Technical indexes of virgin asphalt.
\r\n\tThe book will start with a discussion on the evaluation of the quality of life of patients with faecal incontinence, recent advances in manometry (such as high resolution) and imaging (3D endoanal ultrasound) merit in-depth discussion. Other topics that will be discussed are conservative management, surgical treatment (anal implants, neuromodulation, anal sphincter repair, etc), as well as faecal incontinence in various patient groups such as the elderly, the critically ill and those with spinal injuries.
",isbn:"978-1-78984-326-2",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-325-5",doi:null,price:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"972893234025c3c64bca793654086b70",bookSignature:"Associate Prof. John Camilleri-Brennan",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7861.jpg",keywords:"Manometry, Anorectal Physiology, PTNS, Sacral Nerve Stimulation, Biofeedback, Pelvic Floor Exercises, Scoring Systems, Life Quality Scales, Anal Sphincter Repair, Gracilis Neosphincter, Diarrhoea, Faecal Management Systems",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 26th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 17th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 15th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 6th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 5th 2019",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"169437",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Camilleri-Brennan",slug:"john-camilleri-brennan",fullName:"John Camilleri-Brennan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169437/images/system/169437.JPG",biography:"Mr John Camilleri-Brennan MD (Melit), MD (Dundee), FRCSGlas, FRCSGenSurg, MFSTEd is a consultant in general and colorectal surgery with NHS Forth Valley, practising at Forth Valley Royal Hospital. He is currently the lead clinician for colorectal cancer. He is also an honorary clinical associate professor with the University of Glasgow.\nA graduate of the University of Malta, Mr Camilleri-Brennan received his postgraduate surgical training primarily in Dundee and Aberdeen. He was awarded a Travelling Fellowship by the Royal College of Physicians & Surgeons of Glasgow that enabled him to pursue further studies in colorectal surgery at the University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, USA. His research on rectal cancer led to a doctorate from the University of Dundee.\nMr Camilleri-Brennan has published articles in major surgical journals, co-authored chapters in postgraduate surgical textbooks, and has presented prize-winning papers at many national and international meetings. He is on the board of examiners and is a regional advisor and college tutor in surgery for the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow. He is a recognised postgraduate surgical trainer and is an elected member of the Faculty of Surgical Trainers of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh. He is the recipient of the prestigious William Cullen Prize from the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh for his work on faecal incontinence.",institutionString:"University of Glasgow",position:"Consultant Surgeon and Honorary Clinical Associate",outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Forth Valley Royal Hospital",institutionURL:null,country:null}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"270933",firstName:"Luka",lastName:"Cvjetkovic",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/270933/images/7797_n.jpg",email:"luka@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. 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Saxena",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7064.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7080",title:"Cancer Metastasis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f0d13ac5ae23ffa56926654b2382235e",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7080.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7088",title:"The Ligaments of the Knee - Injuries and Repair",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c6ff50bd763d5365d13203a129152f5e",slug:null,bookSignature:"M.Sc. João Bosco Sales Nogueira, Dr. Leonardo Heráclio Do Carmo Araújo and Dr. Marcelo José Cortez Bezerra",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7088.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"215718",title:"M.Sc.",name:"João Bosco Sales",surname:"Nogueira",slug:"joao-bosco-sales-nogueira",fullName:"João Bosco Sales Nogueira"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7096",title:"Hypothermia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5cf34de63db27224980fe8ccad712d94",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Farid Sadaka",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7096.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"101031",title:"Dr.",name:"Farid",surname:"Sadaka",slug:"farid-sadaka",fullName:"Farid Sadaka"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7104",title:"Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"738f7a3225a21396cd5d58099b8b2d87",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Ali Ibrahim Yahya",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7104.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"222438",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali Ibrahim",surname:"Yahya",slug:"ali-ibrahim-yahya",fullName:"Ali Ibrahim Yahya"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7112",title:"The One Health Approach to Clostridium Difficile Infection",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"06d775dda81664e36e8f47ff8a000066",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Mónica Alexandra Sousa Oleastro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7112.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"164933",title:"Prof.",name:"Mónica Alexandra",surname:"Sousa Oleastro",slug:"monica-alexandra-sousa-oleastro",fullName:"Mónica Alexandra Sousa Oleastro"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"53639",title:"Highly Sensitive Singlet Oxygen Spectroscopic System Using InGaAs PIN Photodiode",doi:"10.5772/66644",slug:"highly-sensitive-singlet-oxygen-spectroscopic-system-using-ingaas-pin-photodiode",body:'\nLow-level light is emitted from various kinds of faint sources in the visible region. It is difficult to specify the emitting source chemically because the spectra overlap each other. In the near infrared (NIR), existence of the substance of biological material for emitting is not scarce,. Also the thermal back ground noise is exceedingly released compared with the middle-infrared region or the far-infrared region. The problem of measuring exceedingly low levels light from various kinds of faint sources is of considerable interest and importance. Especially, 1O2 is emitted with low-level light at the 1.27 µm of NIR optical band. 1O2 is one of active oxygen species from the biological material. The chemiluminescent substance is scarce at the NIR region, the use of spectroscopic 1O2 emission will be available as a chemical and physical analytical tool in. There are many biochemists, pathologists, and agricultural chemists who focus on such a weak optical signal in the NIR [1]. Since silicon photodiode have no optical sensitivity in the NIR, Ge PIN photodiodes with phase sensitive amplifier are used in NIR [1]. Johnson noise is given by the equation, Eq. (1),
\nwhere Ij is thermal noise current, kD is Boltzmann constant, Tn is temperature in kelvin, Rsh is shunt resistance in photodiode. Rsh is in inverse proportion to dark current. The shot noise (dark) is given by the next equation, Eq. (2),
\nwhere IsD is shot noise in darkness, e is the electron charge, Idn is the dark current. At the operating temperature of 77 K, the device thermal noise and shot noise are not dominant [2, 3, 4]. The optical sensitivity is mainly decided by the dark current. The principal noise current of such a detector with a transimpedance amplifier (TIA) is given by the equation, Eq. (3),
\nwhere Inis noise current, Idn is dark current, e is the electron charge, and Δf is the bandwidth. Figure 1 shows the temperature dependence of the dark current InGaAs photodiode (Fujitsu FID13Y23WY) and Ge PIN photodiode (Fujitsu FID13R53WZ) for the optical communication system. The dark current of an InGaAs photodiode at 77 K is three orders of magnitude less than of a Ge PIN photodiode.
Temperature dependence of dark current InGaAs photodiode and Ge pin photodiode (identical to the one published in authors’ previous work [5]).
Figure 2 shows temperature dependence of quantum efficiency the InGaAs photodiode and the Ge PIN photodiode. The quantum efficiency of the Ge PIN photodiode decreases from the temperature of liquid nitrogen. That of the InGaAs maintains to the temperature of liquid helium. The dark current and quantum efficiency of the Ge PIN photodiode decrease in proportion to the device temperature. The device temperature of the InGaAs PIN photodiode has little influence to the quantum efficiency. Therefore, the InGaAs PIN photodiode is more suitable than the Ge PIN photodiode for detecting low-level light in the NIR region.
Temperature dependence of quantum efficiency InGaAs photodiode and Ge pin photodiode.
The impedance of an InGaAs PIN photodiode cooled to 77 K is so high (100 TΩ). It can be operated with a charge integrating amplifier (CIA) [2, 4, 5]. The amount accumulated charge in this configuration is directly measured as voltage. The photocurrent or carrier in the CIA is converted to voltage through the capacitance of a photodiode. Figure 3 shows the diode equivalent circuit with a simplified signal source. Rsh is so high and Idn is very small at the temperature 77 K.
Diode equivalent circuit (identical to the one published in authors’ previous work [5]).
The CIA output voltage is given by the next equation, Eq. (4).
\nWhere Vds is the voltage of the signal output. Iph is the photocurrent, τ is integration time, Cd is the capacitance of the detector. The InGaAs-CIA enables photocurrent to the voltage without a feedback register. The minimum detectable incident power is given by
\nWhere Pmin is the minimum detectable power, Idn is the dark current, e is the electron charge η is the quantum efficiency of the photodiode, Δf is the bandwidth, eam is the noise voltage of the amplifier, τ is the integration time, and Cd is the capacitance [5]. At the condition Idn= 5 × 10−15 A, η = 0.7, Cd= 30 pF, eam = 100 nVHz−1/2, τ = 10 sec, Δf = 100 Hz, the calculated Pmin value is 6 × 10−17 W.
\nFigure 4 shows the InGaAs-CIA detailed circuit diagram. The InGaAs PIN photodiode (Fujitsu FID13Y23WY) was used for CIA. The output voltage measured an amount of photocurrent. A dual n-channel J. FET (2N6483) differential amplifier minimized current drift error from fluctuation of the temperature. The FET source follower circuit reduces the output impedance for reduction of inductive noise. The timer IC (NE555) with p-channel MOSFET (3SJ11A) controls the time of charge accumulating.
Circuit diagram of the InGaAs-CIA (almost identical to the one published in authors’ previous work [5, 6]).
Figure 5 shows the chart records of the InGaAs-CIA. The integration time of 10 sec yields differential voltage of 130 mV between on-emission light of 10−15 W and off light. The voltage fluctuation in 10 sec was 10 mV. The minimum detectable power was measured by the LED optical source (ADVANTEST TQ-28 at 1.28 µm with FWHM 30 nm) and attenuates NIR ND filters. The system obtained minimum detectable optical power 10-−16 W at 1.28 µm with 10 sec. The result corresponded to the predicted value of equation.
Chart records of the InGaAs-CIA (identical to the one published in authors’ previous work [5]).
Figure 6 shows the theoretical and experimental results of the minimum detectable power. The solid and dashed lines show the experimental and theoretical results, respectively. The minimum detectable power of 10−16 W was achieved at 1.28 μm wavelength.
Minimum detectable power dependence of integration time (InGaAs pin photodiode at 77 K) (Identical to the one published in authors previous work [5]).
At the theoretical line above 10 sec, the measured minimum detectable power was saturated. The influence of electrical FET device noise, 1/f low frequency noise, the saturation capacity of the dark current, and leak photocurrent are considered.
In the NIR region, low-level light has important information of biological, biochemistry, agricultural chemistry, and photochemistry. The emission phenomenon or spectrum is expected to explain the emission mechanisms. The biophoton or biological emission has extremely low-level light. The spectrum of the emission has broadly wavelength. The change of emission intensity is at a slow speed. An InGaAs-CIA is effective to accumulate excited photocurrent of the emission. It is difficult to focus for the spectrometer by lenses as the solid angle of biophoton or chemiluminescence from the living organism substance has a great angle of radiation and incoherent characteristic. Normally, the transmission of the spectrometer is less than 10%. A great solid angle as possible and short distance between optical source and dispersive element is important for the effective measurement. From these points of view, a high-efficiency filter- based InGaAs-CIA spectroscopic system was fabricated [6]. Figure 7 shows a schematic diagram of the system. Fifteen interference filters (vacuum optics corporation of Japan) was used of the spectroscopic system. The measurement spectra range of the system has 1.0– 1.6 µm with 30–35 nm optical resolution. The interference filters have the average transmission of 82 ± 6%.
Interference filter based spectroscopic system (identical to the one published in authors’ previous work [6]).
We measured the emission spectrum of 1O2 at 1.27 µm to test the performance for our filter-based spectrometer. The emission with 1O2 is very weak because it derives from a forbidden transition. The spectrum of 1O2 produced by 13-LOOH (2 mM) with cytochrome c (10 µM), NH3-NH4Cl (0.04 M), D2O is shown in Figure 8. We have observed a derivation biochemistry emission spectrum of 1O2 produced by this reaction. It means that 1O2 generated by oxidized 13-LOOH with cytochrome c of protein material of human body. The reaction is known as Russell’s mechanism [7, 8].
1O2 spectral of 13-LOOH with cytochrome c, D2O (identical to the one published in authors’ previous work [6]).
Figure 9 shows Russell’s mechanism. The chemical equation is shown in Eq. (6).
The Russell’s mechanism [7].
The photo-generation in the visible region has been derived from 1O2 in the past because the lipid peroxidation product is proportion to the emission intensity in the visible region. However, the emission by excited carbonyl involves in Russell’s mechanism. Tyrosine and tryptophan emits at the wavelength of 500– 600 nm [7, 8]. A traditional method to detect 1O2-involved chemical technique has no specificity for 1O2 detection. The sensitivity of 1O2 detection in near infrared enables to detect 1O2 specificity because there is no emission material excepted. The heme compounds in the living organism include hemoglobin (blood), myoglobin (muscle), and cytochrome c (mitochondria). These heme compounds play important role in living body. In the case of inflammation in biological membranes, 1O2 is generated by Russell’s mechanism. The heme compounds perform catalysis on this occasion. We titrate the generation of 1O2 by adding NaOCl after the excess H2O2 was put in the reaction chamber. The optical intensity of 1O2 by 13-LOOH with cytochrome c, in D2O in near infrared was compared with that of a typical 1O2 generating method by mixed NaOCl and H2O2. The optical yield of 1O2 by 13-LOOH with cytochrome c, in D2O was decided using a calibration curve. Figure 10 shows the calibration curve of the 1O2 optical yield at the wavelength of 1.27 μm using the NaOCl-H2O2 system.
Calibration curve of the 1O2 optical yield at the wavelength of 1.27 μm using NaOCl-H2O2 system.
These results show the degree of risk in case of 1O2 generated from the heme compound. The InGaAs-CIA filter based spectroscopic system will be expected as an analysis equipment of oxidant stress by 1O2.
The multichannel spectroscopic system is available for measurement of fast emitting phenomena because the optical dispersion device of spectroscopic cannot be avoided to moving for wavelength shifting. In the visible region, silicon CCD camera with photoelectron multiplication function for detecting low-level light is commercially available. A silicon multichannel photo device at the wavelength of 1 μm has no photosensitivity. The light detecting materials for the NIR is easily influenced dark current. The commercially available InGaAs CCD or NIR photomultiplier of InGaAs photocathode material is very expensive. Additionally, this system is short of optical sensitivity for 1O2 measurement in the NIR. A highly sensitive 8 channel InGAs-CIA spectroscopic system was developed for 1O2 measurement. A commercially available InGaAs PIN photodiode for an optical communication device was used to stabilize parts supply. In case of employing the high sensitivity multichannel array, each photodiode or Avalanche photo diode device needs a lock-in amplifier with TIA circuits or photon counting equipment. Such a system is difficult to fabricate in reality because it needs many lock-in amplifier or photon counter in proportion to the number of channels. The InGaAs-CIA multichannel system has respectively signal transduction system to voltage from current. The system was allowed simple circuit, signal processing, and signal acquiring system with a low bit AD converter. The outline of InGaAs photodiode array is shown in Figure 11. The commercially available photodiode Fujitsu FID13Y13TX has a diameter of 1 mmϕ. The 8 photodiodes was fabricated without spacing. The wide size is about 8 mm. Hamamatsu Photonics Co. assembled wire bonding during photodiodes device and packaging.
Outline of InGaAs photodiode array.
The block diagram of 8 channel multichannel InGaAs-CIA system is shown Figure 12. The fundamental circuit is as same as the monocyclic InGaAs-CIA system. The output signal of CIA array was connected to the AD converter for data acquisition after transmitted low impedance by J-FET source follower circuits. The system achieved minimum detectable optical power of 5 × 10−15~10 × 10−15. The deviation of sensitivity in each channel was inner single digit.
8 multichannel InGaAs-CIA.
Figure 13 shows the block diagram of 8 array InGaAs-CIA multichannel spectroscopic system. The near-infrared light of the optical source was guided to dispersive element after collimator lens for parallel beam through an optical fiber of 100 μm core diameter. The NIR light was dispersed by the grating (Shimazu co. blaze wavelength of 1.2 μm, 300 line/1 mm, efficiency about 60%). The spectroscopic resolution of 1 channel was allowed about 75 nm from 1000 to 1600 nm. The dispersion light was condensed on the photodiode array by a focal lens. The calibration of center wavelength on 8 photodiode was achieved using light from the monochromator as an optical band pass filter. The FWHM (full width at half maximum) 1O2 spectrum was broadened about 100 nm at the center of 1265 nm. It needs no detailed resolution for spectrum measurement. In the NIR region, the chemical fluorescence of a biological material has no scarcely existence except 1O2. The low-level light at the center wavelength of 1.27 μm enables to eliminate the thermal background noise.
8 array InGaAs-CIA spectroscopic system.
A proof of any channel of photodiode array was carried out with the wavelength shift by a spectral apparatus of resolution 30 nm of the monochromator from 1000 to 1600 nm. Figure 14 shows 1O2 spectral of chemiluminescence with NaOCl mixed H2O2. The spectral of center wavelength was 1.28 μm with 50 nm of full width at half maximum. Figure 14 shows the spectral of 1O2. The 8 multichannel spectroscopic system succeeded in measurement of 1O2 spectral as same as measurement by the monochromatic spectrometer [9]. The system succeeded in simultaneous multiwavelength of 1O2 spectrum measurement.
1O2 spectral of chemiluminescence.
This measurement system will be useful for fast optical phenomenon, periodic emission, nondestructive measurement for melon, watermelon, and meat with extremely optical intensity damped in the NIR spectroscopy. The absorption band of protein, sugar, and lipid has a broad spectrum in the NIR. The detection sensitivity and measurement speed are needed. Our multichannel detection system is suitable for such a measurement condition.
In development of antioxidant of food chemistry, found metal material of beauty product, color, the super oxidation power allows the experiments of acid resistance and reaction promotion. In case of acid resistance test, the generation of 1O2 from chemical reaction may influence the chemical generation reaction itself. The generation 1O2 by photoexcited Rose Bengal has almost no influence of chemical reaction. The Rose Bengal 1O2 generation system was fabricated with super luminescence green LED used for the traffic signal. The 1O2 generation intensity was controlled by monitoring NIR chemiluminescence using the InGaAs-CIA system without liquid nitrogen. Figure 15 shows a block diagram of the 1O2 generation system.
Block diagram of 1O2 generation system by use of Rose Bengal.
The Rose Bengal solution was photoexcited by the 5W LED of best match absorption band. The new optical excited system achieved the very small compact size in comparison of using argon ion laser. The system is suitable for chemical plants of mass production because the electric power supply circuits for the LED are simple and easy current control. The generated 1O2 was optically monitored by InGaAs-CIA at the device temperature of about 150 K degree without liquid nitrogen. The chemical plants should avoid using liquid nitrogen because of choking hazard and troublesome chores. The minimum detectable power of 10−13 W at the device temperature 150 K was achieved for monitoring 1O2.
\nThe absorption band of Rose Bengal is shown in Figure 16. The absorption band covers from 500–600 nm. The absorption peak spectrum yields at the wavelength of 550 nm. The emission spectrum of an excitation light source is shown in Figure 17. A water-cooled multimode argon ion laser or green-laser was used for the traditional optical excitation source. The multimode spectrum of argon ion laser is oscillated at the wavelength of 488 and 515 nm. The intensity of spectrum at 488 nm wavelength is stronger than that of 515 nm. The main spectrum stands at the outside of Rose Bengal absorption band. The spectrum of green LED and super luminosity green LED has the center position of the absorption band. The oscillation power of green super luminosity LED for traffic signal has very strong power in comparison with green LD except for metallic processing green LED. The green super luminosity LED permits increasing of absorbance, and achieved downsizing the system spectacularly, and realized cost cuts. Figure 18 shows photograph of excitation by green LED.
Absorption band of Rose Bengal aqueous.
Rose Bengal excitation light source.
Photograph of excitation by green LED.
Figure 19 shows the spectrum 1O2 of Rose Bengal excited by green LED. The spectrum has a peak at the wavelength of 1.27 μm. A red line in Figure 19 indicates the wavelength of optical band pass filters. There are four optical band pass filters (1200, 1250, 1300, and 1350 nm) for the spectroscopic system.
1O2 spectrum of Rose Bengal excited by green LED.
The 1O2 emission spectrum of Rose Bengal is shown in Figure 20. The intensity of 1O2 emission in methanol is stronger than water solvent. The lifetime of 1O2 in methanol is longer than in water. The generation intensity of 1O2 is monitored through an optical fiber combined with InGaAs-CIA. Many 1O2 monitoring equipment and generation optical sources are necessary in the construction of a microreactor chemical plant. The conventional system employs the Ge-TIA photo detection system with lock-in amplifier and water-cooled argon ion laser. Such a system is not suitable for chemical plant because the system needs occupied large space and high cost. The combination of InGaAs-CIA monitoring and the super luminescence green LED 1O2 generating system enables the construction of a compact and reasonable chemical plant. The system expects to contribute to the development of new medicines.
1O2 spectrum of Rose Bengal by measurement with InGaAs-CIA at 150 K.
We developed a highly sensitive InGaAs-CIA in the near-infrared region by use of commercially available photodiode. The system performed low-level light detection measurement in the NIR region. The optical emission of 1O2 was detected specifically in the NIR region. The measurement method of 1O2 was changed from the chemical technique to the physical method. We have achieved detection 1O2 of the heme compound in the living organism including hemoglobin (blood), myoglobin (muscle), and cytochrome c (mitochondria) successfully. These heme compounds play an important role in living body, and also generated 1O2 as a catalyst. The InGaAs-CIA system and multichannel detection system for the low-level light was introduced in the NIR region. The system is available for detection of 1O2 from chemical reaction. The electron refrigeration system without liquid nitrogen will be expected to become popular and realize compact size. Especially, we want to make contribution by means of our system to develop the noninvasive photo-sensitive substance for the photodynamic therapy that produces 1O2 caused oxidative damage to the cancer cells.
With the extensive use of asphalt pavement, improving the performance of asphalt is very important for driving safety and driving comfort. The properties of asphalt are divided into many types. The service life of asphalt pavement is decided on the durability of asphalt and asphalt mixture. Study on durability of asphalt and asphalt mixture is very important in the day [1, 2, 3, 4].
\nZhang et al. [5] investigated the change in molecular weight during the aging process of asphalt and found some new functional groups that were produced inside the asphalt; they also found that the change in molecular structure will lead to changes in the morphology and performance of the asphalt. Chen’s paper concluded that temperature has a great influence on the aging of asphalt. When the temperature was above 100°C, a dehydrogenated chemical reaction of the asphalt was produced. When the temperature was below 100°C, an oxidation reaction of the asphalt was produced, as well as some oxygenated compounds. The chemical reaction produced by asphalt aging has an important influence on the performance of the asphalt [6]. According to Zhu et al., as the aging time is increased, the residual needle penetration and residual ductility are decreased and the softening point is increased. This means that the high-temperature performance of the asphalt is increased and the low-temperature performance is decreased after aging [7]. Zhang et al. [8] indicated that the variation of the performance of the asphalt during the aging progress is mainly due to the change of its interior components. When asphalt is aging, the content of its lighter components is decreased, such as oil and gelatin, and the content of the heavier components is increased, such as asphaltene. This results in a harder asphalt, which is easily broken at low temperatures. Meanwhile, the aging of the asphalt threatens the safety of the road surface. In the aging process, the low-temperature performance and water stability of the asphalt mixture are decreased. The asphalt pavement creates the risk of road fractures and the formation of a loose mixture of asphalt in cold and wet areas [9, 10, 11]. Therefore, it is of great significance to improve the service life and performance of asphalt pavement via improving the aging durability of asphalt.
\nThis chapter will discuss the formation mechanism and durability of two properties of modified asphalt, and further analyze the technical characteristics of different modifiers. On the basis of this research, a new modified asphalt material based on composite modifiers is proposed to optimize the road performance of modified asphalt. And in this work, SBS, SBR, and rubber powder modifiers were selected as composite modifiers. 4% SBS/3% SBR, 4% SBS/15% rubber, and 4% SBR/15% rubber were used for testing. Based on the inherent and improved performance of each mixture, a comparative analysis was carried out to study the changing mechanical performance of CMAM. Findings offer theoretical and practical value for research on asphalt mixture durability [12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20].
\nVirgin asphalt 90# was selected in this test; asphalt indices are displayed in Table 1.
\nAsphalt | \nPenetration (25°C/0.1 mm) | \nPI | \nDuctility (cm) | \nSoftening point (°C) | \nViscosity (135°C/Pa s) | \n|
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
5°C | \n15°C | \n|||||
90# | \n93 | \n−0.77 | \n9 | \n165 | \n44.5 | \n0.328 | \n
Technical indexes of virgin asphalt.
Overall, SBS, SBR, TPS, Sasobit and rubber modifiers were tested (Figure 1). Corresponding indices are shown in Tables 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
\nModifier types. (a) SBS, (b) SBR, (c) rubber (80 mesh); (d) TPS; (e) Sasobit.
Tensile strength (MPa) | \nElongation at break (%) | \nHardness (A) | \nStyrene/butadiene | \nDensity (kg/cm3) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
33 | \n800 | \n76 | \n31/69 | \n0.94 | \n
Technical indices of SBS modifier (LG501).
Moisture quality fraction (%) | \nMolecular weight (×104) | \nTensile strength (MPa) | \nElongation at break (%) | \nEthylene propylene mass fraction (%) | \nDry rubber (%) | \nGrains (mesh) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
≤2 | \n20–30 | \n31 | \n320 | \n22.5–24.5 | \n≥75 | \n<40 | \n
Technical indices of SBR modifier (1502).
Physical index | \nChemical index | \n||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Relative density (kg/cm3) | \nMoisture (%) | \nMetal (%) | \nFiber (%) | \nAsh (%) | \nAcetone extract (%) | \nCarbon black (%) | \nRubber hydrocarbon (%) | \n
289 | \n0.27 | \n0.02 | \n0 | \n10 | \n10.02 | \n32.86 | \n51 | \n
Technical indices of rubber.
\n | Particle size (mm) | \nDensity (g/cm3) | \nWater absorption rate (%) | \n
---|---|---|---|
Technical indicators | \n≤5 | \n0.7~1.0 | \n<1 | \n
Technical indexes of modifier TPS.
\n | Freezing point (°C) | \nPenetration (0.1 mm) | \nViscosity (135°C/cp) | \nDensity (25°C/(g/cm3)) | \nMelting point (°C) | \n|
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
25°C | \n65°C | \n|||||
Prescribed value | \n≤99 | \n≤1 | \n≤10 | \n10~14 | \n— | \n98~110 | \n
Measured value | \n98 | \n<0.7 | \n7 | \n12 | \n0.94 | \n100 | \n
Technical indexes of modifier Sasobit.
The CMAM (AC-13) included the above aggregate gradations. Optimum asphalt content was determined to be 5.6% using the Marshall design method. Asphalt mixture AC-13 was selected, with the aggregate gradation shown in Table 7.
\nMixture type | \nPercentage of passing through sieve (mm)/% | \n|||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
26.5 | \n19 | \n16 | \n13.2 | \n9.5 | \n4.75 | \n2.36 | \n1.18 | \n0.6 | \n0.3 | \n0.15 | \n0.075 | \n|
AC-13 | \n\n | \n | 100 | \n95 | \n76.5 | \n53 | \n37 | \n26.5 | \n19 | \n13.5 | \n10 | \n6 | \n
Aggregate gradations.
The 4% SBS asphalt, 4% TPS asphalt, 16% rubber asphalt, and 2% Sasobit asphalt were selected as the research objects to carry out aging tests (aging times were 0, 5, 20 h). Then, the durability comparison of the asphalt was carried out based on inherent durability and inherent performance.
\nThe antiaged durability of the modified asphalt based on inherent and improved performances is compared and analyzed. The penetration index was used to evaluate the performance at high temperature of the asphalt and the ductility index was used to evaluate the performance at low temperature. The change curves of modified asphalt with different aging times are linear regressions, and it is also used to evaluate the inherent and improved performances of the modified asphalt.
\nThe performance of composite-modified asphalt mixture was tested and analyzed based on inherent and improved performances. A comparative study was tested through the aging durability, plastic deformation durability, and fatigue durability.
In terms of aging durability, taking dynamic stability, bending strain, TSR as indicators to explore the change rule of inherent, improved, and composite performances of different composite-modified asphalt mixtures in aging process by controlling the aging time (0, 5, 20 hours).
In terms of plastic deformation durability, taking plastic deformation of asphalt mixture as an indicator to do a comparative analysis on the change rule of inherent, improved, and composite performances of different composite-modified asphalt mixtures by controlling repeated load times.
In terms of fatigue durability, taking fatigue life of different asphalt mixtures as indicators to do a comparative analysis on the change rule of inherent, improved, and composite performances of different composite-modified asphalt mixtures.
The penetration and PI of the SBS asphalt (90#), TPS asphalt (90#), rubber asphalt (90#), and Sasobit asphalt (90#) based on different performance and aging times are shown in Figures 2, 3, 4, 5.
\nRelationship between penetration, PI, and aging times of 4% SBS asphalt (90#) with different performances: (a) penetration/25°C; (b) penetration/15°C; (c) penetration/5°C; (d) penetration index.
Penetration and PI of TPS asphalt (90#) based on different performances and aging times: (a) penetration/25°C; (b) penetration/15°C; (c) penetration/5°C; (d) penetration index.
Penetration and PI of rubber asphalt (90#) based on different performance and aging times: (a) penetration/25°C; (b) penetration/15°C; (c) penetration/5°C; (d) penetration index.
Penetration and PI of Sasobit asphalt (90#) based on different performances and aging times: (a) penetration/25°C; (b) penetration/15°C; (c) penetration/5°C; (d) penetration index.
The following conclusions can be drawn by comparing the data in Figures 2, 3, 4, 5.
In regard to the penetration data (25, 15, and 5°C), the results show that the penetration change rate of the SBS asphalt (90#), TPS asphalt (90#), rubber asphalt (90#), and Sasobit asphalt (90#) based on improved performance (performance at high temperatures) at different temperatures is smaller than that of inherent performance. But the smaller the penetration change rate is, the better the performance at high temperatures. If penetration drops too rapidly during the aging process, this indicates a poor antiaging durability of penetration. So the inherent performance of the SBS asphalt (90#), TPS asphalt (90#), rubber asphalt (90#), and Sasobit asphalt (90#) was better than that of improved performance.
In regard to the change rate of the PI regression equation, the results show that the penetration change rate of the SBS asphalt (90#), TPS asphalt (90#), and Sasobit asphalt (90#) based on improved performance at the value of PI is smaller than that of inherent performance. The rubber asphalt (90#) based on improved performance at the value of PI is bigger than that of inherent performance. The smaller the value of PI change rate is, the better the temperature sensitivity of asphalt. So the SBS asphalt (90#), TPS asphalt (90#), and Sasobit asphalt (90#) based on improved performance at the temperature sensitivity is smaller than that of inherent performance. The rubber asphalt (90#) based on improved performance at the temperature sensitivity is bigger than that of inherent performance. The results show that the SBS asphalt (90#), TPS asphalt (90#), and Sasobit asphalt (90#) at the temperature sensitivity of improved performance is weak and the antiaging durability of performance at high temperature is better.
The ductility of SBS asphalt (90#) based on different performance and aging times is shown in Figure 6.
\nRelationship between ductility and aging times of 4% SBS asphalt (90#) with different performances: (a) ductility 5°C and (b) ductility 15°C.
Ductility of TPS asphalt (90#) based on different performance and aging times: (a) ductility 5°C and (b) ductility 15°C.
The following conclusions can be obtained by comparing the data in Figures 6, 7, 8, 9.
In terms of the ductility (5°C, 15°C) data, the results show that the ductility change rate of the SBS asphalt (90#) and TPS asphalt (90#) at 5°C ductility based on inherent performance is smaller than that of the improved performance. The ductility change rate of the rubber asphalt (90#) and Sasobit asphalt (90#) at 5°C ductility based on improved performance is bigger than that of the inherent performance. The larger the ductility at 5°C, the better the performance at low temperatures. So the results show that the antiaging durability of the SBS asphalt (90#) and TPS asphalt (90#) at 5°C ductility based on inherent performance (performance at low temperatures) is better than that of the improved performance. The antiaging durability of the rubber asphalt (90#) and Sasobit asphalt (90#) at 5°C ductility based on improved performance (performance at low temperatures) is better than that of the inherent performance.
According to the ductility of 15°C, the results show that the ductility change rate of the SBS asphalt (90#), TPS asphalt (90#), rubber asphalt (90#), and Sasobit asphalt (90#) at 15°C ductility based on improved performance is smaller than that of the inherent performance. The ductility of 15°C is replaced as the elasticity of asphalt. The larger the ductility at 15°C is, the better the performance at the elasticity of asphalt is. So according to the elasticity of asphalt, the SBS asphalt (90#), TPS asphalt (90#), rubber asphalt (90#), and Sasobit asphalt (90#) at the elasticity based on improved performance is smaller than that of the inherent performance.
Ductility of rubber asphalt (90#) based on different performance and aging times: (a) ductility 5°C and (b) ductility 15°C.
Ductility of Sasobit asphalt (90#) based on different performances and aging times: (a) ductility 5°C and (b) ductility 15°C.
The test results are shown in Figures 10, 11, 12, 13.
In regard to the comparison of the data, the results show that the softening point change rate of the SBS asphalt (90#), TPS asphalt (90#), rubber asphalt (90#), and Sasobit asphalt (90#) at 5°C ductility based on improved performance is smaller than that of the inherent performance. The larger the softening point, the better the performance at high temperatures. So the high temperatures of the SBS asphalt (90#), TPS asphalt (90#), rubber asphalt (90#), and Sasobit asphalt (90#) based on improved performance are better than that of the inherent performance.
According to the 135°C viscosity of asphalt, the results show that the viscosity (135°C) change rate of the TPS asphalt (90#) and Sasobit asphalt (90#) at 135°C viscosity based on improved performance is smaller than that of the inherent performance. The SBS asphalt (90#) and rubber asphalt (90#) based on inherent performance is bigger than that of the improved performance. The results of the 135°C viscosity replace that the hardness of asphalt. The larger the 135°C viscosity is, the better the performance of resistance to load is. So the performance of resistance to load of the TPS asphalt (90#) and Sasobit asphalt (90#) based on improved performance is better than that of the inherent performance. The SBS asphalt (90#) and rubber asphalt (90#) based on inherent performance is better than that of the improved performance.
Softening point and viscosity of SBS asphalt (90#) based on different performances and aging times: (a) softening point and (b) viscosity.
Softening point and viscosity of TPS asphalt (90#) based on different performances and aging times: (a) softening point and (b) viscosity.
Softening point and viscosity of rubber asphalt (90#) based on different performance and aging times: (a) softening point and (b) viscosity.
Softening point and viscosity of Sasobit asphalt (90#) based on different performance and aging times: (a) softening point and (b) viscosity.
Test results of the aging durability of the 4% SBS/15% SBR asphalt under different loading times are shown in Figure 14.
In regard to high-temperature stability and low-temperature stability, the change rate of improved performance under different aging times was better than that of inherent performance. Thus, the aging durability of the 4% SBS/3% SBR asphalt mixture on inherent performance was greater than that of improved performance.
In regard to water stability, the change rate of the inherent performance with different aging times was better than the improved performance. As such, the aging durability of the mixture based on improved performance was better than the inherent performance.
Relationship between mechanical properties of 4% SBS/3% SBR asphalt mixture and aging time: (a) dynamic stability; (b) bending strain; (c) TSR.
Test results of the aging durability of the 4% SBS/15% rubber asphalt under different loading times are shown in Figure 15.
Regarding to high-temperature stability, in terms of change rate of the 4% SBS/15% rubber asphalt mixture, the 4%SBS/15% rubber asphalt mixture of inherent performance was less than that of improved performance. Thus, the aging durability of the inherent performance of the mixture was better than the improved performance.
Regarding to low temperature and the water stability change rate, the change rate of inherent performance became better than that of improved performance with different aging times. Therefore, in terms of the aging durability of the 4% SBS/15% rubber asphalt mixture, the improved performance of the mixture was better than that of inherent performance.
Relationship between mechanical properties of 4% SBS/15% rubber asphalt mixture and aging time: (a) dynamic stability; (b) bending strain; (c) TSR.
Test results of the aging durability of the 4% SBR/15% rubber asphalt mixture at different aging times are given in Figure 16.
Regarding to high- and low-temperature stability, in terms of change rate of the 4% SBR/15% rubber asphalt mixture, the change rate of inherent performance was less than improved performance as aging time prolonged. The inherent performance of the mixture was better than that of improved performance.
Regarding to water stability, in terms of change rate of the 4% SBR/15% rubber asphalt mixture, the rate change of inherent performance was greater than that of improved performance with different aging times. The aging durability of the improved performance of the 4% SBR/15% rubber asphalt mixture was better than the inherent performance.
Relationship between mechanical properties of 4% SBR/15% rubber asphalt mixture and aging time: (a) dynamic stability; (b) bending strain; (c) TSR.
The test results are shown in Figures 17, 18, 19. With the different time, in terms of the plastic deformation durability, the change rate of 4% SBS/3% SBR, 4% SBS/15% rubber, and 4% SBR/15% rubber of the inherent performance was greater than that of improved performance, implying that the improved performance of the mixture was better than the inherent performance in terms of plastic deformation durabilityTables 8, 9, 10, 11, 12.
\nTest results of plastic deformation durability of 4% SBS/3% SBR asphalt mixture.
Test results of plastic deformation durability of 4% SBS/15% rubber asphalt mixture.
Test results of plastic deformation durability of 4% SBR/15% rubber asphalt mixture.
Asphalt types | \nPenetration at 5°C | \nPenetration at 15°C | \nPenetration at 25°C | \nPI | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
SBS asphalt (90#) | \nImproving performance is better than inherent performance | \nImproving performance is better than inherent performance | \nImproving performance is better than inherent performance | \nImproving performance is better than inherent performance | \n
TPS asphalt (90#) | \nImproving performance is better than inherent performance | \nImproving performance is better than inherent performance | \nImproving performance is better than inherent performance | \nImproving performance is better than inherent performance | \n
Rubber asphalt (90#) | \nInherent performance is better than improving performance | \nImproving performance is better than inherent performance | \nImproving performance is better than inherent performance | \nInherent performance is better than improving performance | \n
Sasobit asphalt (90#) | \nImproving performance is better than inherent performance | \nImproving performance is better than inherent performance | \nImproving performance is better than inherent performance | \nImproving performance is better than inherent performance | \n
Comparison of penetration and PI based on inherent and improved performances.
Asphalt types | \nDuctility 5°C | \nDuctility 15°C | \n
---|---|---|
SBS asphalt (90#) | \nInherent performance is better than improving performance | \nImproving performance is better than inherent performance | \n
TPS asphalt (90#) | \nInherent performance is better than improving performance | \nImproving performance is better than inherent performance | \n
Rubber asphalt (90#) | \nImproving performance is better than inherent performance | \nImproving performance is better than inherent performance | \n
Sasobit asphalt (90#) | \nImproving performance is better than inherent performance | \nImproving performance is better than inherent performance | \n
Comparison of ductility (5°C, 15°C) based on inherent and improved performances.
Asphalt types | \nSoftening point | \nViscosity | \n
---|---|---|
SBS asphalt (90#) | \nImproving performance is better than inherent performance | \nInherent performance is better than improving performance | \n
TPS asphalt (90#) | \nImproving performance is better than inherent performance | \nImproving performance is better than inherent performance | \n
Rubber asphalt (90#) | \nImproving performance is better than inherent performance | \nInherent performance is better than improving performance | \n
Sasobit asphalt (90#) | \nImproving performance is better than inherent performance | \nImproving performance is better than inherent performance | \n
Comparison of softening point and viscosity based on inherent and improved performances.
Asphalt types | \nDynamic stability | \nBending strain | \nTSR | \n
---|---|---|---|
4% SBS/3% SBR asphalt mixture | \nImproving performance is better than inherent performance | \nImproving performance is better than inherent performance | \nImproving performance is better than inherent performance | \n
4% SBS/15% rubber asphalt mixture | \nImproving performance is better than inherent performance | \nImproving performance is better than inherent performance | \nImproving performance is better than inherent performance | \n
4% SBR/15% rubber asphalt mixture | \nImproving performance is better than inherent performance | \nImproving performance is better than inherent performance | \nImproving performance is better than inherent performance | \n
Comparison of penetration rate based on inherent and improved performance.
Asphalt types | \nDynamic stability | \nBending strain | \n
---|---|---|
4% SBS/3% SBR asphalt mixture | \nPlastic deformation durability | \nFatigue durability | \n
4% SBS/15% rubber asphalt mixture | \nImproving performance is better than inherent performance | \nImproving performance is better than inherent performance | \n
4% SBR/15% rubber asphalt mixture | \nImproving performance is better than inherent performance | \nImproving performance is better than inherent performance | \n
Comparison of dynamic stability and bending strain based on inherent and improved performance.
The test results are shown in Figures 20, 21, 22. The smaller the k-value is, the better the performance of fatigue durability is. The test results show that the k-value of 4% SBS/3% SBR, 4% SBS/15% rubber, and 4% SBR/15% rubber based on the inherent performance of the mixture exceeded that of improved performance. Therefore, in regard to fatigue life, the inherent performance of 4% SBS/3% SBR, 4% SBS/15% rubber, and 4% SBR/15% rubber was better than the improved performance. According to the n-value, the inherent performance of the mixture exceeded the improved performance. The fatigue sensitivity based on the inherent performance of the asphalt mixture was larger than that of improved performance. In regard to the greater the fatigue sensitivity, the worse the fatigue durability. The fatigue durability of the 4% SBS/3% SBR asphalt mixture on improved performance was hence better than the inherent performance.
\nTest results of fatigue durability of 4% SBS/3% SBR asphalt mixture.
Test results of fatigue durability of 4% SBS/15% rubber asphalt mixture.
Test results of fatigue durability of 4% SBS/15% rubber asphalt mixture.
\n
Through comparative analysis of the antiaged durability of different modified asphalts based on inherent and improved performances, the conclusion can be obtained: for SBS- and TPS-modified asphalt, taking penetration (performance at high temperature) and 5°C ductility (performance at low temperature) as indexes, the antiaged durability of the penetration based on inherent performance is less than that of the improved performance. The antiaged durability of 5°C ductility based on inherent performance is better than that of improved performance. The analysis result of rubber asphalt is contrary to this, which shows the particularity of rubber-modified asphalt.
The comparative test results for the durability of composite-modified asphalt based on inherent and improved performances reveal the following: In regard to aging progress, the high and low stabilities of the 4% SBS/3% SBR asphalt mixture and 4% SBR/15% rubber mixture based on inherent performance were better than that of improved performance. Water stability based on improved performance was better than inherent performance. The high-temperature stability of the 4% SBS/15% rubber asphalt mixture based on improved performance was better than that of inherent performance. Low-temperature and water stability based on improved performance were also better than that of inherent performance. Plastic deformation and fatigue durability based on improved performance of these three asphalt mixtures were better than that of inherent performance.
The test results of the improved performance durability of CMAMs reveal that the 4% SBS/15% rubber composite modifier was more stable in improving aging durability at high and low temperatures than the other two modifiers. The 4% SBS/3% SBR modifier was more stable in improving water stability. The 4% SBS/15% rubber composite modifier was more stable in improving plastic deformation durability and fatigue durability and should be adopted when selecting composite modifiers with better stability.
The authors gratefully appreciate the support of the Province Key Laboratory of Road at Northeast Forestry University and the foundations of the project from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (E080703) and the project of the Heilongjiang Traffic and Transportation Department.
\nThe authors claim no conflicts of interest.
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