities, Rev1, 2012 [5] and operational data and requirements, the following should, among others, be considered:
reservoir depletion causing subsidence of the facility
shallow gas detection and mitigation
changes in climatic conditions resulting in changes to environmental loadings and operating conditions
Increased changes in fluid compositions that can adversely affect the corrosion rates in certain systems
Changes to the original design assumptions as provided in QRA etc.
Well and drilling factors
Plans for increased gas flow
Need for new process or utility equipment due to changed flows, chemistry, pressure, injection or chemicals
Changes to the SCEs on the facility
New methodologies to simulate damage and degradation.
Changes to equipment usage.
The basis for the design and design life of facilities with its associated platform, wells, subsea systems and pipelines may be different. When facilities are planned to be used beyond design life, OGPs should define the life extension period for which the different parts of the facilities are planned to be used. An ALE framework outlining the main tasks as a six (6) step process is proposed and provided below on Figure 5.
\nAsset life extension process [6].
The collection of data and information is often the most challenging aspects of commencing an ALE study. It is recommended that records be securely placed within an electronic database generally used to manage asset integrity and reliability solutions. The availability and accuracy of information should be evaluated for each facility considered. The information should constitute design basis and specifications, design and as built drawings, design/(re-) analysis reports, inspection reports, maintenance and repair records and specifications. Once these records have been complied, data quality measures should ensure the appropriate data for screening. In some cases, the data analytics and trending measures give a better representation of the data set and how this can be used effectively in an ALE program.
\nGap assessment is the second stage of an ALE process. Identifying gaps can be broken down to several steps, which includes:
Identify hazards and critical barriers.
Check integrity and functionality of barriers.
Assess current performance of barrier against intent.
Review historic performance of barriers.
Review current state of maintenance and gaps.
The gap assessment shall focus on the barrier functions and the factors that influence the barrier elements. This includes technical, organizational and operational elements. The gap assessment and recommendations are performed based on the major inspection findings, root cause failure analysis reports, modification implemented on the equipment, bad actor list, history of incidents, maintenance report, overhaul findings, reliability data, operating and maintenance philosophy and any condition monitoring recommendation. Any life extension recommendation must take the future technical condition, operating parameters and mode of operation into consideration. The assessment should also include review of the forecasted production profile, exploiting synergy with other related equipment such that key assets and system infrastructure can be rationalized, optimized or expanded. A process for the identification and correction of gaps is provided within Figure 6.
\nProcess for identification and correction of gaps [5].
The recommendations from the gap assessment are to cover all the remedial actions necessary to prevent the risk associated with spare strategy, obsolescence related to the equipment and spare parts, remnant life analysis and prediction of future failures modes and degradation mechanism especially related to aging during the extension period. The benefits of applying new technology in addressing the gaps shall be evaluated. This could help mitigate or close gaps with less modifications or compensating measures. The Health and Safety Executive, UK (2013) KP4 Report [7] outlined the following safety management systems as being the barriers on the facilities that are not to be breached. They include:
Structural integrity;
Process integrity;
Fire and explosion;
Mechanical integrity;
Electrical, control and instrumentation;
Marine integrity;
Pipelines;
Corrosion;
Human factors.
In addition to the above mentioned the following systems may be considered
Cranes and lifting equipment
Telecommunication facilities
Subsea systems
Life-saving equipment
Oil and gas producers (OGPs) are to perform analyses and evaluations to demonstrate and understand of how the time and aging processes will affect HSE, the facilities barriers including technical operational and organizational aspects and resource exploitation. They shall also identify measures required to mitigate the impact of the time and aging processes (Figure 7).
\nRecommended life extension assessments of barriers [5].
The Norwegian Oil and Gas Recommended Assessment and Documentation for Service Life Extension of Facilities, (2012) [5] provides good guidance on the processes, resources and methodologies used in the ALE approach to find the “as is” condition and re-qualification for life extension and how to implement and document. Safety critical elements (SCEs) such as wells, subsea jacket structures, pipelines, risers, mechanical equipment etc. are to be qualified for the continuous operations and asset life extension. Quantitative and qualitative assessments are generally employed for equipment where known degradation mechanisms are prevalent and where quantitative models exist to calculate degradation, remaining margins and prediction of remaining service life. Quantitative analysis including probability of failure (PoF) is generally employed for structures, pipelines, position mooring, and flexible or steel catenary risers etc. and requires string technical expertise and often specialist software packages. Qualitative assessments is also possible but must be supported by effective data management and operating historical data to make good engineering assessments.
\nRisk assessments must be performed to verify that the facilities risk level is within acceptable limits in the period of life extension and As Low as Reasonably Practicable (ALARP). The principle of ALARP is in widespread use in the oil and gas industry. The following risk evaluations shall be performed based on the context defined for life extension:
Accumulation of Operational Risk Assessments (ORA), as some of which may be decoupled because they have been considered in isolation and not in combination, potentially resulting in unknown increased risks
Risk assessment of major accident risk, Quantitative/Qualitative Risk Analysis (QRA)
Emergency preparedness and response
External environment
Occupational safety, health and working environment.
Ensuring risks have been reduced to ALARP means balancing the risks against the costs to further reduce it. The decision is weighted in favor of health and safety because the presumption is that OGPs should implement the risk reduction measure. It is expected that the latest available technology and knowledge related to analysis of major accidents is applied. The conservatism level and any assumptions made in risk assessments are to be assessed and evaluated for all continuous operations. The vulnerability, actual and expected effectiveness of the barrier function, including technical, organizational and operational elements shall be included in the risk assessment.
\nThe OGP risk matrix consists of a consequence axis and a likelihood axis. The consequences are those of credible scenarios (taking the prevailing circumstances into consideration) that can develop from the release of a hazard. The potential worst case consequences, rather than the actual ones (that may have occurred previously), are used. After assessing the potential outcome, the likelihood on the vertical axis is determined on the basis of historical evidence or experience that such consequences have materialized within the industry, the entity or a smaller unit (Figure 8).
\nTypical risk matrix used by oil and gas producers (OGPs).
Effective inspection and maintenance are important in ensuring asset integrity and reliability. In developing the maintenance management systems an initial review is required determine status and how the aging processes is covered in the existing maintenance program. The review is to evaluate the need for updating the integrity, reliability, vulnerability and consequence analysis for continuous operations in the future. Experience and knowledge from documented failures and lessons learnt shall also be part of the evaluation and be used to improve the maintenance management system. In principle, the maintenance management system should be within a computerized database with detailed history of the operating, design, assessment, inspection and maintenance records accessible to all key personnel.
\nA review of the current emergency response systems must be performed, including an evaluation of how operational changes and new requirements will be met in the period of life extension. If there is a change in operating philosophy, HSE Case shall be revisited. OGPs are to evaluate any likely operational or organizational changes to the facilities that will affect the emergency preparedness and response systems.
\nHuman factors area comprises methods and knowledge which can be used to assess and improve the interaction between people, technology and organization to realize efficient and safe operations. The factors should include organizational structure, competency or training requirements, and succession planning. Human factors analysis shall be performed where changes are made or where extended life challenges the established human, technology and organizational context. Organizational system is also a factor to be considered, which aspects include engineering design, contract and procurement management. Engineering design and related procurement activities require a thorough and careful consideration of asset aging and life extension factor. The risk from each finding and the overall potential (future) risks shall be evaluated before deciding on the implementation of measures.
\nThe OGP is to ensure that experience on lifetime extension from other installations and operating areas is applied to the analyses and evaluations carried out for the application. Any specific relevant information shall be included in the application document. OGPs are to ensure that the analyses and evaluation work has been carried out in accordance with the regulations, the relevant company standards and have been verified by the appropriate technical discipline authority.
\nThe OGP will evaluate the status of working environment factors that are relevant for life time extension, prior to the commencement of implementing ALE. Factors that should be include considerations for chemical/radiation exposure, lightning and ventilation, ergonomics, noise/vibration pollution, material handling and storage, outdoor operations and accommodation facilities.
\nThe main objective of the evaluation is to provide a status of the working environment according to both technical and operational requirements. The assessment/evaluation are appropriately based upon existing conditions at the facility, and if necessary, follow-up with new evaluations and assessments as required. The operational risks of each from each finding and the future risks shall be evaluated before deciding on the implementation of measures for improving working environment.
\nAll assets are required to have design documentation available and accessible, which supports effective design at all stages of the asset life cycle and in relation to the management of aging life extension. All engineering activity to be undertaken throughout the anticipated service life of an asset should properly address life extension considerations.
\nZettlemoyer [8] provides a template for the asset life of fixed offshore structures. In general, the main source of interest or ALE involves the jacket substructure which are essentially made up of tubular steel sections welded together to form a truss system. For fixed offshore structures, the jacket template or truss system is considered as a structural safety critical element (SCE), so the integrity must always intact (Figure 9).
\nTypical jacket substructure for a fixed offshore structure [8].
The jacket template substructure is to be assessed for ALE in terms of ultimate strength of the structure and fatigue life assessments. The values for the ultimate strength results are represented in terms of an RSR (Reserve Strength Ratio). The RSR is the ratio of the base shear at collapse/base shear at the 100 Yr environmental loading (i.e. the design condition). Ultimate strength analysis is also called a pushover analysis or collapse analysis and involves non-linear analytical methods (Figure 10).
\nTypical schematic for load displacement curve—ultimate strength [8].
For new structures a RSR value is generally over 2.0. As platforms operate for some time, degradation due to corrosion, damage due to accidental damage (vessel collision, dropped objects) is possible. Offshore structures are inspected and anomaly management is performed to detect and repair damage based on severity levels over its operations. It is expected that the RSR may be compromised and reduced if damage is unmitigated.
\nFor every operating region the acceptance criteria need to be determined as it varies from region to region for varying levels of environmental loading. In the Gulf of Mexico (GoM) minimum acceptance criteria based on API RP2A are provided in Table 1.
\nMinimum RSR values for the Gulf of Mexico (API RP 2A, 2014) [9].
The operations for fixed offshore structures can be extended if the platform in principle has greater than its minimum RSR values. For asset life extension, it is expected that all severe damage to structures has either been repaired or reduced to a manageable condition, prior to the migration to ALE. In essence the topsides of the fixed offshore needs to be appropriately assessed. This is generally done by using a risk based maintenance (RBM) program where anomalies are rectified due to severity levels. These topside RBM should be aligned to other topsides programs including piping, equipment skids and vessels to ensure that the maximum use can be made of allocated resources.
\nThe other key performance indicator for tubular joints is fatigue life prediction. In recent years through the use of proper joint configuration in design, use of joint flexibility approaches in analysis, the issue of fatigue life estimation has been argued away. In principle the acceptance criteria for ALE for a fixed offshore structure is the exceedance of the minimum RSR values. In recent years, integrity management codes of practice including API RP2SIM (2014) [10], ISO 19902:2007 [11] provide guidance on the ALE for fixed operating steel structures.
\nFacilities are designed typically with a life span of 20–25 years. However, it is becoming common for facilities, both on-shore and off-shore, to be operated beyond its life span. While assets are designed for 20–25 years, equipment age differently and suffer from different age-related failure mechanisms. Other than aging, electrical, control and instrumentation equipment suffer from obsolescence. This is primarily due to unavailability of components and end of hardware/software support.
\nA downstream refinery experienced control issues with its two reactor and regenerator slide valves on its Residue Fluid Catalytic Cracker (RFCC) unit. The symptom, initially, manifested as valve hunting. This progressively worsen to the point where the valves had to be put on manual hand wheel control. While this action temporarily stopped the valve hunting, it made control of the reactor and regenerator catalyst level very difficult as operators had to be on-site to adjust the valve opening manually. Left unresolved, the likely consequence of this situation was a process upset and RFCC unit trip. This would also cause a cascade effect, resulting in the shutdown of other units, incurring significant production losses and HSE exposure (Figure 11).
\nA typical FCCU slide valve actuator (left) and HPU & control module (right) [12].
The problem was initially thought to be due to a failure of the HPU control module. However, the problem was traced, eventually, to a failing DC power supply unit (PSU) which powers the control module. Once the problem was identified, replacement of the power supply unit resolved the issue. What should be noted from this seemingly straightforward problem is that both reactor and regenerator HPU units had suffered from the same problem. On closer inspection, both power supply units were of the same make and had been first installed (as part of the HPU units) at around the same time. At the time of the incident, the power supply units were estimated to be 10 years old. Aging was attributed as the cause of the problem, as within 6 months, another slide valve HPU had also suffered from an almost similar problem.
\nThere are several failure mechanisms that are typically found due to aging. Unfortunately, a detail inspection of the power supply unit was not carried out to identify the aging mechanism. Table 2 shows common aging mechanism for primary containment (piping, vessels, heat exchangers), structures, safeguarding systems and electrical, control and instrumentation (EC&I) [HSE UK RR823 Plant Aging Study] [8].
\nTypical aging damage mechanism (HSE UK RR823 Plant Aging Study) [13].
The multiple failures within a short period of time was a strong indication of an age related failure, as opposed to a random failure. As a result, several actions were taken:
All HPUs with PSU of similar make and type were identified.
PSUs were replaced (like-for-like replacement).
A Preventive Maintenance (PM) plan was created in PMMS to replace the PSUs every 8 years.
Learnings (failure mode, failure mechanism, failure rectification) were incorporated into the technician training program for future ease of troubleshooting.
Due to the potentially high consequence of production loss from this failure, other components of the HPU were also scrutinized. Other critical components, and possible single points of failure, were identified. These were parked for future improvements for the next asset refresh cycle. A similar exercise to this would be to perform a failure mode, effects and criticality analysis.
\nTo ensure these upgrades were implemented in the next possible opportunity, the equipment upgrade was parked into the refinery’s 5-year CAPEX plan. The site’s Equipment Obsolescence Masterplan was also updated. This is typically reviewed on a yearly basis to manage overall life cycle of aging EC&I assets. Figure 12 is an example of an equipment obsolescence dashboard which lists EC&I equipment asset, obsolescence status and remedial plan.
\nExample of an equipment obsolescence dashboard (HSE UK KP4 report) [7].
This case study highlights several important aspects of managing aging assets:
Information is in the data. Useful insights can be obtained through data analysis. Equipment failure rate, for example, will show whether an equipment is approaching end-of-life. However, quality data is essential and data clean-up often is required before analysis can be done.
Obsolescence management is essential for EC&I equipment. All equipment should be captured in an asset list and the aging strategy should be clearly defined. This could be through various way which include replacement, upgrade, life extension (through supplier extended support), life extension (with available spares) or run-to-fail.
EC&I equipment typically will have shorter life-cycle than an asset overall design life. Therefore, EC&I aging strategy has to be put in place much earlier than other assets such as structures and mechanical equipment. With E&CI equipment, analysis down to the major component level (e.g. PSU) should be done. This may need to also include supporting equipment such as interface modules, equipment communicators and workstations as well as software.
Remediation of aging asset can be based equipment criticality and/or actual equipment condition. There are various methodologies that can be employed to determine equipment criticality such as failure mode, effects and criticality analysis (FMECA), reliability availability and maintainability (RAM) analysis, and even layers of protection analysis (LOPA), among others. Each methodology puts a different focus on equipment reliability and integrity.
The human aspect of managing aging asset should not be under-estimated. Knowledge is lost when people move or retire. Therefore, knowledge retention is key in ensuring assets can continue to be managed safely and reliably.
As a minimum, OGPs should establish the following in their submission of ALE Study Consent for Extension Report:
Clarity on how the asset is to be operated during the extension period.
Clarity on Fitness for Service to run up to Design Life, Remnant Life Assessment, and Life Extension requirement and Gap Closure requirement for the Asset
Economic Analysis is performed with the following scenarios:
No Further Production Enhancement Action, for three (3) different options of Crude Oil Price.
Shortest Extension Period, for different options of Crude Oil Price.
Longest Extension Period based on the longest remnant life of a discipline assessed, for different options of Crude Oil Price.
Three further scenarios of extension period in between shortest and longest period for different options of Crude Oil Price.
Sensitivity analysis for Capital Expenditure (CAPEX) and Operational Expenditure (OPEX) for a variety of scenarios.
Oil and gas producers are often driven to continue operations beyond its design facility and are required to operate safely. There are many factors to consider when providing an asset life extension solution to aging offshore or onshore facilities. This chapter presents the key issues to consider and a prescribed methodology follow in justifying asset life extension for an aging facility. At all stages of the asset life extension, assets are required to satisfy the As Low as Reasonably Practicable criteria as a minimum for each discipline and demonstrate fitness for purpose.
\nThe authors of this chapter will like to thank the PETRONAS Operations Excellence, Centre of Excellence management team for their kind support of this project.
\nAntibiotic resistance (AR) which is defined as the ability of an organism to resist the killing effects of an antibiotic to which it was normally susceptible [1] and it has become an issue of global interest [2]. This microbial resistance is not a new phenomenon since all microorganisms have an inherent capacity to resist some antibiotics [3]. However, the rapid surge in the development and spread of AR is the main cause for concern [4]. In recent years, enough evidence highlighting a link between excessive use of antimicrobial agents and antimicrobial resistance from animals as a contributing factor to the overall burden of AR has emerged [5]. The extent of usage is expected to increase markedly over coming years due to intensification of farming practices in most of the developing countries [6]. The main reasons for the use of antibiotics in food-producing animals include prevention of infections, treatment of infections, promotion of growth and improvement in production in the farm animals [7, 8].
\nPoultry is one of the most widespread food industries worldwide. Chicken is the most commonly farmed species, with over 90 billion tons of chicken meat produced per year [9]. A large diversity of antimicrobials, are used to raise poultry in most countries [10, 11, 12]. A large number of such antimicrobials are considered to be essential in human medicine [13, 14]. The indiscriminate use of such essential antimicrobials in animal production is likely to accelerate the development of AR in pathogens, as well as in commensal organisms. This would result in treatment failures, economic losses and could act as source of gene pool for transmission to humans. In addition, there are also human health concerns about the presence of antimicrobial residues in meat [15, 16], eggs [17] and other animal products [18, 19].
\nGenerally, when an antibiotic is used in any setting, it eliminates the susceptible bacterial strains leaving behind those with traits that can resist the drug. These resistant bacteria then multiply and become the dominating population and as such, are able to transfer (both horizontally and vertically) the genes responsible for their resistance to other bacteria [1, 20]. Resistant bacteria can be transferred from poultry products to humans via consuming or handling meat contaminated with pathogens [21]. Once these pathogens are in the human system, they could colonize the intestines and the resistant genes could be shared or transferred to the endogenous intestinal flora, jeopardizing future treatments of infections caused by such organisms [5, 22, 23, 24].
\nAntimicrobials’ use in animal production dates as far back as the 1910 when due to shortage of meat products, workers carried out protests and riots across America [25]. Scientists at that time started looking for means of producing more meat at relatively cheaper costs; resulting in the use of antibiotics and other antimicrobial agents [26]. With the global threat of antibiotic resistance and increasing treatment failures, the non-therapeutic use of antibiotics in animal production has been banned in some countries [8, 27, 28, 29]. Sweden is known to be the first country to ban the use of antimicrobials for non-therapeutic purposes between 1986 (for growth promotion) and 1988 (for prophylaxis) [27]. This move was followed by Denmark, The Netherlands, United Kingdom and other European Union countries [27]. These countries also moved a step further and banned the use of all essential antibiotics as prophylactic agents in 2011 [30].
\nSeveral other countries have withdrawn the use of some classes of antibiotics or set up structures that regulate the use of selected antibiotics in animal production [29]. Despite these developments, it is currently estimated that over 60% of all antibiotics produced are used in livestock production, including poultry [6, 31].
\nThe use of antibiotics in poultry and livestock production is favorable to farmers and the economy as well because it has generally improved poultry performance effectively and economically but at the same time, the likely dissemination of antibiotic resistant strains of pathogenic and non-pathogenic organisms into the environment and their further transmission to humans via the food chain could also lead to serious consequences on public health [32].
\nBacteria counteract the actions of antibiotics by four well-known mechanisms, namely; enzyme modification, alteration in target binding sites, efflux activity and decreased permeability of bacterial membrane [33]. This expression of resistance towards antibiotics by bacteria could either be intrinsic or acquired. Intrinsic resistance is due to inherent properties within the bacteria chromosome such as mutations in genes and chromosomally inducible enzyme production [34], whereas acquired resistance could be due to the transmission of resistance genes from the environment and/or horizontally transfer from other bacteria [35, 36].
\nThe bacterial genus Staphylococcus is a Gram-positive cocci and a facultative anaerobe which appears in clusters when viewed under the microscope [37]. They are etiological agents of staphylococcosis, pododermatitis (bumblefoot) and septicaemia which affect mostly chicken and turkeys. Coagulase-negative species have also been implicated in human and animal infections [38, 39].
\nβ-lactams were considered the first line of drugs for treatment of staphylococcal infections but due to emergence of high level of resistance to these and other drugs, there are currently very few drugs available for treatment of these infections [40]. Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), now known as a superbug, is resistant to almost every available antibiotic used against Staphylococcus [41].
\nA study to detect the presence of MRSA in broilers, turkeys and the surrounding air in Germany reported the prevalence of MRSA in air as high as 77% in broilers compared to 54% in Turkeys. Ten different spa types were identified with spa type t011 and clonal complex (CC) 398 being the most prevalent. It was also found that for every farm, the same sequence types were present in both the birds and the environment [42]. This pattern of resistance was also reported in India with 1.6% of staphylococcal isolates containing mecA resistant gene [43].
\nIn Africa, studies carried out in Ghana and Nigeria have shown that livestock-associated Staphylococci are susceptible to amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, amikacin, ciprofloxacin, gentamycin and cephalexin [39, 44], whereas in the US, most of the staphylococcal isolates were susceptible to rifampin, cotrimoxazole, gentamycin, vancomycin and chloramphenicol [45, 46]. It is worth noting that most of these organisms showed a high level of resistance to oxacillin and tetracycline, which would be disastrous if these oxacillin-resistant strains are transferred to humans [39, 44, 45].
\nPseudomonas is a genus of Gram-negative, aerobic bacteria that belongs to the family Pseudomonadaceae [47]. The genus Pseudomonas is ubiquitous in soil, water and on plants. It consists of 191 subspecies belonging to species groups including P. fluorescens, P. pertucinogena, P. aeruginosa, P. chlororaphis, P. putida, P. stutzeri and P. syringae. Pseudomoniasis, which is an opportunistic P. aeruginosa infection, is common in poultry birds like chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese and ostriches where infections in eggs destroy embryos [48].
\nP. aeruginosa causes respiratory infection, sinusitis, keratitis/keratoconjuctivitis and septicemia and responsible for pyogenic infections, septicemia, endocarditis and lameness along with many diverse diseases [49]. Infections may occur through skin wounds, contaminated vaccines and antibiotic solutions or needles used for injection. The disease may be systemic, affecting multiple organs and tissues or localized in tissues as infraorbital sinus or air sacs producing swelling of the head, wattles, sinuses and joints in poultry birds. P. aeruginosa has been isolated from many poultry farms and birds worldwide [49].
\nA study carried out in Ghana show that P. aeruginosa isolated from poultry litter were all susceptible to levofloxacin in the range of 20–100% and nearly 75% demonstrated intermediate susceptibility to aztreonam. The organisms showed resistance to cephalosporins, carbapenems, penicillins, quinolones, monobactam and aminoglycoside. Metallo β-Lactamase encoding genes (blaIMP, blaVIM) were not detected in any of the isolates but the class 1 integron which is known to carry multiple antibiotic resistant genes were detected in 89.4% of the multi-drug resistant strains [50]. This is contrary to a report by Zhang and his Colleagues [51], who identified the blaVIM gene in P. aeruginosa and P. putida from chicken that resembled corresponding regions in clinical isolates of P. aeruginosa. These isolates were resistant to all β-lactam antibiotics tested, including meropenem, imipenem, aztreonam, and ceftazidime [33, 51].
\nAnother study in Nigeria reported that the P. aeruginosa isolates were highly resistant to β-lactams, tetracycline, tobramycin, nitrofurantoin and sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim, while ofloxacin, imipenem and ertapenem were highly effective against the bacterial pathogens [52].
\nIn Pakistan, a study which investigated the causative agents for necropsy in chicken, recorded a 28% prevalence for P. aeruginosa. These isolates were found to be 100% resistant towards ceftriaxone, meropenem, ciprofloxacin, erythromycin and colistin, while 60% sensitivity was observed against ampicillin sulbactam, ceftazidime, cefoperazone and rifampicin. Isolates exhibited variable multidrug resistance patterns to other antibiotics [53].
\nEscherichia coli is a Gram-negative bacterium that has been known for ages to easily and frequently exchange genetic information through horizontal gene transfer with other related bacteria. Hence, it may exhibit characteristics based on the source of isolation. E. coli is a commensal organism living in the intestines of both humans and animals. However, some strains have been reported to cause gastrointestinal illnesses [54]. Tetracycline which is commonly used in poultry has been reported to be one of the drugs bacteria are most resistant to. There is a reported tetracycline resistance in poultry even without the administration of this antibiotic [21].
\nA study carried out on fecal isolates of E. coli in the Netherlands showed that there is a high level of multidrug resistance occurring in broilers, turkeys while majority of those from laying hens were susceptible. It was observed that the isolates from birds had high rates of resistance to amoxycillin alone and others had resistance to amoxicillin as well as oxytetracycline, streptomycin, sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim. [55].
\nE. coli had a prevalence of 46.98% among the other bacteria isolated in Ghana. All isolates showed some degree of resistance to ceftriaxone (1.34%), cefotaxime (0.67%), gentamycin (2.01%), cotrimoxazole (1.34%), tetracycline (2.01%) and ampicillin (3.36%) [56]. Resistant genes have been found in E. coli isolates from Nigeria and these include bla-TEM (85%), sul2 (67%), sul3 (17%), aadA (65%), strA (70%), strB (61%), catA1 (25%), cmlA1 (13%), tetA (21%) and tetB (17%) which conveyed resistance to the following antibiotics; tetracycline (81%), sulfamethoxazole (67%), streptomycin (56%), trimethoprim (47%), ciprofloxacin (42%), ampicillin (36%), spectinomycin (28%), nalidixic acid (25%), chloramphenicol (22%), neomycin (14%) gentamicin (8%). In this study the isolates were susceptible to amoxicillin-clavulanate, ceftiofur, cefotaxime, colistin, florfenicol and apramycin. Class 1 and 2 integrons were found in five (14%) and six (17%) isolates, respectively, while one isolate contained both classes of integrons. There is that suggestion that poultry production environments represent important reservoirs of antibiotic resistance genes such as qnrS that may spread from livestock production farms to human populations via manure and water [57].
\nSalmonella spp. are Gram-negative, facultative anaerobic, non-spore forming, usually motile rods belonging to the Enterobacteriaceae family, which are found in the alimentary tract of animals [37, 58]. Fecal shedding allows Salmonella to be transmitted among birds in a flock. Salmonella spp. is widespread in poultry production. Prevalence varies considerably depending on country and type of production as well as the detection methods applied. It is known to be the etiological agent responsible for salmonellosis by Salmonella spp. in both humans and animals. Food-borne salmonellosis caused still occurs throughout the world [58]. The risk factors associated with Salmonella infections and contamination in broiler chickens include contaminated chicks, size of the farm and contaminated feed and these risk increase when feed trucks are parked near the entrance of the workers’ change room and when chicken are fed with meals [59, 60]. It also depends on age of the chicken, animal health, survival of organism in the gastric barrier, diet and genetic constitution of the chicken could also affect the colonization ability of Salmonella spp. in poultry [61].
\nPullorum disease in poultry is caused by the S. pullorum. Transmission of the disease in birds can be vertical (transovarian) but also occurs through direct or indirect contact with infected birds via respiratory route or fecal matter or contaminated feed, water, or litter. Antimicrobials used to treat pullorum disease are furazolidone, gentamycin sulfate and antimetabolites (sulfadimethoxine, sulfamethazine and sulfamerazine) [62].
\nSalmonella spp. have increasingly been isolated from poultry with prevalence of 2.7% in Brazil and the most common isolates were Salmonella enteritidis (48.8%), S. infantis (7.6%), S. typhimurium (7.2%), and S. heidelberg (6.4%). All the isolated strains were resistant to at least one class of antimicrobial and 53.2% showed multidrug resistance to three or more classes, with streptomycin (89.2%), sulfonamides (72.4%), florfenicol (59.2%), and ampicillin (44.8%) [63].
\nSalmonella spp. are one of the commonest microbial contaminants in the poultry industry. In Ghana, there is high prevalence rate of 44.0% in poultry with main isolates being S. kentucky (18.1%), S. nima (12.8%), S. muenster (10.6%), S. enteritidis (10.6%) and S. virchow (9.6%). Resistance of these isolates to the various antibiotics were nalidixic acid (89.5%), tetracycline (80.7%), ciprofloxacin (64.9%), sulfamethazole (42.1%), trimethoprim (29.8%) and ampicillin (26.3%).
\nStreptococcus is Gram-positive bacteria. Streptococcus gallolyticus is a common member of the gut microbiota in animals and humans; however, being a zoonotic agent, it has been reported to cause mastitis in cattle, septicemia in pigeons, and meningitis, septicemia, and endocarditis in humans [64]. A study carried out in Japan isolated Streptococcus gallolyticus from pigeons with septicaemia. Most of the isolates were susceptible to vancomycin, penicillin G and ampicillin, while some were resistant to tetracycline, doxycycline and lincomycin. All the isolates were resistant to tetracycline had tet(M) and/or tet(L) and/or tet(O) genes [65].
\nCampylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli are the most prevalent disease causing species of the genus Campylobacter. They are mostly responsible for foodborne gastroenteritis in humans [66, 67, 68]. Campylobacteriosis is often associated with handling of raw poultry or eating of undercooked poultry meat [69]. Cross-contamination of raw poultry to other ready-to-eat foods via the cook’s hands or kitchen utensils has been reported. Erythromycin is usually the drug of choice for the treatment of Campylobacter infections [68]. However, fluoroquinolones, gentamicin, and tetracycline are also clinically effective in treating Campylobacter infections when antimicrobial therapy is required [70].
\nResistance of C. jejuni and C. coli isolates to fluoroquinolones, tetracycline, and erythromycin has been reported. The increased resistance is partly due to the wide use of these antimicrobials in animal husbandary, especially in poultry [71, 72].
\nA study carried out by Elz’bieta and his colleagues, in their quest to compare the prevalence and genetic background of antimicrobial resistance in Polish strains of C. jejuni and C. coli isolated from chicken carcasses and children reported a slight difference in resistance between human and chicken strains. The isolated Campylobacter strains were found to be resistant to gentamycin, tetracycline, ampicillin, ciprofloxacin and erythromycin and tet(O) gene and mutations in the gyrA genes were found to be associated with the observed antibiotic resistance in the study [73].
\nAnother study carried out in Kenya isolated thermophilic Campylobacter species (C. jejuni and C. coli) from feces and clocal swabs of chicken. These isolates showed a high rate of resistance to nalidixic acid, tetracycline and ciprofloxacin of 77.4, 71.0 and 71.0%, respectively. Low resistance (25.8%) was detected for gentamicin and chloramphenicol and 61.3% of C. jejuni isolates exhibited multidrug resistance and 54.5% of the C. jejuni isolates possessed the tet(O) gene whereas all of C. coli had the tet(A) gene [74].
\nC. jejuni and C. coli are the predominant species of Campylobacter usually isolated from poultry farms. In Ghana, other species such as Campylobacter lari, Campylobacter hyo-intestinalis and C. jejuni sub sp. doylei have been isolated from poultry. These organisms have been found to be resistant to β-lactams, quinolones, aminoglycosides, erythromycin, tetracycline, chloramphenicol and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole and all isolated species were sensitive to imipenem [75, 76].
\nIt is a Gram-negative non-spore-forming rod, a psychrotrophic bacterium and able to survive and multiply at cold temperatures. Poultry meat is one of the most important sources of Yersinia spp. infections in humans. Yersinia enterocolitica is the predominant specie mostly isolated from poultry and poultry products [77]. In humans, Y. enterocolitica is an enteric pathogen which commonly causes acute enteritis associated with fever, bloody diarrhea and inflammation of lymph nodes. Contaminated food is one of the main sources of yersiniosis in humans [77].
\nY. enterocolitica is widely distributed in nature and animals; food and environment are routinely contaminated with this organism. Major reservoir of Y. enterocolitica is swine. However, Y. enterocolitica has been frequently isolated from poultry and ready-to-eat foods [78]. A study in Iran reported a prevalence rate of Y. enterocolitica of 30% of among chicken meat samples [79]. Yersinia isolates (16%) from chicken and beef meat samples were mostly resistant to cephalotin (98%) and ampicillin (52%) [80].
\nY. enterocolitica isolated from poultry raw meat and retailed meats in Poland were classified as biotype 1A and exhibited moderate ability of producing biofilms and ystB was the predominant virulence gene. In biofilms, a multi-system that include poor antibiotic penetration, nutrient limitation and slow growth, adaptive stress responses, and formation of persister cells are hypothesized to constitute the organisms’ resistance to antibiotics [81].
\nClostridium is a genus of Gram-positive obligate anaerobic bacteria which includes several significant human pathogens. Spore of Clostridium normally inhabits soil and intestinal tract of animals and humans [82]. Common infections caused by Clostridia include botulism caused by C. botulinum¸ pseudomembranous colitis caused by C. difficile, cellulitis and gas gangrene caused by C. perfringens, tetanus caused by C. tetani and fatal post-abortion infections caused by C. sordellii [83].
\nHigh-dose penicillin-G remains sensitive to Clostridia species and thus widely used to treat Clostridial infections. Clostridia species such as welchii and tetani respond to sulfonamides [82]. Tetracyclines, carbapenems, metronidazole, vancomycin and chloramphenicol are effective options for treatment of Clostridia infections [84].
\nC. perfringens is known to cause necrotic enteritis in poultry. Bacitracin or virginiamycin is an effective treatment option when administered in the feed or drinking water. C. colinum is responsible for ulcerative enteritis. Bacitracin and penicillins are the most effective drugs in the treatment and prevention of this infection [85, 86].
\nA study in Egypt, identified 125 isolates of C. perfringens from clinical cases of necrotic enteritis in broiler chickens from 35 chicken coops and the all isolates were resistant to gentamycin, streptomycin, oxolinic acid, lincomycin, erythromycin and spiramycin. Over 95% of isolates were resistant to sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim, doxycycline, perfloxacin, colistin and neomycin. Most of the isolates were susceptible to amoxicillin, ampicillin, fosfomycin, florfenicol and cephradine [85].
\nThirty strains of C. perfringens isolated from chickens with necrotic enteritis in Korea were found to susceptible to ampicillin, amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, cephalothin, cefepime, chloramphenicol, cefoxitin, ceftiofur, florfenicol and penicillin but resistant to gentamycin, neomycin, streptomycin, apramycin and colistin [87]. This trend of resistance was similar to that observed in 43 C. perfringens isolates from the ileum of 5-week old broiler chicken in Taiwan. Most of the C. perfringens isolates were susceptible to amoxicillin, bacitracin and enrofloxacin but resistant to erythromycin, lincomycin and chlortetracycline [88].
\nBacillus is a genus of Gram-positive, obligate aerobic or facultative anaerobic rod shaped bacteria of the phylum firmicutes. Bacillus spp. include both free-living non-parasitic and parasitic pathogenic species [89]. Medically significant species include B. anthracis which causes anthrax and B. cereus which causes food poisoning [90]. Other infections caused by Bacilli spp. include pneumonia, endocarditis, ocular and musculoskeletal infections. Antibiotics usually used for Bacillus infections include vancomycin, imipenem, ciprofloxacin, gentamycin, tetracycline, chloramphenicol, clindamycin and erythromycin. Most Bacillus spp. have been found to be resistant to broad spectrum cephalosporins and ticarcillin-clavulanate [91].
\nIn a study involving 18 strains of B. cereus isolated from raw and processed poultry meat from supermarkets in Iasi county, all the isolates were found to be resistant to penicillin, amoxicillin, amoxicillin-clavulanate, colistin, cefoperazone, sulfamethizole and metronidazole but sensitive to erythromycin, cotrimoxazole, tylosin, flumequine, kanamycin, gentamycin, enrofloxacin, oxolinic acid, apramycin, tetracycline and doxacilin. All B. cereus isolates were resistant to nearly half of tested antibiotics [92]. This pattern of resistance was also observed in 44 strains of B. cereus isolated from chicken and chicken products in the Jammu region of India. All isolates were resistant to penicillin G but sensitive to streptomycin. Over 60% of isolates were resistant to amoxicillin, ampicillin and carbenicillin [93].
\nMycobacteria are acid-fast, aerobic, nonmotile of bacteria of the genus Mycobacterium [94]. Mycobacteria are widespread organisms that live in water and food sources and can colonize their hosts without showing any adverse signs and symptoms. Pathogenic mycobacterial species including M. tuberculosis, M. bovis, M. africanum, M. macroti cause tuberculosis whiles M. leprae is responsible for leprosy. Mycobacteria spp. are naturally resistant to penicillin and mostly susceptible to clarithromycin and rifamycin [95].
\nA study in Bangladesh identified three Mycobacterium isolates from 80 poultry droppings and all isolates were found to be resistant to rifampicin but highly susceptible to azithromycin, ciprofloxacin, streptomycin and doxycycline. One isolate was identified as multi-drug resistant [96].
\nKlebsiella is a genus of non-motile, Gram-negative, oxidase-negative, rod-shaped bacteria with a prominent polysaccharide capsule and belong to the family Enterobacteriaceae [97]. Klebsiella species are found everywhere in nature including soil, plants, insect, humans and other animals [98]. Infections caused by Klebsiella spp. include septicaemia, meningitis, urinary tract infections, pneumonia, diarrhea [97]. Common pathogenic Klebsiella in humans and animals include K. pneumoniae, K. oxytoca and K. variicola [99]. Antibiotics commonly used in the treatment of Klebsiella infections include third-generation cephalosporins, carbapenems, aminoglycosides and quinolones [100].
\nA study in Langa, South Africa identified 102 sub-species of K. pneumonia (96 K. ozaenae and 6 K. rhinoscleromatis strains) from 17 free-range chicken samples. The isolates exhibited high level of resistance towards ampicillin (66.7%), nalidixic acid (61.8%), tetracycline (59.8%) and trimethoprim (50.0%) but highly susceptible towards gentamycin (3.9%) and ciprofloxacin (4.8%). Almost 40% of the isolates were found to be multi-drug resistant K. pneumonia strains [99]. Similar trend of resistance was observed among 77 K. pneumoniae isolates from poultry birds in Ekiti-state, Nigeria. The isolates showed high level of resistance towards tetracycline (100%), amoxicillin (94.8%), cotrimoxazole (94.8%) and augmentin (85.7%) [98].
\nEnterococcus is a large genus of Gram-positive diplococci, lactic acid-producing bacteria of the phylum Firmicutes [101]. Commonly found species include Enterococcus faecalis and Enterococcus faecium [102]. Notable infections caused by Enterococci include urinary tract infections, bacteremia, meningitis, endocarditis [103]. Antibiotics active against Enterococci include ampicillin, penicillin, nitrofurantoin and vancomycin [104]. Enterococci often possess intrinsic resistance towards β-lactam antibiotics and aminoglycosides. However, resistance of Enterococci to vancomycin has been reported in several studies [105, 106, 107].
\nA study in Czech Republic identified 228 enterococcal isolates from the intestinal tract of poultry. These isolates were found to be highly resistant to tetracycline (80%), erythromycin (59%) and ofloxacin (51%) but exhibited low resistance to ampicillin (3%) and ampicillin/sulbactam (3%) [105]. A similar trend of resistance was reported among 163 Enterococcal isolates from poultry litter in the Abbotsford area of British Columbia, Canada. The identified enterococcal isolates were found to be highly resistant to lincomycin (80.3%), tetracycline (65.3%), penicillin (61.1%) but showed low resistance towards to nitrofurantoin (3.8%), daptomycin (3.5%) and gentamycin (0.8%) [108]. There is a high possibility of multi-drug resistant enterococci in animal meat and fecal matter being transferred to humans [106].
\nProteus is a genus of Gram-negative Proteobacteria which is widely distributed as saprophytes [109]. They are mainly found in decomposing animal matter, sewage, manure, mammalian intestine, human and animal fecal matter. They are mainly opportunistic pathogens responsible for nosocomial urinary and septic infections [110]. Three species, namely, P. vulgaris, P. mirabilis and P. penneri are the only opportunistic species responsible for human infections. Most strains of P. mirabilis are sensitive to ampicillin and cephalosporins whereas P. vulgaris strains are not sensitive to these antibiotics [109].
\nA study in Iran identified 54 P. mirabilis isolates from chicken intestines and 54 P. mirabilis isolates were screened for antimicrobial susceptibility to 13 antimicrobial agents. None of the P. mirabilis isolates in this study were found to be resistant to gentamycin. Over 90% of isolates were resistant to nalidixic acid, doxycycline and tetracycline. Less than a quarter of isolates were resistant to norfloxacin, ampicillin, amikacin and ceftriaxone. Nearly 96% of the isolates were resistant to at least two or more antibiotics. One isolate exhibited resistance to 10 antibiotics whereas three and five isolates were resistant to nine and seven antibiotics, respectively. The results showed that chicken could be a source of antibiotic resistant and multi-drug resistant P. mirabilis strains and these resistant strains can cause worldwide problem both for veterinary sector and public health [111].
\nA similar trend of antibiotic resistance was observed in 36 P. mirabilis isolates from chicken droppings from commercial poultry farms in Bangladesh. Nearly 95% of the isolates were resistant to tetracycline followed by nalidixic acid (89%) and almost 20% of the isolates were found to be resistant to ciprofloxacin and 84% of the isolates exhibited multidrug resistance [112].
\nInfections from other bacterial species could also result in the use of antibiotics. These include Mycoplasmosis (caused by Mycoplasma gallisepticum, Mycoplasma meleagridis and Mycoplasma synoviae) [86], Pasteurella multocida and Haemophilus gallinarum infections [62, 113]. These infections usually require the use broad spectrum antibiotics including tylosin, aureomycin, terramycin, gallimycin, penicillin, erythromycin, sulfadimethoxine, sulfathiazole and other sulfa drugs administered either in the feed, drinking water or by injections [62].
\nSeveral bacterial species are the major causes of infections in poultry and other animal husbandry. Most of these infections are linked to foodborne outbreaks, live animal contact, poor hygiene, and environmental exposure. With the emergence of antimicrobial resistance, the pathogenicity and virulence of these organisms have increased and treatment options are diminishing and also more expensive. Multidrug resistant bacteria have been found in poultry, poultry products, carcasses, litter and fecal matter of birds and these pose a risk to both handlers, consumers and a threat to global and public health. The above information also calls for increased surveillance measures and monitoring of antibiotic usage in both animal husbandry and humans throughout the world.
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