Applications of Artificial Intelligence Techniques in Optimizing Drilling

2.1 Optimization model

The decision-making process consists of three steps: problem formulation, problem modeling, and problem optimization. A variety of optimization models are actually applied to formulate and solve decision-making problems (Figure 1). The most successful models used in this regard include mathematical programming and constraint programming models.

2.2 Optimization method

The optimization methods are presented in Figure 2. Since the problem is complicated, exact or approximate methods are used to solve it. The exact methods provide optimal solutions and guarantee optimality. Approximate methods lead to favorable and near-optimal solutions, but they do not guarantee optimality.

3.1 Theoretical foundations of optimization

Any problem in the real world has the potential to be formulated as an optimization problem. Generally, all optimization problems with explicit objectives can be expressed as nonlinearly constrained optimization problem as presented in Eq. (1).

where fx, ϕjx, and ψkxare the scalar functions of the column vector x. The xielements of the vector x are the design variables, or the decision variables, that could be either continuous, discrete, or mixed of the two. The vector x is often referred to as the decision vector, which varies in an n-dimensional space Rn. The function f (x) is called the objective function or the energy function. The objective function is called the cost function in minimization problems and fitness function in maximization problems. Moreover, ϕjxare constraints in terms of M equalities and ψkxare constraints in terms of N inequalities. Thus, in general, we will have a total of M + N constraints. The space spanned by the decision variables is known as the search space, and the space spanned by the objective function value is called the solution space. The optimization problem maps the search space on the solution space.

3.1.5 Convexity

Linear programming problems are usually classified according to the convexity of their defining functions. Geometrically speaking, an object is called convex when for any two points within the object, every point on the straight line connecting them also lies within the object (Figure 3). Mathematically, a set S∈Rnwithin the space of a real vector is called a convex set when Eq. (10) holds true.

tx+1−ty∈S,∀xy∈S,t∈01E10

A function fxdefined on the convex set Ω is called convex if and only if:

fαx+βy≤fαx+fβy,∀xy∈Ωα≥0,β≥0,α+β=1E11

An interesting feature of the convex function f is that it ensures that the gradient at a point dfdxx∗=oapproaches zero. In this case, x∗is an absolute minimum point for f.

3.1.6 Optimality criteria

Mathematical programming includes several concepts. Here, we will first introduce three related concepts: feasible solution, strong local maximum, and weak local maximum.

Point X that satisfies all the constraints of the problem is called a feasible solution. The set of all feasible points will form the feasible region.

Point x is a strong local maximum if f (x) is defined in δneighborhood Nδx∗and satisfies fx∗>fxfor each ∀u∈Nδx∗where ∀u∈Nδx∗and u≠x∗.The inclusion of equality in the condition fx∗≥fxwill define x as a weak local maximum. A schematic view of strong and weak local maxima and minima is presented in Figure 4.

3.2 Theoretical foundations of metaheuristic optimization

Two opposite criteria should be taken into account in development of a metaheuristic algorithm: (1) exploration of the search space and (2) exploitation of the best solution (Figure 5).

Promising areas are specified by good solutions obtained. In intensification, the promising regions are explored accurately to find better solutions. In diversification, attempts are made to make sure that all regions of the search space are explored.

In the exploration approach, random algorithms are the best algorithms for searching. Random algorithms generate a random solution in each iteration and completely exploit the search space in this way.

4.1 Literature on metaheuristic optimization

The optimization literature changed dramatically with the advent of metaheuristic algorithms in the 1960s. Alan Turing might be the first to use heuristic algorithms. During the Second World War, Alan Turing and Gordon Welchman managed to design the Bambe machine and finally crack the German Enigma machine in 1940. In 1948, he managed to get a patent for his ideas in the field of intelligent machinery, machine learning, neural network, and evolutionary algorithms.

4.1.1 Genetic algorithm

The genetic algorithm that was developed by John Holland et al. during 1960–1970 is a biological evolutionary model inspired by Charles Darwin’s natural selection and survival of the fittest. Holland was the first to use crossover, recombination, mutation, and selection in comparative studies and artificial systems [2]. Figures 6 and 7 indicate the application of crossover and mutation operators.

4.1.2 Simulated annealing algorithm

Patrick et al. developed a simulated annealing algorithm to solve optimization problems. When steel is cooled, it develops into a crystallized structure with minimum energy and larger crystalline sizes, and the defects of steel structure are decreased (Figure 8) [3].

The search technique used in this algorithm is a movement-based search, which starts from an initial guess at high temperatures and the system cools down with a gradual decrease in temperature. A new movement or solution is accepted if it is better. Otherwise, it will be accepted as a probable solution so that the system can be freed from the local optima trap [3].

4.1.4 Ant colony optimization

When ants find a food source, they use pheromones to mark the food source and the trails to and from it. As more ants cross the same path, that path turns into a preferred path (Figure 9). Thus, several preferred paths will emerge during the process. Using this behavioral property of the ants, scientists have managed to develop a number of robust ant colony optimization methods. Dorigo was known as a pioneer in this field in 1992 [5].

4.1.5 Particle swarm optimization

Sometime later, the particle swarm optimization was developed by [6]. This method is inspired by the collective behavior exhibited by birds, fish, and even humans, which is referred to as swarm intelligence. Particles swarm around the search space based on initial random guess. This swarm communicates the current best and the global best and is updated based on the quality of the solutions. The movement of particles includes two main components: a stochastic component and a deterministic component. A particle is attracted toward the current global best while it has a tendency to move randomly. When a particle finds a location that is better than the previous ones, it updates it as the new best location. Figure 10 shows the schematic view of the motion of particles [7].

4.2 Literature on drilling operations

Drilling operations lead to significant costs during the development of oil and gas fields. Therefore, drilling optimization can decrease the costs of a project and hence increase the profit earned from the oil and gas production. In most of the studies, rate of penetration (ROP) has been considered as the objective function of the optimization process. ROP depends on many factors including well depth, formation characteristics, mud properties, rotational speed of the drill string, etc. Several studies have been conducted to gain a profound insight into the effective parameters on ROP. Maurer [18] introduced an equation for ROP, in which it was accounted for rock cratering mechanisms of roller-cone bits. Galle and Woods [19] proposed a mathematical model for estimating ROP, where formation type, weight on bit, rotational speed of bit, and bit tooth wear were taken as input parameters. Mechem and Fullerton [20] proposed a model with input variables of formation drilling ability, well depth, weight on bit, bit rotational speed, mud pressure, and drilling hydraulics. Bourgoyne and Young [21] used multiple regression analysis to develop an analytical model and also investigated the effects of depth, strength, and compaction of the formation, bit diameter, weight on bit, rotational speed of bit, bit wear, and hydraulic interactions associated with drilling. Bourgoyne and Young [21] introduced a technic for selection of optimum values for weight on bit, rotational speed, bit hydraulics, and calculation of formation pressure through multiple regression analysis of drilling data. Tanseu [22] developed a new method of ROP and bit life optimization based on the interaction of raw data, regression, and an optimization method, using the parameters of bit rotational speed, weight on bit, and hydraulic horsepower. Al-Betairi et al. [23] used multiple regression analysis for optimization of ROP as a function of controllable and uncontrollable variables. They also studied the correlation coefficients and multicollinearity sensitivity of the drilling parameters. Maidla and Ohara [24] introduced a computer software for optimum selection of roller-cone bit type, bit rotational speed, weight on bit, and bit wearing for minimizing drilling costs. Hemphill and Clark [25] studied the effect of mud chemistry on ROP through tests conducted with different types of PDC bits and drilling muds. Fear [26] conducted a series of studies using geological and mud logging data and bit properties in order to develop a correlation for estimating ROP. Ritto et al. [27] introduced a new approach for optimization of ROP as a function of rotational speed at the top and the initial reaction force at the bit, vibration, stress, and fatigue limit of the dynamical system. Alum and Egbon [28] conducted a series of studies, which led to the conclusion that pressure loss in the annulus is the only parameter that affects ROP significantly, and finally, they proposed an analytical model for estimation of ROP based on the model introduced by Bourgoyne and Young. Ping et al. [29] utilized shuffled frog leaping algorithm to optimize ROP as a function of bit rotational velocity, weight on bit, and flow rate. Hankins et al. [30] optimized drilling process of already drilled wells with variables of weight on bit, rotational velocity, bit properties, and hydraulics to minimize drilling costs. Shishavan et al. [31] studied a preliminary managed pressure case to minimize the associated risk and decrease the drilling costs. Wang and Salehi [32] used artificial intelligence for prediction of optimum mud hydraulics during drilling operations and performed sensitivity analysis using forward regression. A variety of artificial intelligence works have recently been conducted in civil and oil engineering [33, 34, 35, 36].

In the following sections, a new approach was used for prediction and optimization of ROP, based on artificial neural network (ANN). According to the authors’ knowledge, ANN application on ROP optimization has not been widely used by previous studies. The variables used in this study were well depth (D), weight on bit (WOB), bit rotational velocity (N), the ratio of yield point to plastic viscosity (Y_p/PV), and the ratio of 10 min gel strength to 10 s gel strength (10MGS/10SGS). Using ANN technic, several models were developed for prediction of ROP, and the best one was selected according to their performances. Then, an artificial bee colony (ABC) algorithm was used for optimization of ROP based on the selected ANN predictive model, and the drilling parameters were evaluated to determine their effects on ROP.

5.1 Hydrocarbon reservoir

Hydrocarbon is the general term used for any substance, which is composed of hydrogen and carbon. From clothing to energy, there are different areas in which hydrocarbons serve as the main material. Hydrocarbons are usually extracted from reservoirs located deep in the formation of the earth’s crust. Underground hydrocarbon reservoirs, which are also known as oil and gas reservoirs, have been exploited since more than one and half a century ago. And there have been several developments in technologies associated with oil and gas industry [37, 38].

The term hydrocarbon reservoir is used for a large volume of rock containing hydrocarbon either in oil or gas form, which is usually found in deep formation in the earth. This type of reservoir is far different from what most of people imagine when they think about. A hydrocarbon reservoir is not a tank or something like that. In fact, it is a rock having numerous pores, which make it capable of storing fluid. There are two types of hydrocarbon reservoirs: conventional and unconventional [39].

A conventional reservoir consists of porous and permeable rock, which is bounded by an impermeable rock, usually called cap rock. Due to the high pressure in the deep layers, the fluid in the reservoir rock tends to move out of the rock toward lower depths, which usually have lower pressures. The role of cap rock is to seal the rock in order to prevent the hydrocarbon from migrating to low-pressure depths.

Conventional reservoirs were the only type of exploited hydrocarbon reservoirs until the recent years. As the conventional reserves became rare and depleted, oil and gas industries started to study the feasibility of production from unconventional reservoirs. Thanks to the recent developments in the related technologies, production of hydrocarbon from unconventional reservoirs has been started in different locations of the earth. The major difference between conventional and unconventional reservoirs is that in unconventional reservoirs, there is no traditional placement of reservoir and cap rock. The reservoir rock has high ?porosity, but because of low permeability, the fluid cannot move out of it and is entrapped into the rock. Since the example of the present work deals with a conventional reservoir, we avoid discussing more about unconventional reservoirs.

In order to produce oil and gas from a reservoir, at the first step, it is required to find a location in which hydrocarbon is accumulated in such a large volume that it can be exploited in an economic way. This exploration step is typically done using seismic technics. In the next step, the location with high probability of having hydrocarbon storage is drilled. The drilled well is called exploration well, and if it reaches a relatively large amount of hydrocarbon, more wells are drilled after preparing a field development plan. The production of the reservoir continues until the production rate falls below an economic criterion, which is usually defined as net present value.

Due to the high pressure of the reservoir rock, the hydrocarbon tends to move toward a lower pressurized region. In order to exploit the entrapped hydrocarbon and providing a flow path, one or more wells are needed. The well is drilled deep into the rocks, and after passing the cap rock, it reaches the reservoir rock. Then, due to the pressure difference between the rock and surface, the hydrocarbons start to move from the reservoir to the surface through the drilled well. Sometimes the pressure difference is not so large that the fluid can reach the surface. In these cases, some technics, called artificial lift methods, are used to increase the energy for delivering the fluid to higher altitude. After extraction of hydrocarbon, it is delivered to treatment facilities and the next steps are designed according to the producer company’s plan.

5.2 Drilling operations

As mentioned above, exploitation of oil and gas reservoirs typically consists of the three types of operation: exploration, drilling, and production. The drilling phase involves costly operations, which consume a high portion of the capital expenditure of the field development. Therefore, optimizing the operations associated with drilling can reduce the investments significantly, increasing the net present value of the project [40].

In the early years of oil and gas industry, the wells were drilled using percussion table tools. These technics became inefficient as demand for drilling deep and hence more pressurized formations increased. In the early twentieth century, rotary drilling technic was introduced to oil and gas industries and it paved the way for drilling faster and deeper wells.

Rotary drilling simply defines the process in which a sharp bit penetrates into the rock due to its weight and rotational movement [41]. Rotary drilling system comprises prime movers, hoisting equipment, rotary equipment, and circulating equipment, all of which mounted on a rig. The prime mover, usually a diesel engine, provides the power required for the whole rig. Hoisting system is responsible for raising and lowering the drill string in and out of the hole. Rotary equipment supports the rotation of the drill bit by transforming electrical power to rotational movement. In order to transport the cuttings to the surface and also to cool the bit, the circulation equipment provides mud flow that is directed into the drill string down to the bit and returns to surface transporting the debris accumulated in the bottom of the hole.

One of the important factors in drilling process is rate of penetration, which is usually measured in terms of meter per minute or foot per minute. This parameter shows how fast the drilling process has been done, and thus, how much cost has been reduced. Through the survey of previous studies, a series of parameters were identified as having significant effect on rate of penetration during drilling operations. These parameters include rotation speed of the bit, weight on the bit, shut-in pipe pressure, mud circulation rate, yield point and plastic viscosity of the mud, and mud gel strength. In the following, each parameter is briefly described.

Bit rotation speed:In a drilling process, the bit is rotated using rotary table or top drive system. The rotation of the bit is usually measured in rotation per minute (rpm).

Weight on the bit:In order to provide the required downward force for penetrating into the rock, several drill collars are installed before the bit. The parameter is generally called weight on bit (WOB) and measured in thousand of pounds (Klb).

Standpipe pressure:Standpipe pressure (SPP) refers to the total pressure loss due to fluid friction. In detail, SPP is the summation of pressure losses in drill string, annulus, bottom hole assembly, and across the bit. The unit for measuring the SPP is pounds per square inch (psi).

Mud flow rate:In order to lubricate and cool down the bit under drilling process, a mixture of additives mixed in water or oil, which, respectively, are called water-based and oil-based drilling mud, is pumped through the drill pipe down to the bit. Drilling mud also cleans up the bottomhole by transporting the cuttings up to the surface. It also helps penetration rate as it passes bit nozzles and penetrates the rock as a water jet system. Mud flow rate is often expressed in gallons per minute (gpm).

Mud yield point:Yield point, which is usually expressed in lbf/100 ft², is an indicator for determining the resistance of a fluid to movement. It is a parameter of Bingham plastic model, which is equal to shear stress at zero shear rate. As attractive force among the colloidal particle increases, the mud needs more force to move; hence the yield point is considered higher.

Mud plastic viscosity:Plastic viscosity of the mud is determined by the slope of the shear stress vs. shear rate plot. Higher plastic viscosity indicates more viscous fluid and vice versa. The unit for measurement of plastic viscosity is centipoises.

Mud gel strength:Gel strength is the term that defines the shear stress measured at low shear rate after the drilling mud has been static for a certain period of time, which is 10 s and 10 min in API standard. It indicates ability of the drilling mud to suspend drill solid and weighting material when circulation is ceased. It is measured in lbf/100 ft² in petroleum engineering applications.

5.3 Case study

In the present study, a data set obtained from a drilling process in a gas field located in the south of Iran was used. The depth of the well was 4235, which was drilled with one run of roller-cone bit and three runs of PDC bit. The IADC code of the roller-cone bit was 435 M, and PDC bits had codes of M332, M433, and M322. Roller-cone bit was used for about 20% and PDC bits for 80% of the drilled depth. In detail, roller-cone bit was used for the depth interval of 1016–1647 m, PDC (M332) was used for depth interval of 1647–2330 m, PDC (M433) was used for depth interval of 2330–3665 m, and finally, the depth between 3665 and 4235 m was drilled by PDC (M322).

The data set consists of 3180 samples, which were taken every 1 meter of penetration from 1016 to 4235 m. The recorded variables included well depth (D), rotation speed of bit (N), weight on bit (WOB), shut-in pipe pressure (SPP), fluid rate (Q), mud weight (MW), the ratio of yield point to plastic viscosity (Yp/PV), and the ratio of 10 min gel strength to 10 s gel strength (10MGS/10SGS). The statistical summary of the data points is gathered in Table 1.

5.4 General description of artificial bee Colony

This algorithm was developed by Karaboga [42] and mimics the behavior of bees when they search for nectar of flowers. In a hive of bees, there are three different types of bees: scouts, employed bees, and onlookers. The scout bees start a random search of the surrounding environment in order to find flowers that secrete nectar. After finding the flowers, they keep the location in their memory. Then, they return to the hive and share their information about their findings through a process called waggle dance. Next, the other group, called employed bees, starts finding the flowers based on the information obtained from the scouts in order to exploit the nectar of the flowers. The number of employed bees is equal to number of food sources. The third group of bees are called onlookers, which remain in the hive waiting for the return of the employed bees in order to exchange information and select the best source based on the dances (fitness of the candidates). In addition, the employed bees of an abandoned food site serves as a scout bee.

Considering an objective function, fx, the probability of a food source to be chosen by an onlooker can be expressed as [42]:

where Sindicates the number of food sources and Fxrepresents the amount of nectar at location x. The intake efficiency is defined as F/τ, in which τrepresents the time consumed at the food source. If in a predefined number of iterations, a food source is tried with no improvement, then the employed bees dedicated to this location become scout and hence start searching the new food sources in a random manner.

ABC algorithm has been used in different engineering problems including well placement optimization of petroleum reservoirs [43], optimization of water discharge in dams [44], data classification [45], and machine scheduling [46]. More description on the ABC algorithm can be found in other references [47, 48, 49, 50]. A typical flowchart of ABC algorithm is shown in Figure 12.

6.1 Prediction

In the present research, an ANN model was developed to predict the ROP as a function of effective parameters. The neural network is widely used in various engineering fields [51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60]. In order to train the network, three training functions were used including Levenberg-Markvart (LM), scaled conjugate gradient (SCG), and one-step secant (OSS). The number of hidden layers in the network was one since according to Hornik et al. [61], one hidden layer is capable of solving any type of nonlinear function. The number of neurons in the hidden layer was another parameter to be set. Several equations have been proposed by different authors to determine the optimum number of neurons in a hidden layer, which are represented in Table 2. N_i and N_o indicate the number of input and output variables, respectively.

Using the values obtained by equations of Table 2, several ANN models were developed with neurons of 2–16. Then, the models were compared in terms of R² and RMSE, and the best model was selected [69, 70, 56, 71]. The comparison was done through the method proposed by Zorlu et al. [72]. In this method, the R² and RMSE of each enveloped model are calculated. Next, the networks are assigned an integer number according to their R² and RMSE value, in the way that the better result acquires higher number. For example, if the number of models is equal to 8, the model having the best (highest) R² value acquires 8, and the model having the worst model acquires the value of 1. This procedure also is repeated based on RMSE comparison. Then, the two numbers assigned to each model are summed up, and a total score is obtained for each model. Finally, the model acquiring the highest total value is determined as the best model for the problem of study.

In the present article, three types of learning functions were used for training the network, results of which are presented in Tables 3–5. According to the tables, LM, SCG, and OSS functions acquired the best results, respectively. In order to design an accurate model, the best model of each function was compared. The results of comparison are shown in Figures 13 and 14. As can be seen, the best model of LM function yielded better performance. Thus, this function was selected for designing an ANN for prediction and optimization of ROP.

6.2 Optimization

In the previous section, an ANN was developed for prediction of ROP using the input data. As mentioned, selecting the most accurate predictive model can significantly affect the performance of optimization. In this section, the performance of the optimization algorithm is evaluated. Then, the ANN model obtained in the previous section is incorporated in the optimization algorithm to optimize the effective parameters for maximizing the penetration rate.

6.3 Evaluation of optimization algorithm

In this section, the best ANN model obtained in the previous section was selected for optimization of ROP using ABC algorithm. In order to evaluate the performance of ABC, two functions were used for minimization by ABC:

The range of variations of x1 and x2 are (−2, 2). Also, the optimal value of this function at the point (1−, 0) is 3.

This function is plotted in Figure 15. The ABC algorithm was used for finding minimum point of the above mentioned function, and the values of −0.33559 and −0.52311 were obtained for Eq. (15). The performance of ABC in finding the minimum point is illustrated in Figure 16.

6.4 Optimization of ROP in petroleum wells

In this section, the ANN predictive model was used for optimization of parameters effective on ROP. Since the well depth increases during drilling, it was not considered as a decision variable. Hence, the parameters of ROP were optimized in some specific depths. It makes sense in the way that the parameters cannot be optimized in each meter of penetration.

The ABC algorithm was used for optimization of ROP effective parameters. After a series of sensitivity analysis, it was concluded that the efficient number of population and iterations are 40 and 500, respectively. Three depths on which optimization applied were 2000, 2500, and 3000. The results of optimization in the selected depths are provided in Tables 6–8.

As can be seen, in each selected depth, value of ROP was increased by about 20–30%. Therefore, by combining artificial intelligence and optimization, suitable patterns for ROP in an oil well in order to increase penetration and reduce costs can be created.

6.5 Conclusion and summary

In this chapter, firstly, the basics of optimization are explained to solve problems. Then, an application of neural network combined with ABC algorithm was used for prediction of rate of penetration in a gas well. The data were collected from a gas field located in south of Iran. Seven input parameters were selected as input data to develop a predictive ANN model. For this purpose, three learning functions were compared, and LM function was selected as the best function for designing the predictive model. Next, an ABC algorithm was employed to optimize the effective parameters of ROP for maximizing the penetration rate. Three scenarios were selected for considering the well depth in optimization process. Then, the best models for the depths of 2000, 2500, and 3000 m were obtained, and the results showed 20–30% of improvement in penetration rate.

According to the results of the test, it was concluded that the proposed model is a powerful tool for prediction and optimization of rate of penetration during drilling process. Since the drilling process involves numerous effective parameters, it is almost infeasible to explicitly take into account each parameter. Therefore, use of ANN seems very useful in this complex problem and it helps to predict and optimize the penetration rate in a short period of time and without heavy computational costs.