In-Ga-Zn-O-TFT differential amplifier comparison.
\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"2112",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Soil Health and Land Use Management",title:"Soil Health and Land Use Management",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Soils play multiple roles in the quality of life throughout the world, not only as the resource for food production, but also as the support for our structures, the environment, the medium for waste disposal, water, and the storage of nutrients. A healthy soil can sustain biological productivity, maintain environmental quality, and promote plant and animal health. Understanding the impact of land management practices on soil properties and processes can provide useful indicators of economic and environmental sustainability. The sixteen chapters of this book orchestrate a multidisciplinary composition of current trends in soil health. Soil Health and Land Use Management provides a broad vision of the fundamental importance of soil health. In addition, the development of feasible management and remediation strategies to preserve and ameliorate the fitness of soils are discussed in this book.\nStrategies to improve land management and relevant case studies are covered, as well as the importance of characterizing soil properties to develop management and remediation strategies. 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Hernandez-Soriano, PhD, received a BS degree in Chemistry from the University of Granada, Spain, in 2006, where she also completed a MS in Agricultural Sciences in 2007. She carried out her thesis studies within an international agreement between the High Council for Scientific Research in Spain, and the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven in Belgium, under the supervision of Dr MD Mingorance, Dr A. Peña and Prof. E. Smolders, receiving a PhD degree in Bioscience Engineering in June 2009.\nDr Hernandez-Soriano has been awarded with a significant number of fellowships, including a Fulbright Postdoctoral Fellowship to conduct research in North Carolina State University, under the supervision of Prof. D. Hesterberg. She has made a significant number of research contributions that were published in prestigious international peer-reviewed journals in the area of Soil Science, Environmental Sciences, and Chemistry. Her work has been presented internationally in more than 20 conferences. 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Whizar-Lugo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6221.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"169249",title:"Prof.",name:"Víctor M.",middleName:null,surname:"Whizar-Lugo",slug:"victor-m.-whizar-lugo",fullName:"Víctor M. Whizar-Lugo"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"10354",leadTitle:null,title:"Current State of the Art in Cysticercosis and Neurocysticercosis",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tCysticercosis, caused by the metacestode stage of Taenia solium, is a serious health and veterinary problem in many developing countries and is considered one of the most important neglected tropical diseases in developed countries. In humans, T. solium cysticerci cause neurocysticercosis, which affects ~50 million people worldwide, and it has been considered as an emergent disease in the United States. T. solium also infects pigs, its intermediate host, leading to major economic losses.
\r\n\r\n\tWhen humans ingest undercooked contaminated pork meat, the adult worm develops in the small intestine. After two months of asymptomatic infection, this tapeworm starts producing thousands of eggs, that, once released with the stools, can contaminate the environment, infecting pigs (rapidly differentiating into cysticerci mainly in the muscle) and humans (where most severe symptoms are observed due to the presence of cysticerci in the brain). Thus, maintenance of the parasite's life cycle depends on the adult tapeworm development. Even in communities which do not rear or consume pigs, human neurocysticercosis can be found, because of the presence of a tapeworm carrier. Furthermore, tapeworm development in turn depends on scolex evagination, the initial step through which a single cysticercus becomes an adult parasite with the capability of producing infective eggs. A great deal of scientific advances on the field has been producing in recent times, all on the most important fields of the disease: vaccination, epidemiology, current drug design, diagnostic and host-parasite interaction at all levels. However, to date, there is no actualized book dealing with the recent advances in such an important disease in the world.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book will intend to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art in cysticercosis featuring an easy-to-follow, vignette-based format that focuses on the most important evidence-based developments in this critically important area.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-395-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-394-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-396-0",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"16dae70f4745a1873fbeb34e67007b24",bookSignature:"Prof. Jorge Morales-Montor, Dr. Abraham Landa and Dr. Luis Terrazas",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10354.jpg",keywords:"Delivering Methods, DNA Vaccines, Diagnostic of Cysticercosis, Diagnostic of Taeniosis, Epidemiology of Cysticercosis, Epidemiology of Neurocysticercosis, New Drugs Available, Drug-Design, Taenia Solium, Clinical Trials, Taenia Crassiceps, Immune Response",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 23rd 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 21st 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 19th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 10th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 9th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher in Neuroinmunoendocrinology of several parasite infections, including cysticercosis. He has published over 153 papers, has edited 12 books, and written around 50 book chapters. Head of the Laboratory of Neuroimmunoendocrinology, Institute of Biomedical Research in UNAM, Mèxico.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"A pioneering researcher in molecular parasitology of Taenia solium cysticerci. He was part of the team that sequenced the Taenia solium genome. He has published over 33 papers on cysticercosis. Head of the Laboratory of Molecular Parasitology in UNAM, Mèxico.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"A pioneering researcher in studying the immunology of taeniasis/cysticercosis, appointed Head of the Unit of Experimental Biomedicine. Recently appointed as Director of the Office of Development and Cultural and Scientific Relationships in the School of Superior Studies Iztacala, UNAM.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.jpg",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor studied biology at the Iztacala UNAM Faculty of Higher Studies, obtaining the title in 1992. He obtained a\ndoctor’s degree in October 1997. His doctoral thesis was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser-PUIS Award to the best graduate thesis at thenational level in theareaofparasitology,a recognition that he has also later received as a tutor, since one of his doctorate students won the same award in 2008. In November 1997, he began a postdoctoral stay at theDepartment of CellularBiology at the UniversityofGeorgia, USA, in the laboratory of Dr. Raymond T. Damia´n, one of the most recognized parasitologists in the world. Dr. Morales received a grant from the Fogarty Foundation (one of the most prestigious in Ibero-America) to carry out research on schistosomiasis in the baboon, being a Pan American Fellow for 4 years. Dr. Ray Damia´n would write years later, which assured that\nwithout a doubt, Jorge Morales-Montor had been the best postdoctoral researcher with whom he collaborated in his nearly 35-year career. He was repatriated to Mexico in 2001 by CONACYT and joined the Department of Immunology of the Institute of Biomedical\nResearch of UNAM as Associate Investigator “C”. In just 9 years, he managed to climb the entire ladder of university academic positions, to receive its tenure track positionas a Definitive C Titular Researcher at the Institute of Biomedical Research. The same is reflected in the Level of Premiums for Academic Performance, where it has reached the highest level currently: Level D, for the third\nconsecutive period. Also in the National System of Researchers, he has had the same growth, starting in 1997 as a candidate, and, to date, being promoted to Level III, the highest, for the third consecutive period. Dr.Morales-Montor has been invited to participate\nin different congresses (more than 100). In addition, he is part of the editorial committee of more than 15 indexed international\njournals, nd Editor in Chief of 3. Some of his most important contributions are partially determining the role of steroid hormones in immunological sexual dimorphism, in the polarization of the immune response, and in the antigenic presentation.He has alsomade very relevant studies in relation to how different physiological stages, how the estrous cycle, age, sex, or pregnancy affect the functioning of\nthe immune, endocrinological, and nervous system, and what molecules could be the determinants in this context of net. It has been\nshown that the central nervous system is involved in the regulation of the immune response to parasitic infections, and the effect\nof this activation on various behaviors of the infectedhost. But the centralnervous system has provided interesting data about its\nimpact in the parasitology approach. For instance, a modern concept is depicted by how the central nervous system modulates\nthe gene and proteomic regulation of the different sex steroids in parasites,which are involved in important functions of parasites\nsuch as establishment, growth, and reproduction. Finally, the practical use of the knowledge acquired by the earlier mentioned\nstudies has been applied to a theory that he calls old drugs, new uses: the use of hormones and antihormones as antiparasitic\ntherapy. He has also entered the study of environmental contamination, specifically endocrine disruptors and disease, studying\ntheir role in two very important diseases in the country: cancer and obesity, projects with which he has formed two consortiums\nof investigation. Its results are a very important contribution to the health of both Mexicans and Latin Americans in general, since\nthis is where serious health problems related to parasitic infections, cancer, and obesity are concentrated.His investigations are characterized by an exhaustive and meticulous experimental work, and his scientific production already has 153 articles in international indexed journals, and the majority as the first author or corresponding author. He hasmore than 3000 citations to his works, and an h-index of 29, one of the highest in the country’s scientific community. His articles published in high-impact international\njournals include Nature, PlosOne, Journal of Immunology, Journal of Infectious Diseases, Journal of Interferon and Cytokine Research,\nand among others. In fact, recently, his 2015 article, The Role of Cytokines in Breast Cancer Development and Progression, published in the Journal of Interferon and Cytokine Research, was the subject of a press release released by Mary Ann Liebert Publications. This is sent all over the world, to newspapers, Journals, scientists, radio, TV, popular magazines, to what is considered as a very important contribution in a certain area of science. Very few scientific articles are released as “press release.” He is also the 4th most cited author in the area of parasitology in the country. He has also edited several books and published more than 55 chapters in books, national and foreign. In this area, recently, the chapter “The Role of Sex Steroids in the Host-Parasite Interaction,” published in the international\nbook “Sex Steroids” in 2012, reached the figure of 68,000 downloads, which means the degree of attention that has after receiving\nhis work; the foregoing makes it clear that Dr. Morales-Montor’s work is highly relevant and widespread amongthenational and international academic community, and his brilliant career has earned him more than 30 awards, such as the Miguel Aleman Valdez Award in the area of Health 2006, the Distinction National University for Young Academics in the area of Research in Natural Sciences 2006, the CANIFARMA Veterinary Prize 2007 and 2009 the Heberto Castillo Martı´nez Capital City Award for Young Latin American Academics in Basic Research, and for the third consecutive congress, in 2011, one of his works was awarded the “Dr. Jose Eleuterio Gonza´lez” Award, for the best work of and research at the XXVI National Congress of Research in Medicine, to name just a few of its achievements. He has also mentored and graduated more thn 60 students at all levels (Baccularate, Masters and Doctorate) and also been awarded many distinctions, such as joining the Mexican Academy of Sciences (2005), and being one of the few Mexican scientists to be inducted to the Latin American Academy of Sciences (2008), The National Academy of Medicine, the New York Academy of Sciences, the American Association of Immunologists are deserved recognitions for his academic quality and career. His academic leadership is reflected in the trust and respect that his peers confer on him, having been President of the Mexican Society\nof Parasitology (one of the oldest and most prestigious scientific societies in the country) and currently being President, and founding member, of the Mexican Society of Neuroimmunoendocrinology, since 2011. Due to its scientific curiosity, it is in the process of founding the Mexican Society for Translational Environmental Biomedicine. He has been invited to edit special volumes\nin various magazines with international circulation and is a member of the editorial committee of magazines of\nimportance in his area of work, such as ParasiteImmunology, The OpenParasitologyJournal, among others. He has been a jury for\nthe Arturo Rosenblueth Awards for the best CINVESTAV Doctoral Thesis, a jury for the Lola and Igo Flisser-PUIS 2010 Awards, and\na jury for the Heberto Castillo Award, for the best Latin American Researcher 2012, awarded by the Federal District Government.\nIt is noteworthy that he is an outstanding scientist, who has contributed to the scientific research of Mexico with the generation of new frontier knowledge in the world and with the training of high-level human resources.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"332210",title:"Dr.",name:"Abraham",middleName:null,surname:"Landa",slug:"abraham-landa",fullName:"Abraham Landa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/no_image.jpg",biography:'He is a Master and Doctor of Science from UNAM, he did his post-doctorate at the Harvard University School of Public Health and his sabbatical at the Tufts University in Boston. He began his career as a teacher at the Faculty of Medicine UNAM in 1992, as an assistant in the subject of Biochemistry and Molecular biology to later be the owner of it. Is currently Full Professor "C" of T.C Definitive. It is Level “D” of the PRIDE and Level III of the National Research System. Academic-administrative positions: Representative of Postgraduate Tutors in Biological Sciences (2003-2006), in Biological Sciences (2003-2006), Member of the Review Commission of Nonconformities of the Personnel Performance Bonus Program Academic (PRIDE, 2002-2005), Secretary of the Mexican Society of Parasitology (2010-2011), Member of the Technical Council of the Faculty of Medicine (2006-2013) and currently a Member of the Judging Commission Research and Postgraduate Program CAABQyS of the FES-Iztacala (2015-1017).\r\nAwards and distinctions won the Scholarship awarded by the McArthur Foundation (1988-1989), Second place in the IV Parasitology Prize "Lola and Igo Flisser" 1992, the "Gabino Barreda" medal for his Doctorate in Science studies, 1997 and the medal "Nayarit for Scientific and Technological Research in 2001". Contributions and Scientific Productivity His research has been directed to the study of the molecular biology of Cestodes, especially of Taenia solium. He pioneered cloning and characterization of cestode genes and participated in the Consortium that carried out the university megaproject of the Taenia solium genome and three genomes\r\nmore than cestodes that resulted in a 2013 publication in the journal Nature. He has obtained with collaborators from the Institute of Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry and from UAM the first crystal and inhibitor for a protein in cestodes (Cu / Zn superoxide dismutase), developed a recombinant antibody that inhibits triose phosphate isomerase. Has characterized the 3 glutathione transferases (24, 25, 26 kDa) that form the main system of detoxification and has contributed knowledge about the regulation of transcription, the foregoing has allowed reasonable knowledge of the cestodes and the diseases they cause. As a result of your work\r\nscientist has 58 publications, 12 book chapters, plus 2 books. Teaching and Training of Human Resources: Has taught since 1991, 30 courses and topics at the Postgraduate level. He has also directed 30 undergraduate theses, 9 Master\'s, 1 Specialization and 9 Doctorate. Almost all of his students PhD students are active researchers in Mexico and abroad. Doctor Landa is an active participant in conferences, as a member of committees tutorials, professional degree examinations in all programs of Postgraduate of the UNAM.',institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"332215",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Terrazas",slug:"luis-terrazas",fullName:"Luis Terrazas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031RIzxQAG/Profile_Picture_1600754945533",biography:'He is a Master and Doctor of Science from UNAM, he did his post-doctorate at the Harvard University School of Public Health and his sabbatical at the Tufts University in Boston. He began his career as a teacher at the Faculty of Medicine UNAM in 1992, as an assistant in the subject of Biochemistry and Molecular biology to later be the owner of it. Is currently Full Professor "C" of T.C Definitive. It is Level “D” of the PRIDE and Level III of the National Research System. Academic-administrative positions: Representative of Postgraduate Tutors in Biological Sciences (2003-2006), in Biological Sciences (2003-2006), Member of the Review Commission of Nonconformities of the Personnel Performance Bonus Program Academic (PRIDE, 2002-2005), Secretary of the Mexican Society of Parasitology (2010-2011), Member of the Technical Council of the Faculty of Medicine (2006-2013) and currently a Member of the Judging Commission Research and Postgraduate Program CAABQyS of the FES-Iztacala (2015-1017).\r\nAwards and distinctions won the Scholarship awarded by the McArthur Foundation (1988-1989), Second place in the IV Parasitology Prize "Lola and Igo Flisser" 1992, the "Gabino Barreda" medal for his Doctorate in Science studies, 1997 and the medal "Nayarit for Scientific and Technological Research in 2001". Contributions and Scientific Productivity His research has been directed to the study of the molecular biology of Cestodes, especially of Taenia solium. He pioneered cloning and characterization of cestode genes and participated in the Consortium that carried out the university megaproject of the Taenia solium genome and three genomes\r\nmore than cestodes that resulted in a 2013 publication in the journal Nature. He has obtained with collaborators from the Institute of Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry and from UAM the first crystal and inhibitor for a protein in cestodes (Cu / Zn superoxide dismutase), developed a recombinant antibody that inhibits triose phosphate isomerase. Has characterized the 3 glutathione transferases (24, 25, 26 kDa) that form the main system of detoxification and has contributed knowledge about the regulation of transcription, the foregoing has allowed reasonable knowledge of the cestodes and the diseases they cause. As a result of your work\r\nscientist has 58 publications, 12 book chapters, plus 2 books. Teaching and Training of Human Resources: Has taught since 1991, 30 courses and topics at the Postgraduate level. He has also directed 30 undergraduate theses, 9 Master\'s, 1 Specialization and 9 Doctorate. Almost all of his students PhD students are active researchers in Mexico and abroad. Doctor Landa is an active participant in conferences, as a member of committees tutorials, professional degree examinations in all programs of Postgraduate of the UNAM.',institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"280415",firstName:"Josip",lastName:"Knapic",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280415/images/8050_n.jpg",email:"josip@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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Murr",authors:[{id:"7704",title:"Dr.",name:"Noé",middleName:null,surname:"Alba-Baena",fullName:"Noé Alba-Baena",slug:"noe-alba-baena"},{id:"123394",title:"Mr.",name:"Wayne",middleName:null,surname:"Salas",fullName:"Wayne Salas",slug:"wayne-salas"},{id:"123395",title:"Dr.",name:"Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Murr",fullName:"Lawrence Murr",slug:"lawrence-murr"}]},{id:"10006",title:"Superconductivity in Carbon Nanotubes",slug:"superconductivity-in-carbon-nanotubes",signatures:"Junji Haruyama",authors:[{id:"7196",title:"Professor",name:"Junji",middleName:null,surname:"Haruyama",fullName:"Junji Haruyama",slug:"junji-haruyama"}]},{id:"10003",title:"Nucleic Acid Interaction and Interfaces with Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes",slug:"nucleic-acid-interaction-and-interfaces-with-single-walled-carbon-nanotubes",signatures:"Dovbeshko Galina, Fesenko Olena, Gnatyk Olena, Shtogun Yaroslav, Woods Lilia, Bertarione Serena, Damin Alessandro, Scarano Domenica and Adriano Zecchina",authors:[{id:"7271",title:"Dr.",name:"Yaroslav",middleName:"V",surname:"Shtogun",fullName:"Yaroslav Shtogun",slug:"yaroslav-shtogun"},{id:"123367",title:"Dr.",name:"Lilia",middleName:null,surname:"Woods",fullName:"Lilia Woods",slug:"lilia-woods"},{id:"7662",title:"Nucleic acid interaction and interfaces with singl",name:"Dovbeshko",middleName:null,surname:"Galina",fullName:"Dovbeshko Galina",slug:"dovbeshko-galina"},{id:"123369",title:"Dr.",name:"Fesenko",middleName:null,surname:"Olena",fullName:"Fesenko Olena",slug:"fesenko-olena"},{id:"123372",title:"Prof.",name:"Serena",middleName:null,surname:"Bertarione",fullName:"Serena Bertarione",slug:"serena-bertarione"},{id:"123373",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessandro",middleName:null,surname:"Damin",fullName:"Alessandro Damin",slug:"alessandro-damin"},{id:"123374",title:"Prof.",name:"Domenica",middleName:null,surname:"Scarano",fullName:"Domenica Scarano",slug:"domenica-scarano"},{id:"123375",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:null,surname:"Zecchina",fullName:"Adriano Zecchina",slug:"adriano-zecchina"}]},{id:"9991",title:"DNA-Wrapped Carbon Nanotubes: From Synthesis to Applications",slug:"dna-wrapped-carbon-nanotubes-from-synthesis-to-applications",signatures:"Germarie Sanchez-Pomales, Coral Pagan-Miranda, Lenibel Santiago-Rodriguez and Carlos R. Cabrera",authors:[{id:"7832",title:"Professor",name:"Carlos R.",middleName:null,surname:"Cabrera",fullName:"Carlos R. Cabrera",slug:"carlos-r.-cabrera"},{id:"123332",title:"Dr.",name:"Germarie",middleName:null,surname:"Sanchez-Pomales",fullName:"Germarie Sanchez-Pomales",slug:"germarie-sanchez-pomales"},{id:"123333",title:"Ms.",name:"Coral",middleName:null,surname:"Pagan-Miranda",fullName:"Coral Pagan-Miranda",slug:"coral-pagan-miranda"},{id:"123335",title:"Dr.",name:"Lenibel",middleName:null,surname:"Santiago-Rodriguez",fullName:"Lenibel Santiago-Rodriguez",slug:"lenibel-santiago-rodriguez"}]},{id:"9994",title:"The Unlikely Surfactant: DNA as a Ligand for Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes",slug:"the-unlikely-surfactant-dna-as-a-ligand-for-single-walled-carbon-nanotubes",signatures:"Katharina Muller and Clemens Richert",authors:[{id:"123348",title:"Dr.",name:"Katharina",middleName:null,surname:"Muller",fullName:"Katharina Muller",slug:"katharina-muller"},{id:"123349",title:"Dr.",name:"Clemens",middleName:null,surname:"Richert",fullName:"Clemens Richert",slug:"clemens-richert"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"72667",title:"AMOLED Displays with In-Pixel Photodetector",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93016",slug:"amoled-displays-with-in-pixel-photodetector",body:'\nActive matrix OLED (AMOLED) displays are today’s mainstream consumer displays available in various form factors, such as smart watches, mobile displays, and large area television. They are highly appealing because of their wide viewing angles, nice color saturation and great potential for curved, flexible and/or rollable format. There are several options for (flexible) backplane technologies based on thin-film transistors (TFTs), namely, metal-oxide TFTs (such as indium gallium zinc oxide or IGZO), low-temperature polycrystalline silicon (LTPS) TFTs, or a combination of IGZO and LTPS, more precisely LTPO or low-temperature polycrystalline silicon and metal oxide. All these technologies have their pros and cons. Among others, IGZO semiconductors are n-type only which is sufficient for a backplane driving an OLED but is less adequate for peripheral circuits. Another key important asset of IGZO is the ultralow source-drain leakage current due to the large bandgap of the semiconductor, enabling long retention times of data storing, i.e., pixels are not leaking. In contrary, LTPS has both n- and p-type devices and thus the capability of CMOS circuits. LTPS transistors can drive larger currents due to the intrinsically higher mobility, enabling complex in-pixel compensation schemes and peripheral circuits. However, with LTPS transistors the leakage will be larger. This is a key reason why LTPO has been developed: this technology combines the ultralow leakage current of IGZO and a p-type LTPS transistor resulting in a hybrid complementary technology. An OLED is an organic LED emitting light directly proportional to its forward current. Therefore it requires a current source as driver in the pixel. In many cases, this is achieved by placing a TFT in series with the OLED and driving it in saturation.
\nIn this chapter, we will investigate the potential to embed additional functionalities in the display. Therefore, several strategies will be discussed focusing on improving the resolution of the current displays, by technology optimization introducing photolithography patterning of the OLED and by design evaluating external compensation vs. internal compensation. The extra space in the pixel, due to the combination of photolithography and simple pixel circuit, provides opportunities to include extra functions at the same original area. The focus in this book chapter is to add a photosensitive detector for fingerprint and palmprint readout.
\nResolution (number of pixels) and pixel pitch (size and spacing of pixels) are two main parameters defining the architecture of the display arrays. The first, expressed typically in megapixels, is standardized by the content type, resulting in different generations of TVs: VGA, full HD, 4K, and, most recently, 8K. The latter, expressed typically in pixels per inch (ppi) or pixels per degree (ppd), is used as a benchmark for smartphones, with high-end models featuring densities in the range of 600 ppi. This is a value that gives a good enough image quality for hand-held devices, with the viewing distance of approximately 30 cm (1 foot). At the same time, future near-to-eye augmented reality/virtual reality (AR/VR) displays impose ultrahigh definition, as the pixel density needs to be beyond the pattern resolving capabilities of the human retina (30 cycles per degree) [1, 2]. The resolution should be maximized to provide the highest possible output within the eye box in any given point of the 180° field of view (FOV), also to enable foveated rendering. An aperture ratio close to unity will eliminate the screen door effect and ensure natural experience. Transparency is necessary to avoid sense of isolation from the real-world view and to diversify from the virtual reality (VR) headsets (Figure 1). To realize all of the above, we need both the microdisplay-like pixel pitch down-scaling [3] and the flat-panel-display-like (FPD) backplane size up-scaling [4, 5]. Switching to advanced nodes in flat panel backplane manufacturing can result in ultrahigh-definition, direct-view AR displays fabricated in a cost-effective way.
\nColor-by-white vs. RGB OLED frontplane can be fabricated on top of CMOS or TFT backplane. Each combination is suitable for different applications.
In order to realize an ultrahigh resolution display, all elements of the system (backplane, frontplane, and driving) need to provide appropriate pixel density. On the frontplane side, several options for the light source can be chosen (Figure 2). OLED technology currently dominates the smartphone display industry not only with performance but also with the cost structure. In this case, the colors are defined by depositing separate device stacks for each color, which is typically referred to as side-by-side, red-green-blue (RGB) array. In OLED TVs, one common white OLED stack is combined with a color filter array (CFA). The limitation of the side-by-side RGB array is the pixel density, limited by the fine metal masking (FMM) technology, which uses deposition through a metal mesh. The white OLED array can achieve very small pixel pitch, which is only limited by the backplane and CFA resolution but imposes brightness loss due to CF transmission. Patterning multicolor OLEDs by photolithography can address the needs of ultralow pixel pitch for the future AR displays by realizing side-by-side OLED stacks with extreme density.
\nVarious display configuration options.
Patterning OLEDs by photolithography is an emerging, disruptive fabrication technique. The main challenge is the extreme chemical sensitivity of OLED materials with solvent, moisture, air, and temperature exposure responsible for performance degradation. The choice of appropriate photolithography chemistry is crucial, with fluorinated [6] or non-fluorinated systems [7] as the dominant options. Figure 3 shows the concept of using a negative-type photoresist to define patterns on top of OLED in a subtractive approach. First, the OLED stack is deposited as a plain layer over the entire substrate, on top of a pixel definition layer (PDL). This defines the active area of the light emitter. Second, photoresist is deposited on top of the entire substrate. Then, it is exposed through a lithography mask and developed to obtain the required pattern. Afterwards, the OLED layers that are not covered by the photoresist are etched away (typically with dry etching, such as reactive ion etch). In the end, the photoresist is stripped to achieve patterned OLED islands.
\nProcess flow for photolithography patterning of OLED stacks.
Photolithography allows pattern transfer beyond 1 μm resolution, enabling high-density lines and spaces. Transfer of small islands means that, with appropriate alignment (e.g., with an i-line stepper), a pixel density of a few thousand pixels per inch (ppi) can be realized. Transfer of openings means that pixel spacing can be minimized, resulting in a high aspect ratio. This is applicable for both TFT-based flat panel displays and CMOS-based microdisplays. Tests on patterning the OLED emission layer have shown that it is possible to achieve 1 μm pitch lines and spaces (Figure 4). Furthermore, the photoluminescence signal of the EML is maintained proving compatibility of this process with OLED material. 1 μm presented here is not a fundamental limit of the approach but rather a limit of the lithography mask design used in the experiment.
\nOLED patterns of 1, 2, 3 and 4 μm: optical and corresponding photoluminescence pictures of red EML patterned as lines (left) and spaces (right).
The achievable pixel density of the frontplane is limited not only by the photoresist used but also by the critical dimension (CD) and alignment/overlay accuracy of the litho tools used. In the i-line steppers typical for flat panel manufacturing, the achievable CD is 1.5 μm with an overlay between 0.25 and 0.5 μm. In contrast, CMOS fabs used for microdisplay manufacturing feature more advanced semiconductor nodes, with 248 nm KrF or 193 nm ArF light sources. Assuming a minimum PDL opening (defining the active area) of 500 nm, a 1.5 μm node imposes a density limit of 3500 ppi (for RGB) with an aperture ratio below 5%. Going to KrF steppers, the achievable density increases to 10,000 ppi while keeping the aperture ratio above 35%. This demonstrates the need of a tooling upgrade for future AR displays, both for the frontplane and the backplane. Denser and more efficient packing of pixels requires scaling down of the technology node, especially in FPD manufacturing.
\nOLED patterning by photolithography means that the deposition of the stack is interrupted (vacuum break) and the photoresist interacts with the organic materials. In the most simple case, the photolithography process is performed in a clean room in ambient atmosphere. The devices are loaded back into the glove box after the etch step for each color and after the photoresist strip when all colors are finished. This raises a serious challenge for the device lifetime. If the process is not optimized for compatibility with the stack, the current-voltage-luminance (IVL) curve shifts to the right (increased turn-on voltage) and to the bottom (reduced luminance). As a consequence, the brightness of the patterned OLED drops very fast and disappears even after a few minutes (Figure 5). Optimization of the photoresist system, of the OLED stack [8] and of the fabrication process, is needed to achieve OLED performance enabling implementation into devices. At imec, we demonstrated phosphorescent green OLED with T90 lifetime of >150 h at the starting brightness of 1000 nit. Efficiency remained above 85 cd/A before and after patterning. Current performance is considered an important step on the path to industrial technology readiness level, estimated to be T97 of at least 1000 h (for the green stack) [8].
\nIVL and lifetime curves for reference OLED and the possible effects of degradation by patterning.
\nFigure 6 shows an example comparison of unpatterned and patterned OLED lifetime curve at initial brightness of 1000 nit. The performance improvement can bring the two curves closer together.
\nLifetime curves of a phosphorescent green OLED at 1000 nit starting brightness for unpatterned and patterned stack.
OLED photolithography was used to fabricate passive displays with a 1400 × 1400 pixel array (almost 2 megapixels). 6 μm metal lines and 10 μm line pitch with SiN pixel definition layer (PDL) were used on glass substrate. Green and red OLED stacks were deposited by thermal evaporation in ultrahigh vacuum. After deposition of the first color (until above emission layer), photoresist was spin-coated, baked, exposed, and developed. Then, the OLED stack not covered by the photoresist was removed by dry etching. After that, the sample went back to the ultrahigh vacuum chamber for second color deposition, and the patterning process was repeated, this time finishing with stripping the photoresist. A semitransparent top contact stack was subsequently deposited, and the display was encapsulated with cavity glass. Both colors can be driven separately, and the PDL design allows for emission of a fixed image specified for each color (Figure 7). Subpixel pitch of 10 μm resulted in smooth edges and excellent feature representation. The device was tested for tens of hours with both colors on. No drop of brightness nor appearance of defects could be observed [9].
\nPassive 1250 ppi patterned OLED display with 1400 × 1400 pixels, 10 μm subpixel pitch, and independent color driving: general view (left) and detailed view for different color drivings (right).
This fabrication process is compatible with both CMOS backplanes and flexible TFT backplanes. The frontplane can thus be implemented in an active matrix display. Of course, photolithography can be used several times to realize more colors for a full-color display.
\nTo increase the display resolution, not only the technology (backplane and frontplane) but also the pixel driving techniques should be optimized. The OLED light output is dependent on the drain current of the driving TFTs of the AMOLED displays. Due to inherent variations in AMOLED displays, some compensation methods to the drain current of the TFTs are required to achieve uniform brightness. This can be implemented through either in-pixel compensation [10] or external compensation [11, 12]. Since in-pixel compensation schemes typically require more transistors inside the pixel, external compensation methods are preferred for high-resolution applications. Figure 8 shows pixel circuits and a possible layout for in-pixel compensation, using an 8T1C [10] pixel, and external compensation using a 3T2C [11] and, respectively, a 2T1C [12] pixel. For all these layouts, the same design rules were used. It is clear from this figure that a display with external compensation, especially the 2T1C pixel circuit, can achieve a much higher pixel density.
\nPixel circuits and corresponding layouts for (left) 8T1C, (middle) 3T2C, and (right) 2T1C pixels.
The achievable pixel density depends on both the pixel circuit and the design rules imposed by the technology, such as the critical dimension (CD) of the lithography tool. Figure 9 compares the achievable resolutions for different CDs for the 8T1C, the 3T2C, and the 2T1C pixel circuit. Although the CD of 1.5 μm, as currently achievable with typical i-line steppers, only yields a maximum pixel density of 565 ppi for the 8T1C pixel circuit, the same CD already yields a significant improvement for the pixel circuits using external compensation, namely, 847 ppi for the 3T2C pixel circuit and 1210 ppi for the 2T1C pixel circuit, respectively. Furthermore, improvements in technology allowing smaller CD will even further increase the achievable pixel density, up to 9070 ppi for the 2T1C pixel circuit, when using a CD of 0.2 μm.
\nPixel resolution vs. critical dimension (CD) for various pixel schemes.
The compensation principle for the 3T2C pixel circuit relies on the fact that applying a voltage on the backgate of a transistor will shift the threshold voltage (VT) of that transistor. By applying the correct compensation voltage to the backgate of the drive transistor of each pixel, all VT variations can be eliminated, resulting in a more uniform display. This compensation method uses three different modes of operation for the display. The first mode of operation is the calibration mode. In this mode, the correct compensation voltage is determined for each pixel by applying a certain reference voltage to the frontgate and measuring the current through the pixel while varying the backgate. When the measured current matches a predetermined reference current, the voltage on the backgate is the correct compensation voltage, which will be stored both on the capacitor connected to the backgate and in external memory. Once the correct backgate voltage is set for every pixel, the display can be switched to normal operation. In this mode, the display is driven with the normal video data, which is written to the frontgate of each pixel. Since the CAL signal is low in this mode, the charge on the capacitor will remain, and hence the backgate voltage will be the compensated voltage. However, due to leakage, this charge will slowly change over time. Therefore, a third mode of operation is added, namely, the calibration refresh. In this mode, the SEL signal is kept low, but the CAL signal is running through the display, while the compensation data is applied to the data lines. This way the compensation voltage is restored on the backgate, to ensure the VT uniformity remains over time. This compensation method shows a significant improvement in current variation, as demonstrated in Figure 10.
\nCurrent variation of a 3T2C display before and after compensation.
The current through the drive TFT (IDS), and thus through the OLED, when operating in saturation regime can be calculated for a certain data voltage (VGS) by using Eq. (1):
\nCompensating only for VT can eliminate variations in current for one gray level; however, if the β-factor is different for each pixel, the current will still vary for different gray values, even after VT compensation. This is shown in Figure 11 for the 3T2C pixel. As a consequence, we propose a new compensation method to compensate for both β and VT variations. Similarly as the previous described compensation method, we will first characterize the current through each pixel for multiple data voltages, whereafter the measurements are fitted to Eq. (1).
\nCurrent variation of a 3T2C and 2T1C display before and after compensation.
For each pixel, the extracted β and VT values are stored. Based on these values, the VGS voltages can be calculated for each pixel by the driver IC for each desired gray level by using Eq. (2):
\nThis calculation is relative simple and straightforward, as it only requires a multiplication, a subtraction, and a square root calculation, which enables to display real-time video content by using this methodology. Figure 11 shows the current variation improvements directly obtained from our AMOLED displays, by utilizing the VT-only compensation method and comparing it to the VT and β compensation method. As mentioned above, the simple VT compensation method provides good variation results for a small range, whereas the combined parameter method improves the variation across all desired gray levels.
\nFingerprint sensor arrays (Figure 5.1) [13] are becoming a mainstream security mechanism for mobile devices and are today available as autonomous silicon-based component. The integration of the fingerprint sensor array together with AMOLED displays [14, 15, 16] would benefit the footprint of the mobile device and the functionality, enabling detection of multiple fingers at once or even a palmprint.
\nFingerprint sensors combined with AMOLED displays can be realized in three different configurations for the sensor pixels: (1) in the same plane of the display pixels and (2) under and (3) over the display pixels (Figure 12). With sensors in the same plane, the display module gains optical sensing capability by incorporating photodetector pixels between OLED pixels. Sensors, under or above the display, require a separate fingerprint module. A fingerprint module under the display would need a semitransparent display and light scattering management. A fingerprint module over the display requires a transparent imager to avoid changes in display emission. In the previous section, we have demonstrated that a higher resolution backplane can be achieved at the same critical dimension by introducing external compensation methods. This combined with the photolitho-based patterning method of OPD and OLED will the crucial enablers for such a configuration as analyzed in Paragraph 3.
\nFingerprint integration configurations in AMOLED displays.
The pixel circuit architecture of the sensor array can be either passive or active [17]. The passive pixel is depicted in Figure 13 and is comprised by the photoelement, a capacitor, and a select TFT. The main difference of the active pixel is that it requires an extra TFT acting as a local amplifier. For high-resolution applications, the active pixel is not recommended, since its footprint is larger than the footprint of passive pixels.
\nBlock diagram of the proposed in-panel fingerprint sensor array with integrated CSA for each line, multiplexer (MUX), and ADC. Power and driving electronics remain off-panel.
The integration of peripheral readout circuitry in panel side-by-side with the display peripherals is beneficial for resolution, connectivity, and potential lower system cost of the device. In this paragraph TFT-based integrated readout is demonstrated by using our IGZO n-type only TFTs.
\nThe necessary blocks to implement an in-panel readout system are a charge sense amplifier (CSA), a multiplexer (MUX), and an analog to digital converter (ADC). The CSA is reading out the charge stored in each pixel of the array. The MUX is multiplexing the CSA outputs directly to the ADC, decreasing the number of the required ADC converters. The ADC is converting the analog voltage received from the CSA to a digital code. Various TFT-based analog blocks have been demonstrated in the literature [18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24]. Metal-oxide TFT technologies are preferable due to uniformity over large areas, very low leakage currents, and lower cost over area. In the following section, fast and small footprint ADCs and charge sense amplifiers (CSA) are discussed to meet the specifications of an in-panel fingerprint array.
\nIn Figure 13, the high-level block diagram of the in-panel readout system is shown. The five main blocks are detailed: a two-dimensional (2-D) image sensor array, the CSAs connect on each row of the array, a multiplexer connects four or more rows (MUX), and ADC connects to every MUX and off-panel power and driving electronics. Each column of the 2D image sensor array is readout from the corresponding row by a CSA. The pixels are readout subsequently enabled by the “SELECT” signals from the columns and converted to digital code through the MUX and an ADC. The MUX enables a larger footprint for the ADC, up to 4 to 8 times larger compared to a single line (50 μm). Hence, the ADC and MUX needs to be 4 to 8 times faster than the CSA. A 1–2 fps readout of 1M pixel imager (1000 × 1000 pixels) sets a readout speed of 1–2 kS/s per line for each CSA. This translates to 4–8 kS/s for the ADC if a 4:1 MUX is used or 8–16 kS/s for a 8:1 MUX. The slower ADC configuration sets the specification limitation to the width of the ADC to 200 μm, whereby the faster allows a width of 400 μm.
\n\nFigure 14 (a) depicts the cross section of the dual-gate self-aligned metal-oxide (MO) technology on a 15-μm-thick polyimide film [25, 26]. The metal-oxide (IGZO or ITZO) TFTs are fabricated with two metal gates (M0, M1) and source-drain metal contacts (M2). An additional metal layer (M3), not shown in the cross section, is beneficial for footprint but also for performance and noise. The CSA experimental results shown in the following sections are designed with an extra metal layer, also used as anode layer.
\n(a) Cross section of dual-gate self-aligned metal-oxide technology on flexible polyimide substrate and (b) extracted on-current (ION) from experimental data of 480/20 (μm/μm) dual-gate self-aligned ITZO (red) and IGZO (orange) TFTs.
\nFigure 14(b) shows the distribution of the extracted on-current (ION) from the measured transfer characteristics of 480/20 (μm/μm) IGZO (red) and ITZO (orange) dual-gate TFTs. The IGZO TFTs exhibits a median ION of 54.4 μA, whereas the ITZO dual-gate TFT exhibits a median of 250.4 μA. Although the ION of the ITZO TFT is 5 times larger, the normalized spread of ION to the median over the wafer is double (15.4% for ITZO and 8.8% for IGZO). Threshold voltage is also extracted from the same measurements, yielding 1.16 V (and σVt = 242 mV) for ITZO and 1.77 V (and σVt = 94 mV) for IGZO TFTs. The 480/20 TFT is the largest footprint TFT used in the implemented designs. In Figure 15, microphotos of the (a) ADC and (b) the L = 3 μm CSA are shown.
\nMicrophotos of the (a) ADC and (b) L = 3 μm CSA on flexible substrate.
The schematic of the CSA is shown in the Figure 16(a). The schematic of the operational amplifier (OPAMP) used in the CSA is shown in Figure 16(b). The OPAMP comprises a differential pair and a load that is driven by a two-stage buffer, initiated by a start-up circuit. The driver consists of two diode-connected load inverters as input and output stages. The output stage is driven by a start-up circuit to initialize the operation and provide ~1 loop gain positive feedback bias to the n-type load of the differential amplifier such that gate voltage follows source voltage. A buffer is also included at the output nodes A and B to increase the speed of the amplifier.
\nSchematic of (a) charge sense amplifier (CSA) and (b) the OPAMP schematic using dual-gate self-aligned TFTs used in the CSA in (a).
The experimental results of open-loop experiments of the OPAMP are shown in Figure 17 for dual-gate self-aligned IGZO TFTs of minimum channel length of L = 5 μm. The maximum gain for the 5 μm design is 43.2 dB with a phase margin of 52°. Both parameters are critical for stable closed-loop operation of an OPAMP. The obtained bandwidth (BW) is 1.4 kHz, and gain-bandwidth reaches 205 kHz. These specs are compared to other publications in the state-of-the-art Table 1 using TFTs. The footprint of the CSA is 0.28 mm2 with the capacitors. The footprint of the CSA can be decreased to 0.07 mm2 if 3 μm design is implemented. These footprints will result in a bezel width of 5.5 mm (L = 5 μm) and 1.3 mm (L = 3 μm) [27] for a 50 μm pixel size.
\nExperimental bode plots of the OPAMP using dual-gate self-aligned IGZO technology for L = 5 μm.
Circuit | \nThis work | \n2018 [11] | \n2012 [8] | \n2013 [10] | \n2014 [9] | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Supply (V) | \n15 | \n15 | \n10.5 | \n5 | \n50 | \n
Gain (dB) | \n43 | \n32 | \n~21 | \n18.7 | \n19.2 | \n
GBW (kHz) | \n205 | \n140 | \n2 | \n472 | \n100\n*\n\n | \n
pm (o) | \n52 | \n53 | \n50\n*\n\n | \nneg | \n46 | \n
Area (mm2) | \n0.28 | \n0.3 | \n\nDiscrete\n | \n2.08 | \n— | \n
Substrate | \nPI | \nPI | \n\n | PI | \nGlass | \n
L (μm) | \n5 | \n5 | \n10 | \n6 | \n10 | \n
In-Ga-Zn-O-TFT differential amplifier comparison.
Estimated.
The successive approximation C-2C architecture is selected as ADC architecture, due to the low power dissipation and the 0.1% uniformity of metal-insulator-metal capacitors across large-area thin-film wafers. The schematic of the ADC is shown in Figure 18. The comparator is the most critical building block of the ADC for speed and accuracy. To improve the accuracy of the comparator, open-loop offset cancelation [28] is used. The response of a L = 5 μm dual-gate self-aligned TFT-based comparator at 10 kHz for two inputs ΔVin = 0 and 10 mV is shown in Figure 19. The offset of the comparator is minimized to less than 10 mV using open-loop cancelation, even though the Vt variation of the TFTs is one order larger.
\nThe implemented SADG TFT ADC block diagram driven with offset compensation.
Measured comparator output with auto-zero offset cancelation for designs using TFTs of minimum L = 5 μm at 10 kHz.
The experimental results of the reconstructed samples from a sinusoidal analog wave applied at the input of the IGZO ADC are shown in Figure 20(a). The IGZO ADC achieves 6-bit resolution at a sampling speed of 133 S/s at 15 V power supply using a L = 20 μm comparator. The clock speed of the IGZO ADC is at 2 kHz matching the bandwidth of the comparator, and 15 clocks are required to complete the conversion. Two options are available to increase the sampling speed of the ADC as set by the specification for 1–2 fps fingerprint readout: channel length downscaling and/or change of TFT technology or change of ADC architecture to flash but then for 6-bit the area might increase dramatically due to the multiple resistors needed and 64 comparators.
\n(a) The applied analog input of 2.061 Hz sinewave signal to the ADC and the reconstructed output points from the digital output of the ADC at a clock frequency of 2 kHz for IGZO and (b) the applied analog input of 15.625 Hz sinewave to the 15 kHz clocked ITZO ADC and the reconstructed output.
The minimum length of the TFTs of the measured ADC is L = 20 μm. The length of the TFT of the comparator of the ADC defines the speed of the circuit. In Figure 19 the response of the L = 5 μm comparator is shown validating 10 kHz operation, 5 times faster compared to the 20 μm comparator used in the ADC. This indicates that 5 μm comparator can increase the sampling speed by 5 times.
\nAnother option to enable a larger increase of the ADC speed is to introduce ITZO TFT for the ADC. ITZO TFT exhibits 5 times larger ION which leads to faster responses [Figure 20(b)]. The ITZO ADC achieves a similar bit resolution of the applied sinusoidal wave at 1 kS/s sampling speed and at 10 V supply voltage. Combining both ITZO and downscaling of the length of the TFTs of the comparator will lead to sampling speeds above 4 kS/s as required for the in-panel readout system of 1 fps. The power dissipation of the ITZO ADC is at 550 μW at 10 V power supply and at 110 μW at 15 V power supply for the IGZO implementation.
\nIn conclusion, TFT-based in-panel analog circuits for 1 fps readout of a fingerprint or palmprints array is presented in this paragraph. The circuit blocks can be integrated side-by-side to the flat panel display with integrated sensor array. Two analog blocks are discussed, being an analog to digital converter and charge sense amplifier. ADCs and CSA downscaling to 5 μm including a 500% ION boost of the ITZO TFTs enable the 4 kS/s operation specifications for the in-panel readout circuits. The use of complementary technologies such as LTPS or LTPO would result an increased performance for important parameters such as the gain-bandwidth and the resolution and speed of the ADC. This will enable a better optimized system for this application.
\nIn this book chapter, we have discussed a roadmap to include additional functionalities on displays by adding a fourth pixel to the display. The purpose of the fourth pixel in this work was a photodetector pixel to realize an in-panel fingerprint or palmprinting function. Several options have been discussed to enable this roadmap. At first, we have elaborated several techniques to realize higher-resolution frontplane (OLED) and TFT backplanes. For the frontplanes, photolitho patterning of the OLED was introduced as a disruptive technology impacting significantly the frontplane resolution. External compensation techniques for the backplane when driving OLEDs are proposed in this book chapter, resulting in a uniform and higher-resolution display by using only 2T1C schemes. As photodetector pixel, we proposed a passive 1 T pixel, with included peripheral circuits to enable a lower system cost.
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