Nonmotor signs and symptoms of Parkinson’s disease [23, 24, 25].
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6147",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Urinary Tract Infection - The Result of the Strength of the Pathogen, or the Weakness of the Host",title:"Urinary Tract Infection",subtitle:"The Result of the Strength of the Pathogen, or the Weakness of the Host",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Urinary tract infection (UTI) is a problem so common and so significant in routine clinical practice that accurate diagnostics are especially important. In particular, complicated UTI is associated with an increased rate of therapy failures, as a result of possible biofilm formation on foreign elements and antibiotic resistance, as well as the increased possibility of an infection recurrence. These are the arguments for the constant search for novel diagnostic tools and techniques. These and many other vital topics regarding UTI complications, management, and treatment, in addition to antibiotic resistance and bacterial virulence traits allowing us to mitigate or avoid antibiotic action, are presented in this book.",isbn:"978-1-78923-375-9",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-374-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-304-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68271",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"urinary-tract-infection-the-result-of-the-strength-of-the-pathogen-or-the-weakness-of-the-host",numberOfPages:126,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"16821e1bfd105986c31e991510e94e70",bookSignature:"Tomas Jarzembowski, Agnieszka Daca and Maria Alicja Dębska-Ślizień",publishedDate:"June 27th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6147.jpg",numberOfDownloads:3804,numberOfWosCitations:8,numberOfCrossrefCitations:4,numberOfDimensionsCitations:12,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:24,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 7th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 28th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 11th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 11th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 11th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"205604",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomas",middleName:null,surname:"Jarzembowski",slug:"tomas-jarzembowski",fullName:"Tomas Jarzembowski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/205604/images/7511_n.jpg",biography:"Tomasz Jarzembowski was born in 1968 in Gdansk, Poland. He obtained his PhD degree in 2000 from the Medical University of Gdańsk (UG). After specialization in clinical microbiology in 2003, he started studying biofilm formation and antibiotic resistance at the single-cell level. In 2015, he obtained his DSc degree. His later study in cooperation with experts in nephrology and immunology results in the designation of the new diagnostic method of UTI, patented in 2017.\nHe is currently working at the Department of Microbiology, Medical University of Gdańsk (GUMed), Poland. Since many years, he is a member of steering committee of Gdańsk branch of Polish Society of Microbiologists, a member of ESCMID, a member of editorial board of international journals, and a reviewer.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"206216",title:"Dr.",name:"Agnieszka",middleName:null,surname:"Daca",slug:"agnieszka-daca",fullName:"Agnieszka Daca",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/206216/images/7512_n.jpg",biography:"Agnieszka Daca was born in 1982 in Świecie, Poland. She prepared and defended her PhD degree thesis in 2011 from the Medical University of Gdańsk and discussed the immunological changes observed in the blood of patients with SLE. After her PhD degree defense, the cooperation of Tomasz Jarzembowski and the experiments characterizing bacteria virulence traits and their interaction with immune system cells have started, resulting in the designation of diagnostic method assessing virulence potential of bacteria isolated from the urine of immunocompromised patients. These experiments have also turned her attention to innate immune system changes in patients with lupus nephritis.\nCurrently, she is working as an assistant professor at the Department of Pathology and Experimental Rheumatology, Medical University of Gdańsk. She is also a member of ESCMID.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:{id:"207724",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Alicja",middleName:null,surname:"Dębska-Ślizień",slug:"maria-alicja-debska-slizien",fullName:"Maria Alicja Dębska-Ślizień",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/207724/images/7513_n.jpg",biography:"Professor Maria Alicja Dębska-Ślizień works in the field of nephrology and transplantology since 1985. She is the head and the chair of the Department of Nephrology, Transplantology, and Internal Medicine, GUMed, since 2015. She is a specialist in the field of internal diseases, nephrology, and clinical transplantation.\n\tHer fundamental topics of clinical and scientific interest are optimization of the treatment of patients with renal failure by means of kidney transplantation (preemptive transplantation, transplantation from living donors). She has an active participation in the European Rare Kidney Disease Reference Network (i.e., congenital glomerulopathy, TSC, ADPKD). Her other activities include optimization of hemodialysis treatment, nephro-oncology, and coordination with the Polish Renal Replacement Therapy Registry.\n\tShe is a member of the Polish Society of Nephrology, the Polish Transplantation Society (secretary-general), and the European Renal Association-European Dialysis and Transplant Association (ERA-EDTA). Currently, she is also a member of the main board of the Polish Society of Nephrology and the Polish Transplantation Society. She is an author and coauthor of about 500 publications in domestic and foreign magazines. She is an editor and coeditor of the monograph and several guides for the sick and dozens of chapters in textbooks. She is a lecturer in Polish and international congresses.\nShe has been awarded numerous prizes for both her native university and the Polish Transplantation Society for her scientific activity.\n\nHer closest family is her husband and two children (daughter and son). Her nonprofessional interests are mountain climbing, skiing, and reading books.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1162",title:"Endourology",slug:"endourology"}],chapters:[{id:"59714",title:"Management of Complicated Urinary Tract Infection",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74556",slug:"management-of-complicated-urinary-tract-infection",totalDownloads:648,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Ran Pang, Jianhua Deng and Xinyao Zhou",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59714",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59714",authors:[{id:"186524",title:"Prof.",name:"Ran",surname:"Pang",slug:"ran-pang",fullName:"Ran Pang"}],corrections:null},{id:"57462",title:"Management of Urinary Tract Infections: Problems and Possible Solutions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71588",slug:"management-of-urinary-tract-infections-problems-and-possible-solutions",totalDownloads:527,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Lorenza Murgia, Ottavia Stalio, Alyexandra Arienzo, Valeria\nFerrante, Valentina Cellitti, Salvatore Di Somma, Paolo Visca and\nGiovanni Antonini",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57462",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57462",authors:[{id:"65166",title:"Prof.",name:"Giovanni",surname:"Antonini",slug:"giovanni-antonini",fullName:"Giovanni Antonini"},{id:"187348",title:"Prof.",name:"Salvatore",surname:"Di Somma",slug:"salvatore-di-somma",fullName:"Salvatore Di Somma"},{id:"222196",title:"MSc.",name:"Lorenza",surname:"Murgia",slug:"lorenza-murgia",fullName:"Lorenza Murgia"},{id:"222197",title:"Dr.",name:"Ottavia",surname:"Stalio",slug:"ottavia-stalio",fullName:"Ottavia Stalio"},{id:"222198",title:"Dr.",name:"Alyexandra",surname:"Arienzo",slug:"alyexandra-arienzo",fullName:"Alyexandra Arienzo"},{id:"222199",title:"MSc.",name:"Valeria",surname:"Ferrante",slug:"valeria-ferrante",fullName:"Valeria Ferrante"},{id:"222200",title:"MSc.",name:"Valentina",surname:"Cellitti",slug:"valentina-cellitti",fullName:"Valentina Cellitti"},{id:"222203",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",surname:"Visca",slug:"paolo-visca",fullName:"Paolo Visca"}],corrections:null},{id:"58321",title:"Urinary Tract Infections in Renal Transplant Recipients",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72430",slug:"urinary-tract-infections-in-renal-transplant-recipients",totalDownloads:710,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Justyna Gołębiewska and Alicja Dębska-Ślizień",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58321",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58321",authors:[{id:"207724",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Alicja",surname:"Dębska-Ślizień",slug:"maria-alicja-debska-slizien",fullName:"Maria Alicja Dębska-Ślizień"},{id:"212302",title:"Dr.",name:"Justyna",surname:"Gołębiewska",slug:"justyna-golebiewska",fullName:"Justyna Gołębiewska"}],corrections:null},{id:"61815",title:"Urinary Tract Infection in Renal Allograft Recipents",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77171",slug:"urinary-tract-infection-in-renal-allograft-recipents",totalDownloads:435,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Lovelesh Kumar Nigam, Aruna V. Vanikar, Rashmi D. Patel, Kamal V.\nKanodia and Kamlesh S. Suthar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61815",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61815",authors:[{id:"228499",title:"Dr.",name:"Lovelesh",surname:"Nigam",slug:"lovelesh-nigam",fullName:"Lovelesh Nigam"},{id:"239124",title:"Dr.",name:"Aruna V",surname:"Vanikar",slug:"aruna-v-vanikar",fullName:"Aruna V Vanikar"},{id:"239127",title:"Dr.",name:"Rashmi",surname:"D",slug:"rashmi-d",fullName:"Rashmi D"},{id:"239128",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal V",surname:"Kanodia",slug:"kamal-v-kanodia",fullName:"Kamal V Kanodia"},{id:"239129",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamlesh S",surname:"Suthar",slug:"kamlesh-s-suthar",fullName:"Kamlesh S Suthar"}],corrections:null},{id:"57656",title:"Uropathogenic Escherichia coli and Fimbrial Adhesins Virulome",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71374",slug:"uropathogenic-escherichia-coli-and-fimbrial-adhesins-virulome",totalDownloads:829,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:10,signatures:"Payam Behzadi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57656",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57656",authors:[{id:"45803",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Payam",surname:"Behzadi",slug:"payam-behzadi",fullName:"Payam Behzadi"}],corrections:null},{id:"57854",title:"Resistant Gram-Negative Urinary Tract Bacterial Infections",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71872",slug:"resistant-gram-negative-urinary-tract-bacterial-infections",totalDownloads:658,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Nashaat S. Hamza and Abdalla Khalil",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57854",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57854",authors:[{id:"212594",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdalla",surname:"Khalil",slug:"abdalla-khalil",fullName:"Abdalla Khalil"},{id:"212626",title:"Dr.",name:"Nashaat",surname:"Hamza",slug:"nashaat-hamza",fullName:"Nashaat Hamza"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1318",title:"Urinary Tract Infections",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"018471a7330e239e2bfbd8b11b1111ca",slug:"urinary-tract-infections",bookSignature:"Peter Tenke",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1318.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62770",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",surname:"Tenke",slug:"peter-tenke",fullName:"Peter Tenke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1448",title:"Urinary Incontinence",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0c33f52801c170a775dceb2163295aa3",slug:"urinary-incontinence",bookSignature:"Ammar Alhasso",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1448.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"124685",title:"Mr.",name:"Ammar",surname:"Alhasso",slug:"ammar-alhasso",fullName:"Ammar Alhasso"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3313",title:"Recent Advances in the Field of Urinary Tract Infections",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"02d234a9ee56794bfa06cce7bb94fdf1",slug:"recent-advances-in-the-field-of-urinary-tract-infections",bookSignature:"Thomas Nelius",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"53464",title:"Prof.",name:"Thomas",surname:"Nelius",slug:"thomas-nelius",fullName:"Thomas Nelius"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1762",title:"Evolving Trends in Urology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4b9965c1c8ed456914c0a375d06d1df8",slug:"evolving-trends-in-urology",bookSignature:"Sashi S. Kommu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1762.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"9902",title:"Dr.",name:"Sashi S.",surname:"Kommu",slug:"sashi-s.-kommu",fullName:"Sashi S. Kommu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2676",title:"Current Concepts in Kidney Transplantation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9513ddae671c1c1d920820209c22ca4c",slug:"current-concepts-in-kidney-transplantation",bookSignature:"Sandip Kapur, Cheguevara Afaneh and Meredith J. Aull",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2676.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"78020",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandip",surname:"Kapur",slug:"sandip-kapur",fullName:"Sandip Kapur"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"369",title:"Current Concepts of Urethroplasty",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b4cf5fd57e6ce8906f3770e50c4ac21d",slug:"current-concepts-of-urethroplasty",bookSignature:"Ivo Donkov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/369.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"61180",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivo",surname:"Donkov",slug:"ivo-donkov",fullName:"Ivo Donkov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7957",title:"Lower Urinary Tract Dysfunction",subtitle:"From Evidence to Clinical Practice",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e29f9949691e86e226d6c7f7aa81134c",slug:"lower-urinary-tract-dysfunction-from-evidence-to-clinical-practice",bookSignature:"Ran Pang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7957.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"186524",title:"Prof.",name:"Ran",surname:"Pang",slug:"ran-pang",fullName:"Ran Pang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5352",title:"Synopsis in the Management of Urinary Incontinence",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7793498d8fd7ab427e9449e34faf438c",slug:"synopsis-in-the-management-of-urinary-incontinence",bookSignature:"Ammar Alhasso and Holly Bekarma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5352.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"124685",title:"Mr.",name:"Ammar",surname:"Alhasso",slug:"ammar-alhasso",fullName:"Ammar Alhasso"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"68579",slug:"corrigendum-to-industrial-heat-exchanger-operation-and-maintenance-to-minimize-fouling-and-corrosion",title:"Corrigendum to: Industrial Heat Exchanger: Operation and Maintenance to Minimize Fouling and Corrosion",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/68579.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68579",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68579",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/68579",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/68579",chapter:{id:"52929",slug:"industrial-heat-exchanger-operation-and-maintenance-to-minimize-fouling-and-corrosion",signatures:"Teng Kah Hou, Salim Newaz Kazi, Abu Bakar Mahat, Chew Bee Teng,\nAhmed Al-Shamma’a and Andy Shaw",dateSubmitted:"March 23rd 2016",dateReviewed:"October 10th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"April 26th 2017",book:{id:"6080",title:"Heat Exchangers",subtitle:"Advanced Features and Applications",fullTitle:"Heat Exchangers - Advanced Features and Applications",slug:"heat-exchangers-advanced-features-and-applications",publishedDate:"April 26th 2017",bookSignature:"S M Sohel Murshed and Manuel Matos Lopes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6080.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24904",title:"Prof.",name:"S. M. Sohel",middleName:null,surname:"Murshed",slug:"s.-m.-sohel-murshed",fullName:"S. M. Sohel Murshed"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"93483",title:"Dr.",name:"Salim Newaz",middleName:null,surname:"Kazi",fullName:"Salim Newaz Kazi",slug:"salim-newaz-kazi",email:"salimnewaz@um.edu.my",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"187135",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kah Hou",middleName:null,surname:"Teng",fullName:"Kah Hou Teng",slug:"kah-hou-teng",email:"alex_teng1989@hotmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Liverpool John Moores University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"194347",title:"Prof.",name:"Abu Bakar",middleName:null,surname:"Mahat",fullName:"Abu Bakar Mahat",slug:"abu-bakar-mahat",email:"ir_abakar@um.edu.my",position:null,institution:null},{id:"194348",title:"Dr.",name:"Bee Teng",middleName:null,surname:"Chew",fullName:"Bee Teng Chew",slug:"bee-teng-chew",email:"chewbeeteng@um.edu.my",position:null,institution:null},{id:"194349",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Shamma'A",fullName:"Ahmed Al-Shamma'A",slug:"ahmed-al-shamma'a",email:"A.Al-Shamma'a@ljmu.ac.uk",position:null,institution:null},{id:"194350",title:"Prof.",name:"Andy",middleName:null,surname:"Shaw",fullName:"Andy Shaw",slug:"andy-shaw",email:"A.Shaw@ljmu.ac.uk",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"52929",slug:"industrial-heat-exchanger-operation-and-maintenance-to-minimize-fouling-and-corrosion",signatures:"Teng Kah Hou, Salim Newaz Kazi, Abu Bakar Mahat, Chew Bee Teng,\nAhmed Al-Shamma’a and Andy Shaw",dateSubmitted:"March 23rd 2016",dateReviewed:"October 10th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"April 26th 2017",book:{id:"6080",title:"Heat Exchangers",subtitle:"Advanced Features and Applications",fullTitle:"Heat Exchangers - Advanced Features and Applications",slug:"heat-exchangers-advanced-features-and-applications",publishedDate:"April 26th 2017",bookSignature:"S M Sohel Murshed and Manuel Matos Lopes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6080.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24904",title:"Prof.",name:"S. M. Sohel",middleName:null,surname:"Murshed",slug:"s.-m.-sohel-murshed",fullName:"S. M. Sohel Murshed"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"93483",title:"Dr.",name:"Salim Newaz",middleName:null,surname:"Kazi",fullName:"Salim Newaz Kazi",slug:"salim-newaz-kazi",email:"salimnewaz@um.edu.my",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"187135",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kah Hou",middleName:null,surname:"Teng",fullName:"Kah Hou Teng",slug:"kah-hou-teng",email:"alex_teng1989@hotmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Liverpool John Moores University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"194347",title:"Prof.",name:"Abu Bakar",middleName:null,surname:"Mahat",fullName:"Abu Bakar Mahat",slug:"abu-bakar-mahat",email:"ir_abakar@um.edu.my",position:null,institution:null},{id:"194348",title:"Dr.",name:"Bee Teng",middleName:null,surname:"Chew",fullName:"Bee Teng Chew",slug:"bee-teng-chew",email:"chewbeeteng@um.edu.my",position:null,institution:null},{id:"194349",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Shamma'A",fullName:"Ahmed Al-Shamma'A",slug:"ahmed-al-shamma'a",email:"A.Al-Shamma'a@ljmu.ac.uk",position:null,institution:null},{id:"194350",title:"Prof.",name:"Andy",middleName:null,surname:"Shaw",fullName:"Andy Shaw",slug:"andy-shaw",email:"A.Shaw@ljmu.ac.uk",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"6080",title:"Heat Exchangers",subtitle:"Advanced Features and Applications",fullTitle:"Heat Exchangers - Advanced Features and Applications",slug:"heat-exchangers-advanced-features-and-applications",publishedDate:"April 26th 2017",bookSignature:"S M Sohel Murshed and Manuel Matos Lopes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6080.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24904",title:"Prof.",name:"S. M. Sohel",middleName:null,surname:"Murshed",slug:"s.-m.-sohel-murshed",fullName:"S. M. Sohel Murshed"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"8081",leadTitle:null,title:"Trichoderma",subtitle:"The Most Widely Used Fungicide",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Trichoderma is a genus of fungi that are present in all soils, where they are the most prevalent culturable fungi. They are also the most successful biofungicides used in today's agriculture. These green-colored fungi are well known for their antifungal and plant-growth-stimulating effects. This book provides comprehensive information on Trichoderma and its use in medical, agricultural and industrial applications. Section I focuses mainly on identification of Trichoderma species, and Section II is concerned with Trichoderma as a biological control agent. Chapters in these sections cover topics ranging from taxonomic status and biodiversity to biochemical analysis and bio-control application.",isbn:"978-1-78923-918-8",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-917-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-855-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77912",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"trichoderma-the-most-widely-used-fungicide",numberOfPages:116,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fb120bd787a35aeeb72997edc44d0c5d",bookSignature:"Mohammad Manjur Shah, Umar Sharif and Tijjani Rufai Buhari",publishedDate:"September 4th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8081.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:5748,numberOfWosCitations:9,numberOfCrossrefCitations:4,numberOfDimensionsCitations:15,numberOfTotalCitations:28,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 5th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 26th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 25th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 13th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 14th 2019",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"94128",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad Manjur",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"mohammad-manjur-shah",fullName:"Mohammad Manjur Shah",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94128/images/system/94128.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohammad Manjur Shah obtained his Ph.D. from Aligarh Muslim University in 2003. He is a pioneer in the field of insect parasitic nematodes in the North East Part of India. He has presented his findings in several conferences and published his articles in various reputed international journals. He completed post-doctoral fellowship twice under the Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India before joining the Yusuf Maitama Sule University, Kano, Nigeria in 2015. Apart from the present book, he has already edited five books with IntechOpen. He is also the reviewer of several journals of international repute. He has been listed in various biographies published from the USA and UK. At present he is working as an Associate Professor in Biology at the Yusuf Maitama Sule University, Kano, Nigeria.",institutionString:"Yusuf Maitama Sule University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"Maitama Sule University Kano",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Nigeria"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"240922",title:"Dr.",name:"Umar",middleName:null,surname:"Sharif",slug:"umar-sharif",fullName:"Umar Sharif",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240922/images/system/240922.jpg",biography:"Dr. Umar Sharif obtained an MSc and PhD from Byero University,\nKano, Nigeria. Currently, he is head of the Department of Biological\nSciences at Yusuf Maitama Sule University, Kano, Nigeria.\nSince 1990, Dr. Sharif has been actively involved in teaching\nas well as various research activities. He has good expertise in the\nfields of pathology and biology, and is a member of various scientific\nsocieties in Nigeria. He has presented his research findings\nat various conferences and has published papers in journals of international repute.",institutionString:"NorthWest University Kano",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:{id:"272727",title:"Dr.",name:"Tijjani Rufai",middleName:null,surname:"Buhari",slug:"tijjani-rufai-buhari",fullName:"Tijjani Rufai Buhari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272727/images/7843_n.png",biography:"Dr. Tijjani Rufai Buhari obtained a PhD from the Universiti Putra\nMalaysia in 2012. At present, he is the Deputy Dean of the Faculty\nof Science, Yusuf Maitama Sule University. Since 2007, he\nhas been engaged in teaching and research. His areas of interest\ninclude developmental biology, embryology, fisheries and aquaculture,\nmarine biology, environmental microbiology, genetics,\ngeneral biology, food and nutrition, and food sanitation. In addition\nto publishing many papers in journals of international repute, Dr. Buhari has\nattended and presented at several conferences, seminars, and workshops.",institutionString:"Yusuf Maitama Sule University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"366",title:"Mycetology",slug:"mycetology"}],chapters:[{id:"65413",title:"Introductory Chapter: Identification and Isolation of Trichoderma spp. - Their Significance in Agriculture, Human Health, Industrial and Environmental Application",slug:"introductory-chapter-identification-and-isolation-of-em-trichoderma-em-spp-their-significance-in-agr",totalDownloads:1870,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"94128",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad Manjur",surname:"Shah",slug:"mohammad-manjur-shah",fullName:"Mohammad Manjur Shah"}]},{id:"65048",title:"Trichoderma: Invisible Partner for Visible Impact on Agriculture",slug:"-em-trichoderma-em-invisible-partner-for-visible-impact-on-agriculture",totalDownloads:917,totalCrossrefCites:3,authors:[{id:"66211",title:"Prof.",name:"Snježana",surname:"Topolovec-Pintaric",slug:"snjezana-topolovec-pintaric",fullName:"Snježana Topolovec-Pintaric"}]},{id:"65901",title:"Trichoderma as a Biocontrol Agent against Sclerotinia Stem Rot or White Mold on Soybeans in Brazil: Usage and Technology",slug:"-em-trichoderma-em-as-a-biocontrol-agent-against-em-sclerotinia-em-stem-rot-or-white-mold-on-soybean",totalDownloads:708,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"146372",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando Cezar",surname:"Juliatti",slug:"fernando-cezar-juliatti",fullName:"Fernando Cezar Juliatti"}]},{id:"64952",title:"A Review Study on the Postharvest Decay Control of Fruit by Trichoderma",slug:"a-review-study-on-the-postharvest-decay-control-of-fruit-by-em-trichoderma-em-",totalDownloads:776,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"65709",title:"A Review Report on the Mechanism of Trichoderma spp. as Biological Control Agent of the Basal Stem Rot (BSR) Disease of Elaeis guineensis",slug:"a-review-report-on-the-mechanism-of-em-trichoderma-em-spp-as-biological-control-agent-of-the-basal-s",totalDownloads:960,totalCrossrefCites:1,authors:[null]},{id:"65206",title:"Trichoderma harzianum Rifai: A Beneficial Fungus for Growth and Development of Abroma augusta L. Seedlings with Other Microbial Bio-Inoculants",slug:"-em-trichoderma-harzianum-em-rifai-a-beneficial-fungus-for-growth-and-development-of-em-abroma-augus",totalDownloads:519,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"270935",firstName:"Rozmari",lastName:"Marijan",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/270935/images/7974_n.png",email:"rozmari@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1692",title:"Parasitology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b2110e81c765897e4ffdfbd340495e25",slug:"parasitology",bookSignature:"Mohammad Manjur Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1692.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"94128",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad Manjur",surname:"Shah",slug:"mohammad-manjur-shah",fullName:"Mohammad Manjur Shah"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4692",title:"Microbiology in Agriculture and Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"253eae9043fbdabe3fe0bdf315200d7a",slug:"microbiology-in-agriculture-and-human-health",bookSignature:"Mohammad Manjur Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4692.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"94128",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad Manjur",surname:"Shah",slug:"mohammad-manjur-shah",fullName:"Mohammad Manjur Shah"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6019",title:"Nematology",subtitle:"Concepts, Diagnosis and Control",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"986caa9915f3701347de93affb89c70f",slug:"nematology-concepts-diagnosis-and-control",bookSignature:"Mohammad Manjur Shah and Mohammad Mahamood",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6019.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"94128",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad Manjur",surname:"Shah",slug:"mohammad-manjur-shah",fullName:"Mohammad Manjur Shah"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6619",title:"Insect Science",subtitle:"Diversity, Conservation and Nutrition",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"08241b041b2072a88452041f8fdebe7e",slug:"insect-science-diversity-conservation-and-nutrition",bookSignature:"Mohammad Manjur Shah and Umar Sharif",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6619.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"94128",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad Manjur",surname:"Shah",slug:"mohammad-manjur-shah",fullName:"Mohammad Manjur Shah"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"22",title:"Fungicides",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"fungicides",bookSignature:"Odile Carisse",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/22.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14447",title:"Dr.",name:"Odile",surname:"Carisse",slug:"odile-carisse",fullName:"Odile Carisse"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9463",title:"An Introduction to Mushroom",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"989e23dafb2b12c71acfe79ce04c3c2b",slug:"an-introduction-to-mushroom",bookSignature:"Ajit Kumar Passari and Sergio Sánchez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9463.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"304710",title:"Dr.",name:"Ajit",surname:"Kumar Passari",slug:"ajit-kumar-passari",fullName:"Ajit Kumar Passari"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6923",title:"Candida Albicans",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b037c09c5e2980ef09b650b87fabb668",slug:"candida-albicans",bookSignature:"Doblin Sandai",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6923.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"179627",title:"Dr.",name:"Doblin",surname:"Sandai",slug:"doblin-sandai",fullName:"Doblin Sandai"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"31293",title:"Security Limitations of Spectral Amplitude Coding Based on Modified Quadratic Congruence Code Systems",doi:"10.5772/37373",slug:"security-limitations-of-spectral-amplitude-coding-based-on-modified-quadratic-congruence-code-syste1",body:null,keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/31293.pdf",chapterXML:null,downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/31293",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/31293",totalDownloads:2482,totalViews:76,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"June 2nd 2011",dateReviewed:"October 16th 2011",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"March 7th 2012",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/31293",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/31293",book:{slug:"digital-communication"},signatures:"Hesham Abdullah Bakarman, Shabudin Shaari and P. Susthitha Menon",authors:[{id:"17385",title:"Dr.",name:"P. Susthitha",middleName:null,surname:"Menon",fullName:"P. Susthitha Menon",slug:"p.-susthitha-menon",email:"susi@eng.ukm.my",position:null,institution:null},{id:"19951",title:"Dr.",name:"Sahbudin",middleName:null,surname:"Shaari",fullName:"Sahbudin Shaari",slug:"sahbudin-shaari",email:"sahbudin@eng.ukm.my",position:null,institution:null},{id:"112452",title:"Prof.",name:"Hesham",middleName:null,surname:"Bakarman",fullName:"Hesham Bakarman",slug:"hesham-bakarman",email:"hesham@vlsi.eng.ukm.my",position:null,institution:{name:"National University of Malaysia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],sections:null,chapterReferences:null,footnotes:null,contributors:null,corrections:null},book:{id:"1870",title:"Digital Communication",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Digital Communication",slug:"digital-communication",publishedDate:"March 7th 2012",bookSignature:"C. Palanisamy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1870.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"96081",title:"Prof.",name:"C",middleName:null,surname:"Palanisamy",slug:"c-palanisamy",fullName:"C Palanisamy"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"31289",title:"Principles of Transmission and Detection of Digital Signals",slug:"principles-of-transmission-and-detection-of-digital-signals",totalDownloads:4918,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Asrar Ul Haq Sheikh",authors:[{id:"109198",title:"Prof.",name:"Asrar",middleName:null,surname:"Sheikh",fullName:"Asrar Sheikh",slug:"asrar-sheikh"}]},{id:"31290",title:"Digital Communication and Performance in Nonprofit Settings: A Stakeholders' Approach",slug:"digital-communication-and-performance-in-nonprofit-settings-a-stakeholders-approach",totalDownloads:1876,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Rita S. Mano",authors:[{id:"118493",title:"Dr.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Mano",fullName:"Rita Mano",slug:"rita-mano"}]},{id:"31291",title:"Wireless Communication in Tunnels",slug:"wireless-communication-in-tunnels",totalDownloads:3296,totalCrossrefCites:3,signatures:"Jose-Maria Molina-Garcia-Pardo, Martine Lienard and Pierre Degauque",authors:[{id:"108989",title:"Prof.",name:"Pierre",middleName:null,surname:"Degauque",fullName:"Pierre Degauque",slug:"pierre-degauque"},{id:"109244",title:"Dr.",name:"Martine",middleName:null,surname:"Lienard",fullName:"Martine Lienard",slug:"martine-lienard"},{id:"109245",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Molina-Garcia-Pardo",fullName:"Jose Maria Molina-Garcia-Pardo",slug:"jose-maria-molina-garcia-pardo"}]},{id:"31292",title:"MANET Routing Protocols Performance Evaluation in Mobility",slug:"manet-routing-protocols-performance-evaluation-in-mobility",totalDownloads:3963,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"C. Palanisamy and B. Renuka Devi",authors:[{id:"96081",title:"Prof.",name:"C",middleName:null,surname:"Palanisamy",fullName:"C Palanisamy",slug:"c-palanisamy"}]},{id:"31293",title:"Security Limitations of Spectral Amplitude Coding Based on Modified Quadratic Congruence Code Systems",slug:"security-limitations-of-spectral-amplitude-coding-based-on-modified-quadratic-congruence-code-syste1",totalDownloads:2482,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Hesham Abdullah Bakarman, Shabudin Shaari and P. Susthitha Menon",authors:[{id:"17385",title:"Dr.",name:"P. Susthitha",middleName:null,surname:"Menon",fullName:"P. Susthitha Menon",slug:"p.-susthitha-menon"},{id:"19951",title:"Dr.",name:"Sahbudin",middleName:null,surname:"Shaari",fullName:"Sahbudin Shaari",slug:"sahbudin-shaari"},{id:"112452",title:"Prof.",name:"Hesham",middleName:null,surname:"Bakarman",fullName:"Hesham Bakarman",slug:"hesham-bakarman"}]},{id:"31294",title:"Adaptive Blind Channel Equalization",slug:"adaptive-blind-channel-equalization",totalDownloads:4717,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Shafayat Abrar, Azzedine Zerguine and Asoke Kumar Nandi",authors:[{id:"36295",title:"Dr.",name:"Azzedine",middleName:null,surname:"Zerguine",fullName:"Azzedine Zerguine",slug:"azzedine-zerguine"},{id:"104242",title:"Dr.",name:"Shafayat",middleName:null,surname:"Abrar",fullName:"Shafayat Abrar",slug:"shafayat-abrar"},{id:"141047",title:"Dr.",name:"Asoke Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Nandi",fullName:"Asoke Kumar Nandi",slug:"asoke-kumar-nandi"}]},{id:"31295",title:"Adaptive Modulation for OFDM System Using Fuzzy Logic Interface",slug:"adaptive-modulation-for-ofdm-system-using-fuzzy-logic-interface",totalDownloads:2336,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Seshadri K. Sastry",authors:[{id:"106282",title:"Prof.",name:"Seshadri",middleName:"Sastry",surname:"Kunapuli",fullName:"Seshadri Kunapuli",slug:"seshadri-kunapuli"}]},{id:"31296",title:"Application of the Mode Intermittent Radiation in Fading Channels",slug:"application-of-the-mode-intermittent-radiation-in-fading-channels",totalDownloads:1796,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Mihail Andrianov and Igor Kiselev",authors:[{id:"105390",title:"Dr.",name:"Mihail (Михаил)",middleName:"Nikolaevich (Николаевич)",surname:"Andrianov (Андрианов)",fullName:"Mihail (Михаил) Andrianov (Андрианов)",slug:"mihail-(mihail)-andrianov-(andrianov)"},{id:"108834",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:null,surname:"Kiselev Georgievich,",fullName:"Igor Kiselev Georgievich,",slug:"igor-kiselev-georgievich"}]},{id:"31297",title:"Coherent Multilook Radar Detection for Targets in KK-Distributed Clutter",slug:"coherent-multilook-radar-detection-for-targets-in-kk-distributed-clutter",totalDownloads:2379,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Graham V. Weinberg",authors:[{id:"104720",title:"Dr.",name:"Graham",middleName:"V",surname:"Weinberg",fullName:"Graham Weinberg",slug:"graham-weinberg"}]},{id:"31298",title:"WiMAX Core Network",slug:"wimax-core-network",totalDownloads:4037,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"ZeHua Gao, Feng Gao, Bing Zhang and ZhenYu Wu",authors:[{id:"82577",title:"Prof.",name:"Zehua",middleName:null,surname:"Gao",fullName:"Zehua Gao",slug:"zehua-gao"},{id:"138599",title:"Mr.",name:"ZhenYu",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",fullName:"ZhenYu Wu",slug:"zhenyu-wu"},{id:"151744",title:"Dr.",name:"Bin",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",fullName:"Bin Zhang",slug:"bin-zhang"},{id:"151745",title:"Dr.",name:"Long",middleName:null,surname:"Yan",fullName:"Long Yan",slug:"long-yan"},{id:"151746",title:"Dr.",name:"QinWen",middleName:null,surname:"Yan",fullName:"QinWen Yan",slug:"qinwen-yan"},{id:"151747",title:"Dr.",name:"Qi",middleName:null,surname:"Song",fullName:"Qi Song",slug:"qi-song"}]},{id:"31299",title:"The WiMAX PHY Layer",slug:"the-wimax-phy-layer",totalDownloads:3896,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Marcel O. Odhiambo and Amimo P.O. Rayolla",authors:[{id:"88232",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Odhiambo",fullName:"Odhiambo",slug:"odhiambo"},{id:"136064",title:"MSc.",name:"Amimo",middleName:null,surname:"Rayolla",fullName:"Amimo Rayolla",slug:"amimo-rayolla"}]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"36273",title:"Introduction to Infrared Spectroscopy",slug:"introduction-to-infrared-spectroscopy",signatures:"Theophile Theophanides",authors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",middleName:null,surname:"Theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile"}]},{id:"36166",title:"Using Infrared Spectroscopy to Identify New Amorphous Phases - A Case Study of Carbonato Complex Formed by Mechanochemical Processing",slug:"using-infrared-spectroscopy-to-identify-new-amorphous-phases-a-case-study-of-carbonato-complexes-fo",signatures:"Tadej Rojac, Primož Šegedin and Marija Kosec",authors:[{id:"25116",title:"Prof.",name:"Marija",middleName:null,surname:"Kosec",fullName:"Marija Kosec",slug:"marija-kosec"},{id:"105876",title:"Dr.",name:"Tadej",middleName:null,surname:"Rojac",fullName:"Tadej Rojac",slug:"tadej-rojac"},{id:"111754",title:"Prof.",name:"Primoz",middleName:null,surname:"Segedin",fullName:"Primoz Segedin",slug:"primoz-segedin"}]},{id:"36167",title:"Application of Infrared Spectroscopy to Analysis of Chitosan/Clay Nanocomposites",slug:"application-of-infrared-spectroscopy-to-analysis-of-chitosan-clay-nanocomposites",signatures:"Suédina M.L. Silva, Carla R.C. Braga, Marcus V.L. Fook, Claudia M.O. Raposo, Laura H. Carvalho and Eduardo L. Canedo",authors:[{id:"104808",title:"Prof.",name:"Suedina Maria",middleName:"De Lima",surname:"Silva",fullName:"Suedina Maria Silva",slug:"suedina-maria-silva"},{id:"111910",title:"Prof.",name:"Carla",middleName:"Lima",surname:"R. C. Braga",fullName:"Carla R. C. Braga",slug:"carla-r.-c.-braga"},{id:"142933",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcus Vinícius",middleName:null,surname:"Lia Fook",fullName:"Marcus Vinícius Lia Fook",slug:"marcus-vinicius-lia-fook"},{id:"142934",title:"Prof.",name:"Claudia Maria",middleName:null,surname:"De Oliveira Raposo",fullName:"Claudia Maria De Oliveira Raposo",slug:"claudia-maria-de-oliveira-raposo"},{id:"142936",title:"Prof.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Hecker De Carvalho",fullName:"Laura Hecker De Carvalho",slug:"laura-hecker-de-carvalho"},{id:"142939",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Canedo",fullName:"Eduardo Luis Canedo",slug:"eduardo-luis-canedo"}]},{id:"36168",title:"Structural and Optical Behavior of Vanadate-Tellurate Glasses Containing PbO or Sm2O3",slug:"structural-and-optical-behavior-of-vanadate-tellurate-glasses",signatures:"E. Culea, S. Rada, M. Culea and M. Rada",authors:[{id:"114650",title:"Dr",name:"Eugen",middleName:null,surname:"Culea",fullName:"Eugen Culea",slug:"eugen-culea"},{id:"114653",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Rada",fullName:"Simona Rada",slug:"simona-rada"}]},{id:"36169",title:"Water in Rocks and Minerals - Species, Distributions, and Temperature Dependences",slug:"water-in-rocks-and-minerals-species-distributions-and-temperature-dependences",signatures:"Jun-ichi Fukuda",authors:[{id:"105384",title:"Dr.",name:"Jun-Ichi",middleName:null,surname:"Fukuda",fullName:"Jun-Ichi Fukuda",slug:"jun-ichi-fukuda"}]},{id:"36170",title:"Attenuated Total Reflection - Infrared Spectroscopy Applied to the Study of Mineral - Aqueous Electrolyte Solution Interfaces: A General Overview and a Case Study",slug:"attenuated-total-reflection-infrared-spectroscopy-applied-to-the-study-of-mineral-aqueous-el",signatures:"Grégory Lefèvre, Tajana Preočanin and Johannes Lützenkirchen",authors:[{id:"108416",title:"Dr.",name:"Johannes",middleName:null,surname:"Lützenkirchen",fullName:"Johannes Lützenkirchen",slug:"johannes-lutzenkirchen"},{id:"111675",title:"Dr.",name:"Gregory",middleName:null,surname:"Lefevre",fullName:"Gregory Lefevre",slug:"gregory-lefevre"},{id:"111676",title:"Prof.",name:"Tajana",middleName:null,surname:"Preocanin",fullName:"Tajana Preocanin",slug:"tajana-preocanin"}]},{id:"36171",title:"Research of Calcium Phosphates Using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy",slug:"research-of-calcium-phosphates-using-fourier-transformation-infrared-spectroscopy",signatures:"Liga Berzina-Cimdina and Natalija Borodajenko",authors:[{id:"110522",title:"Prof.",name:"Liga",middleName:null,surname:"Berzina-Cimdina",fullName:"Liga Berzina-Cimdina",slug:"liga-berzina-cimdina"},{id:"112181",title:"MSc.",name:"Natalija",middleName:null,surname:"Borodajenko",fullName:"Natalija Borodajenko",slug:"natalija-borodajenko"}]},{id:"36172",title:"FTIR Spectroscopy of Adsorbed Probe Molecules for Analyzing the Surface Properties of Supported Pt (Pd) Catalysts",slug:"ftir-spectroscopy-of-adsorbed-probe-molecules-for-analyzing-the-surface-properties-of-supported-pt-p",signatures:"Olga B. Belskaya, Irina G. Danilova, Maxim O. Kazakov, Roman M. Mironenko, Alexander V. Lavrenov and Vladimir A. Likholobov",authors:[{id:"107715",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Belskaya",fullName:"Olga Belskaya",slug:"olga-belskaya"},{id:"140198",title:"Dr.",name:"Irina",middleName:null,surname:"Danilova",fullName:"Irina Danilova",slug:"irina-danilova"},{id:"140200",title:"Dr.",name:"Maxim",middleName:null,surname:"Kazakov",fullName:"Maxim Kazakov",slug:"maxim-kazakov"},{id:"140202",title:"Mr.",name:"Roman",middleName:"Mikhailovich",surname:"Mironenko",fullName:"Roman Mironenko",slug:"roman-mironenko"},{id:"140203",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Lavrenov",fullName:"Alexander Lavrenov",slug:"alexander-lavrenov"},{id:"140204",title:"Prof.",name:"Vladimir",middleName:null,surname:"Likholobov",fullName:"Vladimir Likholobov",slug:"vladimir-likholobov"}]},{id:"36173",title:"Hydrothermal Treatment of Hokkaido Peat - An Application of FTIR and 13C NMR Spectroscopy on Examining of Artificial Coalification Process and Development",slug:"hydrothermal-treatment-of-hokkaido-peat-an-application-of-ftir-and-13c-nmr-spectroscopy-on-examinin",signatures:"Anggoro Tri Mursito and Tsuyoshi Hirajima",authors:[{id:"104786",title:"Dr.",name:"Anggoro Tri",middleName:null,surname:"Mursito",fullName:"Anggoro Tri Mursito",slug:"anggoro-tri-mursito"},{id:"110978",title:"Prof.",name:"Tsuyoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Hirajima",fullName:"Tsuyoshi Hirajima",slug:"tsuyoshi-hirajima"}]},{id:"36174",title:"FTIR - An Essential Characterization Technique for Polymeric Materials",slug:"ftir-an-essential-characterization-technique-for-polymeric-materials",signatures:"Vladimir A. Escobar Barrios, José R. Rangel Méndez, Nancy V. Pérez Aguilar, Guillermo Andrade Espinosa and José L. Dávila Rodríguez",authors:[{id:"12709",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Rene",middleName:null,surname:"Rangel-Mendez",fullName:"Jose Rene Rangel-Mendez",slug:"jose-rene-rangel-mendez"},{id:"12711",title:"Dr.",name:"Vladimir Alonso",middleName:null,surname:"Escobar Barrios",fullName:"Vladimir Alonso Escobar Barrios",slug:"vladimir-alonso-escobar-barrios"},{id:"112164",title:"Dr",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Andrade-Espinosa",fullName:"Guillermo Andrade-Espinosa",slug:"guillermo-andrade-espinosa"},{id:"112165",title:"Dr.",name:"José Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Dávila-Rodríguez",fullName:"José Luis Dávila-Rodríguez",slug:"jose-luis-davila-rodriguez"},{id:"112167",title:"Dr.",name:"Nancy Verónica",middleName:null,surname:"Pérez-Aguilar",fullName:"Nancy Verónica Pérez-Aguilar",slug:"nancy-veronica-perez-aguilar"}]},{id:"36175",title:"Preparation and Characterization of PVDF/PMMA/Graphene Polymer Blend Nanocomposites by Using ATR-FTIR Technique",slug:"preparation-and-characterization-of-pvdf-pmma-graphene-polymer-blend-nanocomposites-by-using-ft-ir-t",signatures:"Somayeh Mohamadi",authors:[{id:"108556",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohamadi",fullName:"Somayeh Mohamadi",slug:"somayeh-mohamadi"}]},{id:"36176",title:"Reflectance IR Spectroscopy",slug:"fundamental-of-reflectance-ir-spectroscopy",signatures:"Zahra Monsef Khoshhesab",authors:[{id:"111629",title:"Dr.",name:"Zahra",middleName:null,surname:"Monsef Khoshhesab",fullName:"Zahra Monsef Khoshhesab",slug:"zahra-monsef-khoshhesab"}]},{id:"36177",title:"Evaluation of Graft Copolymerization of Acrylic Monomers Onto Natural Polymers by Means Infrared Spectroscopy",slug:"evaluation-of-graft-copolymerization-of-acrylic-monomers-onto-natural-polymers-by-means-infrared-spe",signatures:"José Luis Rivera-Armenta, Cynthia Graciela Flores-Hernández, Ruth Zurisadai Del Angel-Aldana, Ana María Mendoza-Martínez, Carlos Velasco-Santos and Ana Laura Martínez-Hernández",authors:[{id:"37761",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Martinez-Hernandez",fullName:"Ana Laura Martinez-Hernandez",slug:"ana-laura-martinez-hernandez"},{id:"107855",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rivera Armenta",fullName:"Jose Luis Rivera Armenta",slug:"jose-luis-rivera-armenta"},{id:"108894",title:"MSc.",name:"Cynthia Graciela",middleName:null,surname:"Flores-Hernández",fullName:"Cynthia Graciela Flores-Hernández",slug:"cynthia-graciela-flores-hernandez"},{id:"108896",title:"MSc.",name:"Ruth Zurisadai",middleName:null,surname:"Del Angel Aldana",fullName:"Ruth Zurisadai Del Angel Aldana",slug:"ruth-zurisadai-del-angel-aldana"},{id:"108898",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Velasco-Santos",fullName:"Carlos Velasco-Santos",slug:"carlos-velasco-santos"},{id:"108905",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Mendoza-Martínez",fullName:"Ana Maria Mendoza-Martínez",slug:"ana-maria-mendoza-martinez"}]},{id:"36178",title:"Applications of FTIR on Epoxy Resins - Identification, Monitoring the Curing Process, Phase Separation and Water Uptake",slug:"applications-of-ftir-on-epoxy-resins-identification-monitoring-the-curing-process-phase-separatio",signatures:"María González González, Juan Carlos Cabanelas and Juan Baselga",authors:[{id:"107857",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Baselga",fullName:"Juan Baselga",slug:"juan-baselga"},{id:"138113",title:"Dr.",name:"María",middleName:null,surname:"González",fullName:"María González",slug:"maria-gonzalez"},{id:"138114",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan C.",middleName:null,surname:"Cabanelas",fullName:"Juan C. Cabanelas",slug:"juan-c.-cabanelas"}]},{id:"36179",title:"Use of FTIR Analysis to Control the Self-Healing Functionality of Epoxy Resins",slug:"use-of-ft-ir-analysis-to-control-the-self-healing-functionality-of-epoxy-resins",signatures:"Liberata Guadagno and Marialuigia Raimondo",authors:[{id:"106836",title:"Prof.",name:"Liberata",middleName:null,surname:"Guadagno",fullName:"Liberata Guadagno",slug:"liberata-guadagno"}]},{id:"36180",title:"Infrared Analysis of Electrostatic Layer-By-Layer Polymer Membranes Having Characteristics of Heavy Metal Ion Desalination",slug:"infrared-analysis-of-electrostatic-layer-by-layer-polymer-membranes-having-characteristics-of-heavy",signatures:"Weimin Zhou, Huitan Fu and Takaomi Kobayashi",authors:[{id:"110384",title:"Dr.",name:"Takaomi",middleName:null,surname:"Kobayashi",fullName:"Takaomi Kobayashi",slug:"takaomi-kobayashi"}]},{id:"36181",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy as a Tool to Monitor Radiation Curing",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-as-a-tool-to-monitor-radiation-curing",signatures:"Marco Sangermano, Patrick Meier and Spiros Tzavalas",authors:[{id:"112286",title:"Dr.",name:"Spiros",middleName:null,surname:"Tzavalas",fullName:"Spiros Tzavalas",slug:"spiros-tzavalas"},{id:"114382",title:"Prof.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Sangermano",fullName:"Marco Sangermano",slug:"marco-sangermano"},{id:"114384",title:"Dr",name:"Patrick",middleName:null,surname:"Meier",fullName:"Patrick Meier",slug:"patrick-meier"}]},{id:"36182",title:"Characterization of Compositional Gradient Structure of Polymeric Materials by FTIR Technology",slug:"characterization-of-compositional-gradient-structure-of-polymeric-materials-by-ft-ir-technology",signatures:"Alata Hexig and Bayar Hexig",authors:[{id:"20867",title:"Dr.",name:"Bayar",middleName:null,surname:"Hexig",fullName:"Bayar Hexig",slug:"bayar-hexig"},{id:"111986",title:"Dr.",name:"Alata",middleName:null,surname:"Hexig",fullName:"Alata Hexig",slug:"alata-hexig"}]},{id:"36183",title:"Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy - Useful Analytical Tool for Non-Destructive Analysis",slug:"fourier-trasform-infrared-spectroscopy-useful-analytical-tool-for-non-destructive-analysis",signatures:"Simona-Carmen Litescu, Eugenia D. Teodor, Georgiana-Ileana Truica, Andreia Tache and Gabriel-Lucian Radu",authors:[{id:"24425",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Litescu",fullName:"Simona Carmen Litescu",slug:"simona-carmen-litescu"},{id:"24429",title:"Prof.",name:"Gabriel-Lucian",middleName:null,surname:"Radu",fullName:"Gabriel-Lucian Radu",slug:"gabriel-lucian-radu"},{id:"108318",title:"Dr.",name:"Eugenia D.",middleName:null,surname:"Teodor",fullName:"Eugenia D. Teodor",slug:"eugenia-d.-teodor"},{id:"108323",title:"Dr.",name:"Georgiana-Ileana",middleName:null,surname:"Badea",fullName:"Georgiana-Ileana Badea",slug:"georgiana-ileana-badea"},{id:"136337",title:"Ms.",name:"Andreia",middleName:null,surname:"Tache",fullName:"Andreia Tache",slug:"andreia-tache"}]},{id:"36184",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy in the Analysis of Building and Construction Materials",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-of-cementitious-materials",signatures:"Lucia Fernández-Carrasco, D. Torrens-Martín, L.M. Morales and Sagrario Martínez-Ramírez",authors:[{id:"107401",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucia J",middleName:null,surname:"Fernández",fullName:"Lucia J Fernández",slug:"lucia-j-fernandez"}]},{id:"36185",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy Techniques in the Characterization of SOFC Functional Ceramics",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-techniques-in-the-characterization-of-sofc-functional-ceramics",signatures:"Daniel A. Macedo, Moisés R. Cesário, Graziele L. Souza, Beatriz Cela, Carlos A. Paskocimas, Antonio E. Martinelli, Dulce M. A. Melo and Rubens M. Nascimento",authors:[{id:"102015",title:"MSc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Macedo",fullName:"Daniel Macedo",slug:"daniel-macedo"},{id:"112309",title:"MSc",name:"Moisés",middleName:"Romolos",surname:"Cesário",fullName:"Moisés Cesário",slug:"moises-cesario"},{id:"112310",title:"Ms.",name:"Graziele",middleName:null,surname:"Souza",fullName:"Graziele Souza",slug:"graziele-souza"},{id:"112311",title:"MSc.",name:"Beatriz",middleName:null,surname:"Cela",fullName:"Beatriz Cela",slug:"beatriz-cela"},{id:"112312",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Paskocimas",fullName:"Carlos Paskocimas",slug:"carlos-paskocimas"},{id:"112314",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Martinelli",fullName:"Antonio Martinelli",slug:"antonio-martinelli"},{id:"112315",title:"Prof.",name:"Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Melo",fullName:"Dulce Melo",slug:"dulce-melo"},{id:"112316",title:"Dr.",name:"Rubens",middleName:"Maribondo Do",surname:"Nascimento",fullName:"Rubens Nascimento",slug:"rubens-nascimento"}]},{id:"36186",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy of Functionalized Magnetic Nanoparticles",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-of-functionalized-magnetic-nanoparticles",signatures:"Perla E. García Casillas, Claudia A. Rodriguez Gonzalez and Carlos A. Martínez Pérez",authors:[{id:"104636",title:"Dr.",name:"Perla E.",middleName:null,surname:"García Casillas",fullName:"Perla E. García Casillas",slug:"perla-e.-garcia-casillas"},{id:"112440",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos A.",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez Pérez",fullName:"Carlos A. Martínez Pérez",slug:"carlos-a.-martinez-perez"},{id:"112441",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia A.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez Gonzalez",fullName:"Claudia A. Rodriguez Gonzalez",slug:"claudia-a.-rodriguez-gonzalez"}]},{id:"36187",title:"Determination of Adsorption Characteristics of Volatile Organic Compounds Using Gas Phase FTIR Spectroscopy Flow Analysis",slug:"determination-of-adsorption-characteristics-of-volatile-organic-compounds-using-gas-phase-ftir-spect",signatures:"Tarik Chafik",authors:[{id:"107310",title:"Prof.",name:"Tarik",middleName:null,surname:"Chafik",fullName:"Tarik Chafik",slug:"tarik-chafik"}]},{id:"36188",title:"Identification of Rocket Motor Characteristics from Infrared Emission Spectra",slug:"identification-of-rocket-motor-characteristics-from-infrared-emission-spectra",signatures:"N. Hamp, J.H. Knoetze, C. Aldrich and C. Marais",authors:[{id:"112229",title:"Prof.",name:"Chris",middleName:null,surname:"Aldrich",fullName:"Chris Aldrich",slug:"chris-aldrich"},{id:"112232",title:"Prof.",name:"Hansie",middleName:null,surname:"Knoetze",fullName:"Hansie Knoetze",slug:"hansie-knoetze"},{id:"135327",title:"Ms.",name:"Corne",middleName:null,surname:"Marais",fullName:"Corne Marais",slug:"corne-marais"}]},{id:"36189",title:"Optical Technologies for Determination of Pesticide Residue",slug:"optical-technology-for-determination-of-pesticide-residue",signatures:"Yankun Peng, Yongyu Li and Jingjing Chen",authors:[{id:"113343",title:"Prof.",name:"Yankun",middleName:null,surname:"Peng",fullName:"Yankun Peng",slug:"yankun-peng"},{id:"116636",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongyu",middleName:null,surname:"Li",fullName:"Yongyu Li",slug:"yongyu-li"},{id:"116637",title:"Dr.",name:"Jingjing",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Jingjing Chen",slug:"jingjing-chen"}]},{id:"36190",title:"High Resolution Far Infrared Spectra of the Semiconductor Alloys Obtained Using the Synchrotron Radiation as Source",slug:"high-resolution-spectra-of-semiconductor-s-alloys-obtained-using-the-far-infrared-synchrotron-radi",signatures:"E.M. Sheregii",authors:[{id:"102655",title:"Prof.",name:"Eugen",middleName:null,surname:"Sheregii",fullName:"Eugen Sheregii",slug:"eugen-sheregii"}]},{id:"36191",title:"Effective Reaction Monitoring of Intermediates by ATR-IR Spectroscopy Utilizing Fibre Optic Probes",slug:"effective-reaction-monitoring-of-intermediates-by-atr-ir-spectroscopy-utilizing-fibre-optic-probes",signatures:"Daniel Lumpi and Christian Braunshier",authors:[{id:"109019",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Braunshier",fullName:"Christian Braunshier",slug:"christian-braunshier"},{id:"111798",title:"MSc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Lumpi",fullName:"Daniel Lumpi",slug:"daniel-lumpi"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"70122",title:"Parkinson’s Disease Rehabilitation: Effectiveness Approaches and New Perspectives",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89360",slug:"parkinson-s-disease-rehabilitation-effectiveness-approaches-and-new-perspectives",body:'\nIn this chapter, we will discuss some important topics about Parkinson’s disease (PD), a progressive and neurodegenerative disease, that is characterized by many motor and nonmotor symptoms and with wide-reaching implications for patients and their families [1, 2]. It is neuropathologically characterized by nigrostriatal cell loss and the presence of intracellular a-synuclein-positive inclusions called Lewy bodies [3].
\nIt is the most common movement disorder with approximately 1–2% of the population over 65 years of age suffering from PD. This percentage increases in people of 85 years of age and older, about 3–5% [3]. According to the World Health Organization, 6.1 million individuals have Parkinson’s disease globally [4]. Some authors have shown that the burden of Parkinson’s disease has more than doubled over 26 years worldwide, from 2.5 million patients in 1990 to 6.1 million patients in 2016. So, we can expect that the trend will continue in the next 30 years having approximately more than 12 million individuals suffering from PD [5]. In 2016, there were 211,296 estimated deaths caused by Parkinson’s disease [4].
\nPD is characterized mainly by four motor symptoms: resting tremor, bradykinesia, rigidity, and postural instability [1] with balance decrements and gait disruption [2]. It may present problems in performing personal activities of daily living, such as eating, drinking, cutting food, walking in the neighborhood, and writing [6].
\nThe diagnosis of PD is based on medical history and a neurological examination since there are no blood tests, laboratory tests, or imaging examinations that have been proven to help in diagnosing PD [7], and its treatment is based on a pharmacological approach. The main therapy is based on levodopa and dopamine agonists and is very successful in the early stages of the disease, when dopaminergic symptoms and signs are predominant and long-term motor complications still have not developed [8].
\nThe traditional classification and disease progression of Parkinson’s disease (PD) orient toward disease milestones that can be most obviously followed along motor domains. However, diverse nonmotor domains, quality of life, psychosocial burden, and stigma have been used as important domains for the course of PD and the outcome parameters of clinical trials [9].
\nAt present, there is no cure for PD, but a variety of medications provide relief from the symptoms. Individuals who are affected usually are given levodopa combined with carbidopa. Levodopa helps in at least three-quarters of Parkinsonian cases; however, not all symptoms respond equally to the drug. Bradykinesia and rigidity respond best, while tremor may be only marginally reduced. Problems with balance and other symptoms may not be alleviated at all [7].
\nIn this scenario, physiotherapy has a significant importance in a multidisciplinary team focused on the rehabilitation of individuals with PD, with the purpose of maximizing functional ability and minimizing secondary complications through movement rehabilitation within a context of education and to support the person as a whole [10].
\nThe main focuses of physiotherapy for individuals with PD are transfers, posture, upper limb function, balance (and falls), gait, and physical capacity and activity. Physiotherapy also uses cueing strategies, cognitive movement strategies, and exercises to maintain or to increase independence, safety, and quality of life. The traditional and new strategies will be addressed in this chapter [10].
\nPhysiologically, the symptoms associated with Parkinson’s disease are the result of the loss of a number of neurotransmitters, most notably dopamine. It is characterized neuropathological by nigrostriatal cell loss and the presence of intracellular a-synuclein-positive inclusions called Lewy bodies [3, 11]. All these alterations change the function of the basal ganglia system, resulting in Parkinson’s main movement disorders.
\nCell loss in the substantia nigra occurs in a region-specific manner, with the lateral ventral tier of the pars compacta being most affected. It is estimated that at least 50% of the nigral neurons must degenerate to produce symptoms, and, at autopsy, most cases show more than 80% reduction [8].
\nThe basic basal ganglia circuitry and the balance between the direct and indirect striatal pathways provide a simple heuristic model for PD’s main signs. According to this model, the pathophysiological hallmark of PD, hypokinetic signs are the prevalence of the indirect pathway over the direct one, consequently, resulting in increased neuronal firing activity in the output nuclei of the basal ganglia and leading to excessive inhibition of thalamocortical and brainstem motor systems, interfering with normal speed of onset movement and execution. On the other hand, overactivity in the direct pathway and imbalance with the indirect one may cause reduced inhibitory basal ganglia output and result in reduced basal ganglia filtering and parallel facilitation of multiple movement fragments. (See \nFigure 1\n) [8].
\nA schematic view of the functional anatomy of the basal ganglia. There are the normal direct and indirect pathways (panel a) and the alteration of direct and indirect pathways in Parkinson’s disease (panel b). Modified from Magrinelli et al. [8] and Nitrini and Bacheschi [12].
Another important region that has been linked to physiopathology of PD is the cerebellum. Its reciprocal connections with basal ganglia, especially with striatum and external segment of the globus pallidus, strengthens the hypothesis that it plays a role in the pathogenesis of some PD symptoms and signs [8].
\nHistopathology alterations can be described in this pathophysiological situation. There usually can be seen some histological characteristics not just in nerve tissue. The most important marker is called Lewy bodies. They are made of a protein called alpha-synuclein, which, in a healthy brain, plays a number of important roles in neurons, especially at synapses [13].
\nLewy bodies can be found in many regions of the brain and some reports have suggested that the substantia nigra is not the first place where they form in Parkinson’s disease [14].
\nNeither cell loss nor the formation of Lewy bodies is absolutely specific for PD, but both are required for a diagnosis of PD under current definitions. Additionally, it’s necessary to consider that not all affected neurons in PD are dopaminergic. An example to be cited is the cholinergic neurons from the dorsal vagal nucleus. This variety of regions has been suggested to be responsible for the complex clinical picture in PD [13].
\nThis pathophysiological situation seems to be multifactorial. It can be considered by genetic factors, inflammation, immune response, and environmental elements [14].
\nWhile having a family member with PD may increase a person’s risk, PD is not normally considered a genetic disease. Variants in three genes (SNCA, UCHL 1, and LRRK 2) have been reported in familial PD. Mutations in three other genes (PARK 2, PARK 7, and PINK 1) have been found in sporadic PD [14, 15].
\nOn the other hand, large population studies have suggested that individuals taking nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) have less risk of developing idiopathic PD, which suggests that anti-inflammatory drugs may be a promising disease-modifying treatment for Parkinsonian patients [16].
\nSome reports have provided direct evidence of interactions between α-synuclein and environmental agents. Some options described in the literature are heavy metals (iron, copper, manganese, lead, and mercury), pesticides (including insecticides and herbicides), and illicit substances (amphetamine, methamphetamine, and cocaine) [17].
\nIn a review, Di Monti et al. [18] describe some possibilities of multiple events and interactive mechanisms possibly responsible for alpha-synuclein alterations. These may include (i) the synergistic action of endogenous and exogenous toxins, (ii) the interactions of toxic agents with endogenous elements (e.g., the protein α-synuclein), (iii) the tissue response to an initial toxic insult, and (iv) the effects of environmental factors on the background of genetic predisposition and aging.
\nIt’s important to explain that the symptoms of Parkinson’s disease sometimes can be seen outside the disease itself. In these cases, we call this clinical condition of parkinsonism, also known as “atypical Parkinson’s,” “secondary Parkinson’s,” or “Parkinson’s syndrome.” Parkinsonism often has an identifiable cause, such as exposure to toxins, methamphetamine, trauma, multiple strokes, other nervous system disorders, or illness. Generally, Lewy bodies are not seen in parkinsonism [14].
\nThe three clinical motor cardinal signs of PD, a-/hypo-/bradykinesia, rest tremor, and rigidity, are directly related to the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons. However, other motor symptoms and signs, secondary to degeneration of nondopaminergic pathways, can be described such as loss of postural control, postural stability/balance, and gait disturbance. In addition, the most well-known nonmotor characteristic motor symptoms have also been described. There can be additional psychiatric and autonomic features found, as well as cognitive impairment, sleep disorders, olfactory dysfunction, and pain.
\n\n
A-/hypo-/bradykinesia: These terms are defined, collectively, as slowed voluntary movement. Separately, akinesia indicates the absence of voluntary movement, while hypokinesia means smaller movements, and bradykinesia refers to slowness of movement. They usually determine any impairment in fine motor movements, facial expression (hypomimia), monotonic and hypophonic speech with a reduction of speed, and general motion amplitude. This can have an important impact in functional skills like arm swinging when walking, raising from a chair, handwriting, and general gesturing [14, 19].
This cardinal sign is one of the best that emerges from its origin of dysfunction, which is cited in this chapter (see \nFigure 1\n). It has been determined especially by a characteristic involving the movement programming of the cerebral cortex, in particular the supplementary motor area [8, 19].
\nIt is possible to find two modulations of this cardinal sign of Parkinson’s disease: freezing phenomenon and kinesia paradoxa. In the first one, the individual presents a sudden and transient motor block, mainly in the lower limbs during walking. This may include start hesitation, hesitation, or inability to move through the presence of contradictory visual cues (floors with different colors and small steps), when there is a need to change direction of gait or be still in open spaces. The second one, kinesia paradoxa, occurs under certain emotional circumstances where the patient is able to exhibit a sudden brief period of mobility (walking or even running and catching a ball). This phenomenon shows that, even though individuals with Parkinson’s disease have their motor programs intact, the disease prevents them from accessing them in the correct way, requiring external stimuli for this to happen even if done poorly [19, 20].
2. Rest tremor: this sign is usually asymmetric, consisting of alternate contractions of agonist and antagonist muscles, including flexors, extensors, pronators, and supinators of the wrists and arms, resulting in the “pill rolling” movement of the hand. It has a medium frequency (3 to 6 Hz) and tends to disappear with action. The legs, lower jaw, or head may also be involved, resulting in an adduction-abduction movement of the lower limbs and yes-yes or no-no motion in the head [8, 21].
The pathophysiology of rest tremor is largely unknown. Clinical-pathological studies have demonstrated that patients with PD and prominent tremor have dysfunction of a subgroup of midbrain (A8) neurons and its magnitude seems to not be related to dopamine deficiency [8, 19].
3. Rigidity: it is a type of increase in muscle tone (also called plastic hypertonia), generally defined as an increased resistance to passive movement of a joint. Rigidity is more evident in the flexor muscles of the trunk and limbs and may be enhanced by voluntary movement. However, its presence usually determines a characteristic of stooped posture. Two types of rigidity can be described: cogwheel rigidity refers to resistance that stops and starts at the limb, the limb is moved through its range of motion, and it is the result of coexisting rigidity and tremor; lead-pipe rigidity is defined as a constant resistance to motion throughout the entire range of movement [8, 14].
It is unclear how rigidity is associated with dopamine deficiency and basal ganglia dysfunction. Nevertheless, evidence suggests that this cardinal sign has its pathogenesis in the passive mechanical properties of joints, tendons, and muscles, and spinal and supraspinal reflexes, which together determine an increased response to peripheral stimulation and an increased muscle elongation response [8].
\n\n
\nPosture disturbances: individuals with Parkinson’s disease usually develop abnormal axial postures as a result of bradykinesia, rigidity, and resting tremor. This abnormality leads to a flexed general posture, with hip and knee flexion, accompanied by shoulder and even elbow flexion. In the long term, this posture disturbance can determine severe postural deformities such as antecollis, scoliosis, camptocormia, and Pisa syndrome. Little is known about the cause of these deformities, which makes it unresponsive to most treatments [8, 19].
\nPostural instability balance and gait disturbances: postural instability and gait disturbances usually occur during the course of PD, generally being manifestations of the late stages of the disease. They represent a therapeutic challenge, since they show little change through traditional pharmacological treatment using dopaminergic drugs. These two impairments, especially if associated with the freezing phenomenon, are the most common cause of falls and fractures in Parkinsonians [19, 22].
One of the most important causes for these signs is the poor ability to integrate visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive inputs associated with a failure to activate central motor programs and their interaction with the mechanisms of sensitive feedback. Postural instability and gait disturbances have been associated with an akinetic-rigid syndrome, as well as an increased incidence of nonmotor features [8, 22].
3. Other signs and symptoms: in addition to the most important signs of Parkinson’s disease, some other motor signs can be found, such as dysarthria, hypophonia, dysphagia, and sialorrhea. These signs occur as a result of bulbar dysfunction and as a result of orofacial-laryngeal bradykinesia and rigidity. We can still find some neuro-ophthalmological signs such as a decreased blink rate and blepharospasm, among others. Other important disturbances are linked with the respiratory system and usually contribute strongly to morbidity and mortality in PD. The obstructive or restrictive respiratory complications are probably due to the presence of the rigidity present in the trunk area [19].
The current literature suggests there is a prodromal or premotor stage of Parkinson’s disease before the onset of motor symptoms. Nonmotor signs and symptoms of Parkinson’s disease include cognitive, neuropsychiatric, sleep, autonomic, and sensory dysfunctions, which are typically not treated by the dopaminergic therapy. Patients who go on to develop Parkinson’s disease commonly have experienced depression, constipation, anosmia, and rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder in the years preceding their diagnosis. So, the presence of nonmotor features has contributed during the diagnosis process of Parkinson’s disease. However, if these nonmotor signs were not evaluated well enough during the diagnostic process, they may delay the diagnosis [23, 24].
\nMore specifically, there can be subtle cognitive deficits found affecting attentional, executive, visuospatial, and memory functions. Neuropsychiatric symptoms are also common and include depression, anxiety, apathy, and psychosis. Autonomic dysfunction can manifest as urinary frequency or urgency, constipation, orthostatic hypotension, drooling, erectile dysfunction, or abnormal sweating. These clinical manifestations can have a substantial impact on the patient’s quality of life [25]. We can see a long list of nonmotor signs and symptoms in \nTable 1\n.
\nNeuropsychiatric symptoms | \nDepression | \n
Dementia | \n|
Anxiety | \n|
Anhedonia | \n|
Apathy | \n|
Psychosis (hallucination and delusion) | \n|
Cognitive dysfunction | \n|
Attention deficit | \n|
Off-period–related panic attacks | \n|
Confusion | \n|
Sleep disorders | \nInsomnia | \n
Excessive daytime sleepiness | \n|
Nonrapid eye movement sleep-related movement disorders | \n|
Sleep-disordered breathing | \n|
Periodic limb movement disorder | \n|
Rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder | \n|
Vivid dreaming | \n|
Restless legs syndrome | \n|
Autonomic symptoms | \nUrgency | \n
Frequency | \n|
Orthostatic hypotension | \n|
Nocturia | \n|
Erectile dysfunction | \n|
Sweating | \n|
Gastrointestinal symptoms | \nDribbling of saliva | \n
Ageusia | \n|
Nausea | \n|
Dysphagia | \n|
Reflux and vomiting | \n|
Constipation | \n|
Diarrhea | \n|
Fecal incontinence | \n|
Unsatisfactory voiding of bowel | \n|
Sensory symptoms | \nPrimary pain | \n
Secondary pain | \n|
Fluctuation-related pain | \n|
Paresthesia | \n|
Olfactory disturbance | \n|
Visual dysfunction | \n|
Other symptoms | \nFatigue | \n
Ankle swelling | \n|
Nonmotor fluctuations | \n|
Blurred vision | \n
Some of the most important nonmotor signs and symptoms for physiotherapists, which require special attention, are fatigue, pain, urinary bladder control, and anal sphincter control. We will discuss how physical therapy functions with these aspects of the disease later in this chapter.
\nDuring the diagnostic process of Parkinson’s disease, one of the first components to be established is the presence of “parkinsonism.” This clinical condition is established by the presence of the cardinal signs of the disease, of which bradykinesia is an indispensable criterion jointly with one of the other two signs [25], associated and exclusionary symptoms, atypical features in the history and on examination, and response to levodopa.
\nThe presence of nonmotor features is important, as these may be prominent even early in the disease’s course. Some diagnostic criteria have been developed by some organizations like the UK Parkinson’s Disease Society Brain Bank, the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and the Stroke (NINDS), and Movement Disorder Society. All of them ask for the presence of the cardinal signs, the application of exclusion criteria and some supportive criteria [25, 26]. They can be consulted in \nTable 2\n.
\n\n | United Kingdom Parkinson’s Disease Society Brain Bank’s | \nNational Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) | \nMovement Disorder Society | \n
---|---|---|---|
Step 1 | \n\n | Group A features (characteristic of Parkinson’s disease) | \n1. Diagnosis of parkinsonism | \n
\n | Bradykinesia | \nResting tremor | \n\n
| \n
\n | At least one of the following criteria: | \nRigidity | \n\n
| \n
\n | Rigidity | \nAsymmetric onset | \n\n
| \n
\n | 4–6 Hz rest tremor | \nGroup B features (suggestive of alternative diagnoses) | \n2. Exclusion criteria | \n
\n | Postural instability not caused by primary visual, vestibular, cerebellar, or proprioceptive dysfunction | \nFeatures unusual early in the clinical course | \n\n
| \n
Step 2 | \n\n | Prominent postural instability in the first 3 years after symptom onset | \n\n
| \n
\n | Exclude other causes of parkinsonism | \nFreezing phenomenon in the first 3 years | \n\n
| \n
Step 3 | \n\n | Hallucinations unrelated to medications in the first 3 years | \n\n
| \n
\n | At least one of the following supportive (prospective) criteria: | \nDementia preceding motor symptoms or in the first year | \n\n
| \n
\n | Unilateral onset | \nSupranuclear gaze palsy (other than restriction of upward gaze) or slowing of vertical saccades | \n\n
| \n
\n | Rest tremor | \nSevere, symptomatic dysautonomia unrelated to medications | \n\n
| \n
\n | Progressive disorder | \nDocumentation of condition known to produce parkinsonism and plausibly connected to the patient’s symptoms (such as suitably located focal brain lesions or neuroleptic use within the past 6 months) | \n\n
| \n
\n | Persistent asymmetry primarily affecting side of onset | \nCriteria for definite Parkinson’s disease | \n\n
| \n
\n | Excellent response (70–100%) to levodopa | \nAll criteria for probable Parkinson’s are met and | \n3. Supportive criteria | \n
\n | Severe levodopa-induced chorea (dyskinesia) | \nHistopathological confirmation of the diagnosis is obtained at autopsy | \n\n
| \n
\n | Levodopa response for 5 years or more | \nCriteria for probable PD | \n\n
| \n
\n | Clinical course of 10 years or more | \nAt least three of the four features in group A are present and | \n\n
| \n
\n | \n | None of the features in group B is present (note: symptom duration ≥ 3 years is necessary to meet this requirement) and | \n\n
| \n
\n | \n | Substantial and sustained response to levodopa or a dopamine agonist has been documented | \n4. Red flags | \n
\n | \n | Criteria for possible Parkinson’s disease | \n\n
| \n
\n | \n | At least two of the four features in group A are present; at least one of these is tremor or bradykinesia and | \n\n
| \n
\n | \n | Either none of the features in group B is present or symptoms have been present ≤ 3 years and none of the features in group B is present and | \n\n
| \n
\n | \n | Either substantial and sustained response to levodopa or a dopamine agonist has been documented or the patient has not had an adequate trial of levodopa or a dopamine agonist | \n\n
| \n
\n | \n | \n | \n
| \n
\n | \n | \n | \n
| \n
\n | \n | \n | \n
| \n
\n | \n | \n | \n
| \n
\n | \n | \n | \n
| \n
\n | \n | \n | \n
| \n
\n | \n | \n | For the diagnosis of clinically established Parkinson’s disease | \n
\n | \n | \n | \n
| \n
\n | \n | \n | \n
| \n
\n | \n | \n | \n
| \n
\n | \n | \n | For the diagnosis of clinically probable Parkinson’s disease | \n
\n | \n | \n | \n
| \n
\n | \n | \n | \n
| \n
\n | \n | \n | \n
| \n
Options of diagnostic criteria for Parkinson’s disease.
However, the reliability and validity of them have not been clearly established. In this way, it is common to have a misdiagnosis of Parkinson’s disease. The most common causes of misdiagnosis that are described in literature are Alzheimer’s disease, essential tremor, and vascular parkinsonism. It should be remembered that rigidity, bradykinesia, and gait disturbance can be found during normal aging period or can be determined by other medical conditions of aging [25, 27, 28].
\nA rating scale is a means of providing information on a particular feature by assigning a value to it. Parkinson’s rating scales are a means of assessing the symptoms of the condition. They provide information on the course of the condition and/or assess quality of life. They may also help to evaluate treatment and management strategies, which can be useful to researchers, medical doctors, physiotherapists, and other healthcare professionals, as well as to people with Parkinson’s and their caregivers [29].
\nIn Parkinson’s disease, there are a number of rating scales used. Often, more than one scale is used to give a broader picture of symptoms. The most important and used rating scale for this disease is the Unified Parkinson’s Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS). The scale has three sections that evaluate key areas of disability, together with a fourth section that evaluates any complications of treatment, as shown below:
\nPart 1: Nonmotor experiences of daily living
\nPart 2: Motor experiences of daily living
\nPart 3: Motor examination
\nPart 4: Motor complications
\nThe UPDRS features sections that require independent completion by people affected by Parkinson’s and their caregivers, and sections to be completed by the clinician. The UPDRS is often used with two other Parkinson’s rating scales: The Hoehn and Yahr, and the Schwab and England Activities of Daily Living (ADL) scales [20, 30].
\nIn \nTable 3\n, there is a list of rating scales available and recommended by the European Parkinson’s Disease Association and by the International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society [29, 30].
\nMDS-owned rating scales | \nThe European Parkinson’s Disease Association (EPDA) | \n
---|---|
Global assessment scale for Wilson’s disease | \nUnified Parkinson\'s disease rating scale (UPDRS) | \n
Global dystonia scale | \nHoehn and Yahr scale | \n
MDS-unified Parkinson’s disease rating scale (MDS-UPDRS) | \nSchwab and England activities of daily living (ADL) scale | \n
Modified bradykinesia rating scale | \nPDQ-39 | \n
Nonmotor symptoms scale (NMSS) | \nPD NMS questionnaire | \n
Nonmotor symptoms questionnaire (NMSQ) | \nNMS survey | \n
PKAN disease rating scale (PKAN-DRS) | \nParkinson’s disease composite scale | \n
Quality of life essential tremor questionnaire | \nKing\'s PD pain scale | \n
Rating scale for psychogenic movement disorders | \nParkinson\'s disease sleep scale‑PDSS-2 | \n
Rush dyskinesia rating scale | \nLindop Parkinson\'s assessment scale | \n
Rush video-based tic rating scale | \nShort-form 36 (SF-36) | \n
UFMG Sydenham\'s Chorea Rating Scale (USCRS) | \nSickness impact profile (SIP) | \n
Unified dyskinesia rating scale (UDysRS) | \nMini-mental state examination (MMSE) | \n
Unified dystonia rating scale (UDRS) | \nMontreal cognitive assessment scale (MoCa) | \n
Unified multiple system atrophy rating scale (UMSARS) | \nCaregiver strain index (CSI) | \n
It is important to note that many of these scales and questionnaires are owned and licensed by some organization. Hence, it is necessary to require a rating scales permission request form before working with them.
\nIn a nonclinical way, Braak and coworkers [31] proposed staging procedures of the pathology of Parkinson’s disease, based on central nervous system involvement. Their proposal has six stages:
\nStage 1: Premotor period in which typical pathological changes, Lewy neurites, and Lewy bodies spread from the olfactory bulb and vagus nerve to lower brainstem regions (medulla oblongata and pontine tegmentum).
\nStage 2: Additional lesions in the raphe nuclei and gigantocellular reticular nucleus of the medulla oblongata, locus coeruleus in the pontine tegmentum.
\nStage 3: The symptomatic period when pathological changes involve the midbrain including substantia nigra pars compacta, basal nuclei of Meynert. Structures affected in stages 1 and 2 develop more Lewy bodies.
\nStage 4: Severe dopaminergic cell destruction in the pars compacta with additional mesocortex and allocortex involvement, especially seen in amygdala and subnuclei of the thalamus.
\nStage 5: There are initial changes in neocortex (cortical lobes). Cellular death can be seen in the substantia nigra, the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus nerve, the gigantocellular reticular nucleus, and the locus coeruleus.
\nStage 6: Neocortex entirely affected (motor and sensory areas).
\nThis kind of rate is totally based on histological development of the disease. It is important to remember that, historically, the definitive diagnosis of Parkinson’s disease is closed in a postmortem autopsy [32].
\n\nDrug treatment: traditionally, the drugs that have shown good effects on the motor signs and symptoms of Parkinson’s disease are the dopaminergic drugs.
\nAmong them, the most used in clinical practice is levodopa or levodopa plus dopa-decarboxylase inhibitors (DDC-I), designed to replace the dopamine in the depleted striatum, undoubtedly, the most efficient medication for Parkinson’s disease [33]. They improve motor functions in a cyclic way during the day period. When they reduce the motor impairment, the period is called “on time.” When the motor signs and symptoms start to return, the period is called “off time” or “wearing-off period.” However, during the “wearing-off period,” symptoms may not be related only to movement. It is also usual for patients to report increased anxiety, fatigue, mood changes, difficulty thinking, restlessness, and sweating [29].
\nInitially, levodopa offers a stable alleviation of PD symptoms so it is usual for it to be offered in low doses, being well-tolerated by patients. This period of treatment is called the “honeymoon.” However, as the disease becomes more advanced, the effect of the drug usually wears off quickly, and an increased frequency of dosing is often required. This marks the end of the “honeymoon” period. After some years (4–6 years), patients begin to experience, most strikingly, its intense side effects [33, 34].
\nThese long-term complications included many kinds of motor fluctuations. In addition to the on-off phenomenon, already described above, the patients may also experience delay on, when medication takes a longer period to take its effect; freezing phenomenon, which was already discussed during the motor signs presentation; and dyskinesia, which is determined by the presence of hyperkinetic involuntary movements, including twitches, jerking, twisting, or simple restlessness but no tremor, occurring when the drug is at its peak dose, during the wearing-off period or even during off-periods of the medication [29, 34]. Several new formulations of levodopa have been developed to provide a more stable levodopa plasma concentration, reducing some of the side effects, including dyskinesia. Among them, as aforementioned is a levodopa/carbidopa combination [33].
\nOther drugs on treatment of motor signs are dopaminergic agonists, amantadine, dopamine receptor agonists, catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT), and monoaminoxidase (MAO) inhibitors. Recently, new pharmacological treatment has been studied such as the use of cannabis (to reduce mainly the three cardinal signs) and the angiotensin IV ligand-based compound, which influences motor and nonmotor signs (memory) [33].
\nSince Parkinson’s disease is not considered a pure movement disorder anymore, the treatment of nonmotor signs and symptoms is justified. However, the treatment of nonmotor symptoms is still an unsatisfactory field for patients and their families [35]. A cholinesterase inhibitor has been used for dementia treatment, while noradrenergic medications (like tricyclic antidepressants) have shown some effect in depression and serotoninergic agonists (like clozapine) in psychosis. Amantadine is used with some success in the management of levodopa-induced dyskinesia. For autonomic dysfunction, there are many options such as mineralocorticoid, fludrocortisone and adrenergic agents, the noradrenaline precursor for orthostatic hypotension, antimuscarinics for urinary urgency or incontinence, and prokinetic drugs to treat constipation [35].
\n\nSurgical treatment: lesioning procedures, such as pallidotomy and thalamotomy, were used to reduce the motor signs and symptoms of Parkinson’s disease. For a period, these procedures were abandoned because of good results with pharmacological treatment using dopaminergic drugs. However, nowadays, the surgical procedures are reviving as a result of the complications of pharmacological therapies.
\nThe technological advances in the area of medicine have led to the development of a new kind and nonablative surgical procedure: deep brain stimulation (DBS). It involves sending electrical impulses to certain parts of the brain by a neurostimulator device that is a brain implant known as a ‘brain pacemaker.’ The general procedure of this surgery is an intracranial electrode precisely implanted in the target area (see \nTable 4\n), followed by implantation of lead extension wires that connect the intracranial leads to a power-generating and programming source and, then finally, the implantation of an internal pulse generator (\nFigure 2\n). The main target areas can be seen in \nTable 4\n such as the signs/symptoms that are most prominently modulated by DBS [36, 38]. When PD symptoms are very severe and medications cannot moderate them, surgery and deep brain stimulation can be considered as the final options of treatment.
\nTypical deep brain stimulation setup. The electrode is placed in the brain and connected to a brain pacemaker permanently placed under the skin of the chest. Source: Shamir et al. [37] the use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted.
\nOther treatments: other alternatives to Parkinson’s disease management include a group of therapies other than a pharmacological approach. There is a vast variety of techniques available for this purpose, such as tai chi, yoga, massage, acupuncture, dance, traditional herbs, and molecular targeted therapies, among others.
\nPhysical therapy shows a number of different strategies that has been frequently used in rehabilitation of Parkinson’s disease patients, having the most important goal to enhance the quality of life of these individuals.
\nPhysiotherapists are members within a multiprofessional team, which has the purpose of maximizing functions and abilities and minimizing secondary complications of several diseases. They use movement rehabilitation within a context of education and support for the person as a whole. In patients with Parkinson’s disease, physical therapy focuses on many functions such as transfer, posture, balance improvement and fall prevention, gait, upper limb functions, and physical capacity (including cardiorespiratory capacity) essential to carry out activities of daily life. All of these goals, worked together with cueing strategies, cognitive movement and exercises, increased independence, and safety, as a consequence, improve quality of life [10].
\nSome evidence presented in the literature supported that therapeutic exercises applied in individuals with Parkinson’s disease were effective in improving both the motor and nonmotor impairments [39, 40]. This improvement may be linked to a number of plasticity-related physiological events including synaptogenesis, angiogenesis, and neurogenesis. This process can be mediated by use-dependent expression of endogenous neurotrophic factors. In an unedited systematic review and meta-analysis, Hirsch and his coworkers show aggregated evidence that physical exercise training increases brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) blood levels in individuals with Parkinson’s disease. This BDNF increase results in concomitant reduction in motor signs and symptoms, measured by UPDRS, confirming possible effects on dopaminergic pathways [41].
\nTogether with neuroplasticity, there is some evidence pointing to the participation of motor modules (coordinated patterns of muscle activity that combine to produce functional motor behaviors) like a physiological theory for good results of physical therapy in Parkinson’s disease. For this purpose, it is proposed to consider five neuromechanical principles: motor abundance, which means that for any given task, many equivalent motor solutions are possible; motor structure, which means that motor modules reflect biomechanical task relevance; motor variability, which means that variations on motor modules are higher as much as the motor output is lower; individuality, which means that different motor repertory must be considered among different individuals; and multifunctionality, which means that muscle activity can generate a large number of different actions. It is important to emphasize that in Parkinson’s disease the basal ganglia dysfunction supposedly leads to inappropriate selection of motor modules [8].
\nIt is still important to remember that motor rehabilitation is a motor relearning practice and training where it is essential to reacquire motor skills. Although individuals with Parkinson’s disease show preserved motor learning abilities, the basal ganglia dysfunction may impair the consolidation of them. Therefore, the basic rules of neural plasticity practice must be used to be successful in the rehabilitation process. It includes intensity, repetition, specificity, difficulty, and complexity of practice [8, 42].
\nSeveral rehabilitative approaches have been proposed in Parkinson’s disease.
\nIn the last two decades, exercise, such as resistance training, has shown to be beneficial for the improvement of both motor and nonmotor signs and symptoms. It increases low strength determined by hypokinesia and disuse, besides playing a neuroprotective effect in individuals with Parkinson’s disease. Its effect is probably determined by an increase of mitochondrial respiration and of neuroplasticity mechanisms, improving the recruitment of motor unit and generating selective activation of the muscles [14, 43, 44].
\nHowever, there is no consensus about the parameters for resistance training prescription for individuals who have Parkinson’s disease [43]. In a systematic review and meta-analysis, Saltychev and his coworkers [45] concluded that there is no evidence on the superiority of progressive resistance training compared with other treatments to support the use of this approach in rehabilitation procedures.
\nOn the contrary, it is possible to find successful directions to use this therapeutic strategy in rehabilitation of individuals with Parkinson’s disease from other systematic reviews, meta-analysis, and clinical research. Studies shows that low (2 times per week over 12 weeks) to moderate (2–3 times per week over 8–10 weeks) intensity resistance training appears to be effective in people with early, mild-to-moderate Parkinson’s disease. They still show that this specific approach resulted in gaining muscle strength, balance, Parkinson’s motor symptoms, and quality of life, with low or no improvement in gait performance, freezing phenomenon, and the number of falls [43, 44, 46, 47]. The load of the exercises can be chosen using the test of maximal strength (1-RM). The number of sets may vary between 2 and 3 during initial periods. The retest of 1-RM can provide additional information to adjust the load and sets along the rehabilitation period. The resting time between the sets can be controlled by cardiovascular parameters and can vary from 30 seconds up to 3 or 4 minutes [43, 44].
\nThere are numerous ways to work with resistance training, and it is up to the physiotherapists to choose the most appropriate one for the individual under their care. In resistance training, the following examples of exercises can be used: bench press, lat pulldown, military press, seated row, leg 45o, barbell squat, leg curl, leg extension, calf raises, lower abdominal exercises, and manual or external (theraband, barbell, ankle-weight, and pulley system) resistance in active movement. Treadmill and bicycle intervention can be used when performing against resistance [43, 44, 45, 47]. Da Silva and her coworkers [48] suggest a long-term effect in nonmotor signs and symptoms of Parkinson’s disease, especially in cognitive aspects, in individuals performing treadmill training, just as Ferreira and her coworkers [49] showed that resistance training was an effective intervention in the reduction of anxiety symptoms and improved the quality of life in this population.
\nEven if the treatment of Parkinson’s disease tremor focuses on medication, and there is indication to deep brain stimulation for those patients with tremor recalcitrant using oral medication, electrotherapy has been shown to be beneficial to control this special cardinal sign.
\nFew studies have been performed to provide further evidence on the effects of electrotherapy on Parkinson’s tremor reduction. The theory supporting the use of this strategy is based on evidence revealing that propriospinal neurons in the C3–4 spinal cord mediate voluntary commands from the motor cortex (in Parkinson’s disease, these commands are oscillating and give rise to resting tremor) and project directly to forelimb motor neurons. This proposal assumes the importance of propriospinal neurons to interfere in tremor signal transmission, especially because there are a rich variety of afferents, including cutaneous afferents [6].
\nBased on this concept, Xu and coworkers [50] hypothesize that cutaneous afferents evoked by surface stimulation could produce an inhibitory effect on propriospinal neurons, which in turn could suppress tremor signals passing through the propriospinal neurons.
\nAdditionally, evidence shows benefits of electrical stimulation, especially when applied to the superficial cutaneous radial nerve area, in reduction refractory resting tremor. This effect is possibly mediated by cutaneous reflex via premotor neuron interneurons, through a disynaptic inhibitory postsynaptic potential. Some initial research was performed to confirm this theory using transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS), with good results [6, 52]. The position of the electrodes can be verified in \nFigure 3\n.
\nUse of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation to reduce resting tremor in Parkinson’s disease. The figure brings cutaneous superficial radial nerve area and electrodes position for transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS). Source: Modified from Gray [56]. Picture is public domain.
The parameters used for TENS stimulation were 200 μs pulse width at 250 Hz pulse frequency. The pulse amplitude of stimuli must be adjusted during the stimulation period. First, it is necessary to discover the radiating threshold of the patient. It occurs when the patient refers to a radiating sensation, such as a paresthesia, running from the dorsal skin to the fingers. This radiating threshold has been used as a sensory marker because it indicates that the superficial radial nerve is actually activated by electrical stimulation. After detecting the radiating threshold, the intensity of electrical stimulation must be adjusted to 1.5–1.75 times radiating threshold to produce better effects on tremor control [6].
\nNowadays, researchers have been studying a way to detect the tremors and control them simultaneously and automatically by electrostimulation. They already developed and tested a closed-loop system for tremor suppression by transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) using EMGs of the forearm muscles. Through this record, when a tremor is detected, a command signal triggers a stimulator to output TENS pulses to a pair of surface electrodes positioned just as described in \nFigure 3\n. The preliminary results showed that a closed-loop system can detect tremor properly and suppress significantly the tremor, by electrical stimulation of cutaneous afferents, in Parkinson’s disease patients. Within this new concept, a tremor’s glove was developed reaching also good results [50, 51, 52].
\nIt’s known that aerobic exercises can reduce inflammation, suppress oxidative stress, and stabilize calcium homeostasis in the brain. So, it has been prescribed as an important activity for the elderly. The form of aerobic exercise used may be adapted to the capability of the individual. In individuals with Parkinson’s disease, these exercises show important functions, once they can trigger plasticity-related changes, including synaptogenesis, enhanced glucose utilization, and neurogenesis [2, 53].
\nIn general, aerobic training has been reported to improve both motor and nonmotor signs and symptoms of Parkinson’s disease. The motor effects are extensively known and have been studied the most so far, showing the most unequivocal benefits on health across the life span. Furthermore, the neural mechanisms involving dopaminergic pathways are studied and suggest a significant preservation of nigrostriatal neuronal connections as well as striatal dopamine levels in experimental models. As a result, exercise-dependent plasticity following aerobic exercises acts on the brain in a similar manner as dopaminergic-derived treatments, using the same pathways to produce symptomatic relief [54].
\nIn nonmotor signs and symptoms, aerobic training promotes positive and significant effects on global cognitive function, processing speed, sustained attention and mental flexibility, memory, and mood disorder aspects (anxiety and depression) in patients who are considered in a moderate stage of Parkinson’s disease [49]. In sleep disorder, present in Parkinson’s disease, aerobic exercise has been shown to have small-to-moderate effects. The mechanism involved in these effects evolved increased dopaminergic signaling and a wide variety of effects on nondopaminergic neurotransmitter systems, including serotonergic, noradrenergic, and GABAergic systems, which is relevant for depression, anxiety, and sleep [53, 54].
\nThe most common and studied form of aerobic training is using a treadmill. In some systematic reviews, the majority of articles considered in analyses use treadmills for aerobic training. This approach can be used with or without a body-weight-support system, depending on the motor difficulties of the individual with Parkinson’s disease. It may be related with improvement in motor signs like motor action, balance, and gait, although the evidence is not so strong [2, 48].
\nIn the same way, free walking and Nordic walking (a total body version of walking performed with specially designed walking poles similar to ski poles) also have good effects on motor and nonmotor domains of Parkinson’s disease and must be stimulated and used in physical therapy practice in rehabilitation of individuals with Parkinson’s disease [55].
\nSimilar to the aerobic training used on the treadmill, moderate intensity of interval training for cycling has shown several beneficial effects on the DA-dependent motor and nonmotor signs that compromise Parkinson’s disease patients. Researchers have reported improvement on bimanual motor control, automatic interlimb coordination, executive functions, and neurological (UPDRS) symptoms [56].
\nAn interval protocol template that can be used can be the following: from 8 to 12 weeks of training, 3 times per week, 1-hour session training with 10 minutes of warm-up, 40 minutes of aerobic training, and 10 minutes of cooldown). During the 40 minutes of aerobic training, the patient can perform 8 sets of 3 minutes of cycling or treadmill at 60–80 rpms and 2 minutes of less than 60 rpms. The heart rate also can be used as a parameter to improve effort during the training period. Hence, the physiotherapist may adjust the resistance to ensure the patient is cycling at 60–75% of his/her maximal heart rate. This effort can increase gradually during the training period [56]. A guideline with some exercise modes to be used in Parkinson’s disease was provided by Meng and coworkers in a systematic review and meta-analysis [57].
\nOther forms of aerobic exercises have been stimulated in the rehabilitation process in Parkinson’s disease. Several data have shown that dance can provide increased activation of the reward system, determining better mood aspects in people. In patients with Parkinson’s disease, practicing dance has induced better responses and a substantial relevant improvement in motor symptoms (such as static and dynamic balance, freezing phenomenon, and gait) and functional mobility. This improvement determines also a better quality of life in performers. It probably occurs because rhythmic stimulation leads to time-perception compensation due to the synchronization of movement with rhythm [58, 59].
\nTo get these effects, a dance program must include visual and auditory cues, rhythm tasks, and recreational activities that motivate socialization. Another important aspect is to reach the ideal heart rate during practice, just as discussed previously in the aerobic training protocol [58].
\nOriental martial arts, such as tai chi, have been successfully used in treatment of individuals with Parkinson’s disease. Tai chi combines deep breathing and slow movements and studies have provided moderate evidence that tai chi improves balance and functional mobility, reducing the number of falls, but with no significant effect in gait velocity, step length, and gait endurance improvement [33, 60, 61]. A systematic review and meta-analysis showed that tai chi, plus medication, showed greater gains than medication alone or another therapy plus medication in motor function and balance. Presumably, these gains were due to the development of new motor programs, which allow faster reactions responding to postural challenge promoting better behavioral recovery through new synaptic connections [62]. It is necessary to know and practice this technique before using it on patients.
\nThe aim of the multimodal exercise program is to develop the patients’ functional capacity, cognitive functions, posture, and locomotion. It’s comprised of a variety of activities that simultaneously focus on the components of functional capacity, such as muscular resistance, motor coordination, and balance [14]. It’s a 6-month program, performed 3 times per week, 1 hour per session. Each session consists of five parts (warm-up, pre-exercise stretching, the exercise session, the cooldown, and postexercise stretching). The program is divided into six phases with different uses of coordination, muscular resistance, and balance strategies [63, 64]. A description of each phase can be seen in \nTable 5\n.
\n\nSubthalamic nucleus | \nDisabling motor symptoms | \n
Dyskinesia | \n|
Motor fluctuations | \n|
Globus pallidus internus | \nImprovement of motor symptoms in general | \n
Ventral intermediate thalamic nucleus | \nTremor | \n
Pedunculopontine nucleus | \nGait instability | \n
Gait freezing phenomenon | \n
Main target areas for deep brain stimulation (DBS) in Parkinson’s disease.
Note: Based on Dallapiazza et al [36].
Phases | \nCapacities | \n||
---|---|---|---|
Coordination | \nMuscular resistance | \nBalance | \n|
Phase 1 | \nUpper and lower limb movements. | \nExercises without weights. | \nRecreational activities that stimulated the vestibular system. | \n
Phase 2 | \nTrunk movements were added to upper and lower limb movements. | \nLight-weight equipment (hoops, ropes, and batons). | \nRecreational activities that stimulated the visual and vestibular systems. | \n
Phase 3 | \nTrunk movements were substituted by head movements. | \nHeavier equipment (barbells, ankle weights, and medicine balls). | \nRecreational activities that stimulated the visual and somatosensorial systems. | \n
Phase 4 | \nHead, trunk, and upper and lower limb movements. | \nLoad was again increased with heavier equipment for resistance training (increase of intensity) or increased repetitions (increased volume). | \nRecreational activities integrated the vestibular, visual, and somatosensorial systems. | \n
Phase 5 | \nFour different movement sequences, two of which were the same for upper and lower limbs and two other sequences that alternated movements for upper and lower limbs in place and in movement. | \nExercises were done with weights: leg press, pulley, seated cable rows, peck deck, and bench press. Load was adjusted according to patients\' convenience (in two series of 15 repetitions). | \nRecreational activities included static balance, dynamic balance, half-turn, and complete turn (all with visual cues). | \n
Phase 6 | \nFour sequences of different movements, two sequences of alternating movement for upper and lower limbs, and two sequences of different movement for upper and lower limbs, with or without trunk movement and equipment (balloons, balls, hoops, and rope). | \nThe same exercises with load increase. Series of 15 repetitions were added. | \nRecreational activities were composed of activities with tactile cues. | \n
Multimodal exercise program in Parkinson´s disease.
Note: Based on Vitório and coworkers [63].
The little data that are available in the literature point to improvement in some kinematic gait parameters of mild-to-moderate idiopathic PD patients using multimodal exercise programs [63, 64].
\nSeveral data show acupuncture and electroacupuncture (still performed on animal models) as beneficial strategies in Parkinson’s disease treatment, used either isolated or combined with other treatments. It has been described as showing improvement in the UPDRS total score and in its subsections after an acupuncture session. So, even motor and nonmotor signs and symptoms, including pain, can be improved with the use of acupuncture [65, 66, 67]. However, the most important source of data that proves the beneficial effects of acupuncture in treatment of signs and symptoms in Parkinson’s disease is provided from functional neuroimaging studies. These studies have shown huge modifications in neural functions after acupuncture sessions [68, 69].
\nAs tai chi use was previously discussed, acupuncture requires previous academic training so that it can be used in an accurate way in the treatment of Parkinsonian individuals.
\nHydrotherapy has been widely used to treat individuals with Parkinson’s disease. It has been proven to be effective for different gait rehabilitation programs, as well as to improve balance and quality of life, and reduce pain and falls. The warm property of water used for hydrotherapy potentially also reduces rigidity [70, 71].
\nIn water, innumerable forms of exercises can be performed including warm-up exercises (like jumping and walking), stretching exercises, gait training, cooldown exercises, trunk mobility, balance, coordination and proprioceptive exercises, the Halliwick method, posture exercises, the Ai Chi method, aerobic exercise, the Bad Ragaz method, motor dexterity exercises, and swimming exercises, among others [71].
\nVirtual reality potentially optimizes motor learning in a safe environment, and by replicating real-life scenarios, it could help to improve functional activities of daily living in individuals with Parkinson’s disease. However, the use of commercially available devices makes this tool contiguous to many other physical therapy instruments, leading to low evidence in the results [72]. Despite this, several studies have reported greater improvement in many signs and symptoms such as balance, gait, functional capacity, and self-confidence, improving quality of life and reducing the risk of falling [73, 74, 75].
\nAs an example of specific virtual reality developed for Parkinson’s disease rehabilitation, Gomez-Jordana and coworkers [76] developed visual cues that could be presented in an immersive, interactive virtual reality environment. With this, they created different forms of spatial and temporal information where black footprints presented at a prespecified distance apart could recreate different step lengths (spatial cues), and by controlling when the black footprints changed color to red, they could convey information about the timing of the foot placement (temporal cues). With this device, they could get significantly improved gait performance in participants.
\nAdditionally, exercise-based video gaming (exergaming), a form of physical training that is delivered through virtual reality technology, facilitates motor learning and is efficacious in improving balance in aged populations. This approach can use commercial devices such as Nintendo Wii Fit System®, X-box 360o with Kinect®, or rehabilitation-specific software program like Jintronix® [70, 74, 77].
\nThese devices usually combine automated game instructions as well as visual and auditory and tactile inputs to correct performance and sustain motivation levels during and following game play. Therefore, exergames employ visual and auditory feedback techniques to create a quasi-immersive environment that can facilitate motor and cognitive learning. Since individuals with Parkinson’s disease are dependent on sensory cues to maintain postural stability and show difficulties with long-term consolidation of new motor skills, this sensorial integration provided by using exergames may help to upregulate neuroplasticity and facilitate motor skill acquisition and retention [77].
\nThese resources can be used isolated or associated in a clinical approach or in a telerehabilitation program like a home-based virtual reality or home-based exergame [74].
\nGroups are used in physical therapy to improve global health status and bring relief from typical disability symptoms of several diseases, competing with individual rehabilitation at least in short-term follow-up. Therapeutic groups have been beneficial to the health care system by decreasing the cost and time spent on rehabilitation.
\nSimilar to other techniques, group therapy can use several kinds of exercise goals such as general mobility, using muscular strength, free movement, and relaxation exercises; trunk control, using trunk displacement and rotation during dynamic exercises performed in a sitting posture; static balance, using the same strategies for trunk control but in a standing position; dynamic balance and gait, using free gait; and gait with obstacles, stairs, ramp, uneven ground, performed in and outside the room. The use of hearing and visual cues during the procedure provides several stimulus associations for the patients. This approach was reported to improve gait, balance, and activity of daily life performance in patients with PD [78].
\nMental imagery is the cognitive process of creating visual, auditory, or kinesthetic experiences in the mind with or without overt physical execution. In many people, this procedure can help or improve motor performance. This strategy has the potential to increase the function of both the motor cortex and the spinal neurons, resulting in improved muscle function [79, 80]. Thus, it is an important technique in motor learning and control, and although it has its origin in sports science, it has been introduced into the field of neurorehabilitation.
\nIn a few sources about mental imagery in Parkinson’s disease rehabilitation, some data show a better muscle recruitment measured by electromyography or other form or neurophysiologic register. But available data are, sometimes, contradictory [80, 81].
\nSpecifically in individuals with Parkinson’s disease, this approach has shown to be beneficial to motor (measured by UPRDS-III‑motor signs) and cognitive functions [79].
\nSince smartphones became popular, numerous health-related apps have been developed for professionals, patients, and the general population. However, many of these apps are not validated, so their efficacy may be not satisfactory. Nowadays, this resource still has been used as a complementary treatment [82].
\nIt is a well-known fact that it is important to emphasize that apps are a democratic source of information and rehabilitation, since they maintain the main principles of usability, accessibility, and equal opportunities for healthcare professionals, patients, relatives, and caregivers [82].
\nFor Parkinson’s disease, there are a few apps available, and just one with some data partially published. On the Parkinson’s UK webpage, we can find a list of apps reviewed and recommended for individuals with Parkinson’s disease. There are apps for sleep, volume of voice, mood, swallowing, memory (recording stories of patients), mobility, speech, and dexterity [83].
\nAnother source from the International Parkinson’s Community recommended eight extra apps. They focus on measurement and tracking the patient’s symptoms, give information about Parkinson’s disease, record and measure the magnitude of tremor and speech, and manage and track the individual’s health condition. The only one that has some physical approach is the Parkinson’s home exercise [84].
\nThe Parkinson’s Home Exercise®, promoted by the European Foundation for Health and Exercise, was easy-to-use and designed to be used by patients and physiotherapists. It provides advice and instructions for daily exercises and movements through over 50 videos and text instructions. It has a cost involved [85]. There are no references in literature about its efficacy.
\nAnother app, developed by TEVA Pharmaceutical Industries, named Parkinsounds®, is a free app that helps patients with Parkinson’s disease to find their gait rhythm using music and rhythmic beats (like a metronome). They use a predetermined music list or one that can be linked to Spotify®. Once the rhythm is chosen, Parkinsounds is able to find music that combines with the preselected rhythm adding beats in the music. The physiologic base for this strategy is centered on the synchronic activation of neurons provided by the music and the rhythmic stimulus, added to an increase of dopamine liberation [86].
\nOur group has been developing research using this specific app in rehabilitation of gait in Parkinson’s disease. The partial data were already presented at the World Confederation of Physical Therapy Conference (research data are not still available). However, a huge acute effect could be seen in the gait of Parkinsonians using Parkinsounds, even in a long-term period of rehabilitation. We could see an improvement in width and length of gait, with a reduction of base and number of steps, which were measured in a 10 meters’ route, after 10 weeks of treatment. It is important to emphasize that the walking test was performed with and without Parkinsounds® use for patients at the moment of evaluation (initial and final), and in both cases, the improvement was significant. So, it can be considered an important feature for gait rehabilitation in Parkinson’s disease.
\nAccording to the literature data, there is no apparent consistency in the effect of whole body vibration shown on mobility, balance, and gait in individuals with Parkinson’s disease [87]. However, the majority of the studies point to a favorable effect of this therapeutic strategy [87, 88].
\nDisregarding the differences between the various types of equipment, a lot of research has proposed some parameters that are useful in improving mobility and balance in individuals with Parkinson’s disease. The majority recommend orthostatic position and 7 to 14 mm amplitude with a frequency ranging between 3 and 25 Hz, in cycles of 5 bouts of 1 minute each. Until now, there is no consensus about which frequency in better [87]. So, it is recommended that the physical therapist evaluate these functions constantly after using this resource.
\nThe effect of whole body vibration on tremor is less prominent [87]. Moreover, it also does not appear to lead to better cardiovascular conditions reducing the feeling of fatigue when compared to treadmill training [89].
\nThe physiological mechanism involved in the effects of whole body vibration on reducing some of the motor signs of Parkinson’s disease remains elusive. Some theories suggest that whole body vibration provides tactile and proprioceptive stimulus to the whole body originated from the vertical oscillating mechanical movement or the movement along the horizontal axis, which through neuromuscular activation and metabolic mechanism may bypass dysfunctional basal ganglia, resulting in better adjustments for postural stability and gait [88, 90].
\nIn this chapter, we can notice how profound the discussions about Parkinson’s disease are, especially about treatment. Physical therapy has increased its participation in Parkinson’s disease treatment. However, research is still lacking to substantiate its real effectiveness. It is imperative that further research be done to strengthen performance and the excellent results obtained with physical therapy in treating individuals with Parkinson’s disease.
\nI would like to thank Pontifical University of Minas Gerais for funding the research cited in this chapter: PROBIC PUC Minas 95/35 {80}; Parkinsounds Project PROBIC PUC/FAPEMIG 2018/1510.
\n"I work with IntechOpen for a number of reasons: their professionalism, their mission in support of Open Access publishing, and the quality of their peer-reviewed publications, but also because they believe in equality. Throughout the world, we are seeing progress in attracting, retaining, and promoting women in STEMM. IntechOpen are certainly supporting this work globally by empowering all scientists and ensuring that women are encouraged and enabled to publish and take leading roles within the scientific community." Dr. Catrin Rutland, University of Nottingham, UK
",metaTitle:"Advantages of Publishing with IntechOpen",metaDescription:"We have more than a decade of experience in Open Access publishing. \n\n ",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"We have more than a decade of experience in Open Access publishing. The advantages of publishing with IntechOpen include:
\\n\\nOur platform – IntechOpen is the world’s leading publisher of OA books, built by scientists, for scientists.
\\n\\nOur reputation – Everything we publish goes through a two-stage peer review process. We’re proud to count Nobel laureates among our esteemed authors. We meet European Commission standards for funding, and the research we’ve published has been funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and the Wellcome Trust, among others. IntechOpen is a member of all relevant trade associations (including the STM Association and the Association of Learned and Professional Society Publishers) and has a selection of books indexed in Web of Science's Book Citation Index.
\\n\\nOur expertise – We’ve published more than 4,500 books by more than 118,000 authors and editors.
\\n\\nOur reach – Our books have more than 130 million downloads and more than 146,150 Web of Science citations. We increase citations via indexing in all the major databases, including the Book Citation Index at Web of Science and Google Scholar.
\\n\\nOur services – The support we offer our authors and editors is second to none. Each book in our program receives the following:
\\n\\nOur end-to-end publishing service frees our authors and editors to focus on what matters: research. We empower them to shape their fields and connect with the global scientific community.
\\n\\n"In developing countries until now, advancement in science has been very limited, because insufficient economic resources are dedicated to science and education. These limitations are more marked when the scientists are women. In order to develop science in the poorest countries and decrease the gender gap that exists in scientific fields, Open Access networks like IntechOpen are essential. Free access to scientific research could contribute to ameliorating difficult life conditions and breaking down barriers." Marquidia Pacheco, National Institute for Nuclear Research (ININ), Mexico
\\n\\nInterested? Contact Ana Pantar (book.idea@intechopen.com) for more information.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'We have more than a decade of experience in Open Access publishing. The advantages of publishing with IntechOpen include:
\n\nOur platform – IntechOpen is the world’s leading publisher of OA books, built by scientists, for scientists.
\n\nOur reputation – Everything we publish goes through a two-stage peer review process. We’re proud to count Nobel laureates among our esteemed authors. We meet European Commission standards for funding, and the research we’ve published has been funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and the Wellcome Trust, among others. IntechOpen is a member of all relevant trade associations (including the STM Association and the Association of Learned and Professional Society Publishers) and has a selection of books indexed in Web of Science's Book Citation Index.
\n\nOur expertise – We’ve published more than 4,500 books by more than 118,000 authors and editors.
\n\nOur reach – Our books have more than 130 million downloads and more than 146,150 Web of Science citations. We increase citations via indexing in all the major databases, including the Book Citation Index at Web of Science and Google Scholar.
\n\nOur services – The support we offer our authors and editors is second to none. Each book in our program receives the following:
\n\nOur end-to-end publishing service frees our authors and editors to focus on what matters: research. We empower them to shape their fields and connect with the global scientific community.
\n\n"In developing countries until now, advancement in science has been very limited, because insufficient economic resources are dedicated to science and education. These limitations are more marked when the scientists are women. In order to develop science in the poorest countries and decrease the gender gap that exists in scientific fields, Open Access networks like IntechOpen are essential. Free access to scientific research could contribute to ameliorating difficult life conditions and breaking down barriers." Marquidia Pacheco, National Institute for Nuclear Research (ININ), Mexico
\n\nInterested? Contact Ana Pantar (book.idea@intechopen.com) for more information.
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5766},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5227},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1717},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10367},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15789}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118188},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"0",sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish",topicId:"10"},books:[{type:"book",id:"8969",title:"Deserts and Desertification",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4df95c7f295de7f6003e635d9a309fe9",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Yajuan Zhu, Dr. Qinghong Luo and Dr. Yuguo Liu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8969.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"180427",title:"Dr.",name:"Yajuan",surname:"Zhu",slug:"yajuan-zhu",fullName:"Yajuan Zhu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10754",title:"Global Warming and Climate Change",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"8994a915a306910a01cbe2027aa2139b",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Stuart Arthur Harris",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10754.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"12539",title:"Dr.",name:"Stuart",surname:"Harris",slug:"stuart-harris",fullName:"Stuart Harris"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10851",title:"Volcanology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"6cfc09f959efecf9ba95654b1bb4b987",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Angelo Paone and Prof. Sung-Hyo Yun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10851.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"182871",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelo",surname:"Paone",slug:"angelo-paone",fullName:"Angelo Paone"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10952",title:"Soil Science - Emerging Technologies, Global Perspectives and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"3dbedd2099c57a24eaab114be4ba2b48",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Michael Thomas Aide and Dr. Indi Braden",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10952.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"185895",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",surname:"Aide",slug:"michael-aide",fullName:"Michael Aide"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10949",title:"Clay and Clay Minerals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"44d08b9e490617fcbf7786c381c85fbc",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10949.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10756",title:"Urban Agglomeration",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"65f2a1fef9c804c29b18ef3ac4a35066",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Luis Loures",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10756.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"108118",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",surname:"Loures",slug:"luis-loures",fullName:"Luis Loures"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10954",title:"Dark Matter - Recent Observations and Theoretical Advances",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"b0fbd6ee0096e4c16e9513bf01273ab3",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Michael L. Smith",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10954.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"59479",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael L.",surname:"Smith",slug:"michael-l.-smith",fullName:"Michael L. Smith"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:26},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:7},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8098",title:"Resources of Water",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d251652996624d932ef7b8ed62cf7cfc",slug:"resources-of-water",bookSignature:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran, Muhammad Salik Javaid, Aftab Sadiq",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8098.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"167917",title:"Dr.",name:"Prathna",middleName:null,surname:"Thanjavur Chandrasekaran",slug:"prathna-thanjavur-chandrasekaran",fullName:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8415",title:"Extremophilic Microbes and Metabolites",subtitle:"Diversity, Bioprospecting and Biotechnological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"93e0321bc93b89ff73730157738f8f97",slug:"extremophilic-microbes-and-metabolites-diversity-bioprospecting-and-biotechnological-applications",bookSignature:"Afef Najjari, Ameur Cherif, Haïtham Sghaier and Hadda Imene Ouzari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8415.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196823",title:"Dr.",name:"Afef",middleName:null,surname:"Najjari",slug:"afef-najjari",fullName:"Afef Najjari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9731",title:"Oxidoreductase",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"852e6f862c85fc3adecdbaf822e64e6e",slug:"oxidoreductase",bookSignature:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9731.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"224662",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmoud Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Mansour",slug:"mahmoud-ahmed-mansour",fullName:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1351",title:"Science Education",slug:"science-education",parent:{title:"Educational Technology",slug:"technology-educational-technology"},numberOfBooks:1,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:15,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:1,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"science-education",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"5845",title:"Science Education",subtitle:"Research and New Technologies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3a5bc4e2fb238f48fde3bd603ab475ff",slug:"science-education-research-and-new-technologies",bookSignature:"Antonio Vanderlei Dos Santos and Joao Carlos Krause",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5845.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"174020",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Dos Santos",slug:"antonio-dos-santos",fullName:"Antonio Dos Santos"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:1,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"55358",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68955",title:"Electric Power System Simulator Tool in MATLAB",slug:"electric-power-system-simulator-tool-in-matlab",totalDownloads:1284,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"science-education-research-and-new-technologies",title:"Science Education",fullTitle:"Science Education - Research and New Technologies"},signatures:"Mohamad Arnaout, Rabih Rammal and Samih Abdulnabi",authors:[{id:"197142",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamad",middleName:null,surname:"Arnaout",slug:"mohamad-arnaout",fullName:"Mohamad Arnaout"},{id:"197817",title:"Dr.",name:"Rabih",middleName:null,surname:"Rammal",slug:"rabih-rammal",fullName:"Rabih Rammal"},{id:"208244",title:"Dr.",name:"Samih",middleName:null,surname:"Abdulnabi",slug:"samih-abdulnabi",fullName:"Samih Abdulnabi"}]},{id:"54764",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68182",title:"Discussing Socioscientific Controversies in Primary and Secondary Education: Potentials and Constraints in Science Lessons",slug:"discussing-socioscientific-controversies-in-primary-and-secondary-education-potentials-and-constrain",totalDownloads:720,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"science-education-research-and-new-technologies",title:"Science Education",fullTitle:"Science Education - Research and New Technologies"},signatures:"Leandro Duso",authors:[{id:"197946",title:"Dr.",name:"Leandro",middleName:null,surname:"Duso",slug:"leandro-duso",fullName:"Leandro Duso"}]},{id:"54975",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68218",title:"Transformative Orientation in Learning to Teach Physics and Chemistry",slug:"transformative-orientation-in-learning-to-teach-physics-and-chemistry",totalDownloads:732,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"science-education-research-and-new-technologies",title:"Science Education",fullTitle:"Science Education - Research and New Technologies"},signatures:"Mónica Baptista, Sofia Freire and Ana Maria Freire",authors:[{id:"200170",title:"Dr.",name:"Sofia",middleName:null,surname:"Freire",slug:"sofia-freire",fullName:"Sofia Freire"},{id:"205493",title:"Dr.",name:"Mónica",middleName:null,surname:"Baptista",slug:"monica-baptista",fullName:"Mónica Baptista"},{id:"205504",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Freire",slug:"ana-maria-freire",fullName:"Ana Maria Freire"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"55953",title:"Mathematics Instruction Based on Science Using Didactical Phenomenology Approach in Junior Secondary School in Indonesia",slug:"mathematics-instruction-based-on-science-using-didactical-phenomenology-approach-in-junior-secondary",totalDownloads:1298,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"science-education-research-and-new-technologies",title:"Science Education",fullTitle:"Science Education - Research and New Technologies"},signatures:"Turmudi, Setya Utari, Suprih Widodo and Ratnaningsih",authors:[{id:"197964",title:"Prof.",name:"Turmudi",middleName:null,surname:"Turmudi",slug:"turmudi-turmudi",fullName:"Turmudi Turmudi"}]},{id:"55115",title:"Software for Simulation of Static Switch Controllers",slug:"software-for-simulation-of-static-switch-controllers",totalDownloads:666,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"science-education-research-and-new-technologies",title:"Science Education",fullTitle:"Science Education - Research and New Technologies"},signatures:"Marius-Daniel Marcu, Popescu Florin Gabriel and Niculescu Titu",authors:[{id:"109021",title:"Dr.",name:"Niculescu",middleName:null,surname:"Titu",slug:"niculescu-titu",fullName:"Niculescu Titu"},{id:"201231",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Marius-Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Marcu",slug:"marius-daniel-marcu",fullName:"Marius-Daniel Marcu"},{id:"201236",title:"Dr.",name:"Florin-Gabriel",middleName:null,surname:"Popescu",slug:"florin-gabriel-popescu",fullName:"Florin-Gabriel Popescu"}]},{id:"55358",title:"Electric Power System Simulator Tool in MATLAB",slug:"electric-power-system-simulator-tool-in-matlab",totalDownloads:1282,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"science-education-research-and-new-technologies",title:"Science Education",fullTitle:"Science Education - Research and New Technologies"},signatures:"Mohamad Arnaout, Rabih Rammal and Samih Abdulnabi",authors:[{id:"197142",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamad",middleName:null,surname:"Arnaout",slug:"mohamad-arnaout",fullName:"Mohamad Arnaout"},{id:"197817",title:"Dr.",name:"Rabih",middleName:null,surname:"Rammal",slug:"rabih-rammal",fullName:"Rabih Rammal"},{id:"208244",title:"Dr.",name:"Samih",middleName:null,surname:"Abdulnabi",slug:"samih-abdulnabi",fullName:"Samih Abdulnabi"}]},{id:"56540",title:"Introductory Chapter: Science Education - Research and New Technologies",slug:"introductory-chapter-science-education-research-and-new-technologies",totalDownloads:792,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"science-education-research-and-new-technologies",title:"Science Education",fullTitle:"Science Education - Research and New Technologies"},signatures:"Antonio Vanderlei Dos Santos and João Carlos Krause",authors:[{id:"174020",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Dos Santos",slug:"antonio-dos-santos",fullName:"Antonio Dos Santos"}]},{id:"55679",title:"Electric Machines: Tool in MATLAB",slug:"electric-machines-tool-in-matlab",totalDownloads:1473,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"science-education-research-and-new-technologies",title:"Science Education",fullTitle:"Science Education - Research and New Technologies"},signatures:"Rabih Rammal and Mohamad Arnaout",authors:[{id:"197142",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamad",middleName:null,surname:"Arnaout",slug:"mohamad-arnaout",fullName:"Mohamad Arnaout"},{id:"197817",title:"Dr.",name:"Rabih",middleName:null,surname:"Rammal",slug:"rabih-rammal",fullName:"Rabih Rammal"}]},{id:"54764",title:"Discussing Socioscientific Controversies in Primary and Secondary Education: Potentials and Constraints in Science Lessons",slug:"discussing-socioscientific-controversies-in-primary-and-secondary-education-potentials-and-constrain",totalDownloads:718,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"science-education-research-and-new-technologies",title:"Science Education",fullTitle:"Science Education - Research and New Technologies"},signatures:"Leandro Duso",authors:[{id:"197946",title:"Dr.",name:"Leandro",middleName:null,surname:"Duso",slug:"leandro-duso",fullName:"Leandro Duso"}]},{id:"54975",title:"Transformative Orientation in Learning to Teach Physics and Chemistry",slug:"transformative-orientation-in-learning-to-teach-physics-and-chemistry",totalDownloads:731,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"science-education-research-and-new-technologies",title:"Science Education",fullTitle:"Science Education - Research and New Technologies"},signatures:"Mónica Baptista, Sofia Freire and Ana Maria Freire",authors:[{id:"200170",title:"Dr.",name:"Sofia",middleName:null,surname:"Freire",slug:"sofia-freire",fullName:"Sofia Freire"},{id:"205493",title:"Dr.",name:"Mónica",middleName:null,surname:"Baptista",slug:"monica-baptista",fullName:"Mónica Baptista"},{id:"205504",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Freire",slug:"ana-maria-freire",fullName:"Ana Maria Freire"}]},{id:"55359",title:"Teaching and Learning Primary Science for Marginalised Children",slug:"teaching-and-learning-primary-science-for-marginalised-children",totalDownloads:728,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"science-education-research-and-new-technologies",title:"Science Education",fullTitle:"Science Education - Research and New Technologies"},signatures:"Kamisah Osman and Cindy Wong Chyee Chen",authors:[{id:"197989",title:"Prof.",name:"Kamisah",middleName:null,surname:"Osman",slug:"kamisah-osman",fullName:"Kamisah Osman"}]},{id:"55209",title:"Computer Science Education and Interdisciplinarity",slug:"computer-science-education-and-interdisciplinarity",totalDownloads:860,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"science-education-research-and-new-technologies",title:"Science Education",fullTitle:"Science Education - Research and New Technologies"},signatures:"Cristina-Maria Dabu",authors:[{id:"39278",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristina-Maria",middleName:null,surname:"DABU",slug:"cristina-maria-dabu",fullName:"Cristina-Maria DABU"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"science-education",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/books/digital-communication/security-limitations-of-spectral-amplitude-coding-based-on-modified-quadratic-congruence-code-syste1",hash:"",query:{},params:{book:"digital-communication",chapter:"security-limitations-of-spectral-amplitude-coding-based-on-modified-quadratic-congruence-code-syste1"},fullPath:"/books/digital-communication/security-limitations-of-spectral-amplitude-coding-based-on-modified-quadratic-congruence-code-syste1",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()