pH values of buckwheat beverage during the fermentation process (mean ± standard deviation) (based on [29]).
\r\n\t• Role of technological innovation and corporate risk management
\r\n\t• Challenges for corporate governance while launching corporate environmental management among emerging economies
\r\n\t• Demonstrating the relationship between environmental risk management and sustainable management
\r\n\t• Contemplating strategic corporate environmental responsibility under the influence of cultural barriers
\r\n\t• Risk management in different countries – the international management dimension
\r\n\t• Global Standardization vs local adaptation of corporate environmental risk management in multinational corporations.
\r\n\t• Is there a transnational approach to environmental risk management?
\r\n\t• Approaches towards Risk management strategies in the short-term and long-term.
This chapter aims to introduce the field of application specific integrated circuits (ASICs) and provide a basic reference list of crucial design techniques for the interested student. Modern designs using complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) technologies are at the forefront of nanoscale mass fabrication with recent CMOS processing nodes pushing towards 7 nm feature sizes. While the fabrication of structures on Silicon, Germanium, Gallium Arsenide and other substrates has advanced, so too have the systems we create [1, 2]. The rapidly increasing complexity inherent in these systems – be they digital or analogue in nature – offers its own challenges for engineers. This book therefore offers a small insight into this exciting field.
\nModern silicon design plays a key part in our global, highly interconnected economy and has truly allowed society to advance on several fronts.
We now have sensors and interfaces to the real world that digitise high-speed analog signals into easily manipulated digital signals at staggeringly high sample rates, well into the GHz range [3]. Modern analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) when combined with precision, low-noise operational amplifiers (op-amps) can accurately measure nano-volt amplitude signals and can separate signals from interfering background noise using a variety of signal processing techniques. The field’s prowess in analog ASICs is well exemplified by sensors and actuators that can interface directly with human brain tissue.
Custom and general use microprocessors [4] have been a shining light of progress on complex integrated digital systems and now offer us continued growth for our increasingly complex computational needs. The improvements in super-computing are a testament to our ongoing, field-wide interest in increasing the floating-point operations per second, while recent work aims to tackle the energy required per computation. By combining high-performance, low-power ASICs and novel computational architectures (systolic arrays, array processing, graphics processing units, etc.), super-computers and data-centres are now able to provide enough resource for a variety of high-dimensional simulation problems. So powerful are modern central processing units (CPUs) that even embedded processors can run highly-nested (i.e. deep) neural networks of many thousands of complex artificial neurons, which has directly enabled the rise of machine learning (ML), deep learning (DL) and artificial intelligence (AI). Likewise, that same computation with low-energy and high-integration progress allows many of us to have a computer within our pocket that outstrips the military and commercial computers of the 80s.
Integrated, solid-state memory circuits [5] continue to become smaller, of higher access speed, of higher long-term reliability and of lower power, now replacing traditional hard disk drives in many front-line computing tasks. This has allowed society to store vast quantities of data and has lead – with ease of access and computation – to the rise of big data analytics and an increased interest in statistical and data-guided adaptive signal processing.
Rapid strides in digital image sensor designs [6] now allow individual pixels of less than 900 nm in width (very close to the diffraction limit), arrays of hundreds of megapixels, sensors able to be used in 645 medium format camera systems and even the counting and timing of single-photons with sub-10 pico-second timing resolutions. Digital image sensors using various semiconductors, substrates and readout methods can image at incredibly high frame rates – well into the millions of frames/s – and over a very large portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Telescopes such as Hubble and James Webb use these image sensor ASICs to investigate the cosmos, expanding our scientific knowledge, detecting planets orbiting distant stars and showing the innate artistry of nature. And – if this wasn’t enough – digital image sensors for machine vision can be coupled with complex digital signal processing ASICs and CPUs/GPUs running neural networks to provide automatic pedestrian detection and avoidance for self-driving cars.
But the progress we have observed in each of the above sub-fields from the 1970s to present has required many difficult issues to be tackled and presents a highly interesting and challenging career for those that are interested in the design details and techniques that are required. In this chapter, Section 2 breaks the ASIC arena down into a set of sub-fields providing some key texts for each. While a little more emphasis is placed on digital circuits and CMOS optical detectors and image sensors, this is a consequence of this author’s interests. To this end, Section 3 discusses some of the digital ASIC and programmable logic device hardware description languages (HDLs) that are now routinely used to develop complex systems. Finally, Section 4 discusses three key industry standards –
In this section, a wide selection of texts is references that provide significant context to the design issues inherent within ASIC technologies. The introductory text by Huber [7] provides an insight into how systems were designed during the 1990s. While this does not cover the detail of theory required for design, it introduces us to the manner, methods and tools used within the field. Generally, the below set of resources is split into the overall themes of the field: (i) planar silicon processes and solid-state physics, (ii) analogue transistors and systems, (iii) digital circuit design, and finally, (iv) sensors and interfaces to the real macro world in which we utilise these devices.
\nA crucial text for understanding the nature of electronics using nano-fabrication and doping of semiconductors is the work of Simon Sze [8]. This text not only discusses the way designs can be fabricated in a planar fashion using crystals of semiconductors such as Silicon, but it also introduces many of the microelectronic device structures. For example, bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) and metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) are discussed in detail. Sze undertook much of his research at Bell Telephone laboratories working alongside Walter Brattain, John Bardeen and William Shockley (the inventors of solid-state BJT and MOS transistors). His texts are crucial reading for those interested in the way electrons and holes within semiconductors can be used for analog amplification, digital switching and how semiconductors can be used as sensors.
\nThe development of integrated circuits, in particular ASICs and the field of very large-scale integration (VLSI) arguably started with the design and integration of analog circuitry within planar semiconductor manufacturing processes. The theory behind analog systems is well covered by the industry standard texts of Allen and Holberg [9] and Weste and Eshraghian [10]. While for the most part analog designs operate in terms of voltage amplitudes and the amplification, addition, subtraction, filtering and manipulation thereof, it should be noted that a current-mode approach can also be taken [11]. For the case of data communications using currents rather than voltages, authors such as Yuan [12] note that current-mode designs have advantages over their voltage-mode counterparts. As silicon also responds to light, CMOS analogue circuits have found application for many optical sensing methods [13] and of course image sensors [14]. Likewise, many other quantities such as temperature, magnetic fields (via the Hall effect) or ion-concentrations can be measured using CMOS technologies.
\nWhile modern ASICs – in an effort to increase the levels of system integration – often combine analog and digital circuitry, there has been significant emphasis on digital systems. Of importance for digital ASIC design, the texts by Kaeslin [15], Wakerly [16], and Weste and Harris [17] can be considered worthwhile purchases for students. Of note, Kaeslin’s book [15] covers much of the setup, hold and propagation timing issues that need to be considered during the design of circuits near the upper end of the possible clock speeds for a particular CMOS process node.
\nMuch of the push within the digital ASIC sector has been the rapid development of high-speed digital signal processing (DSP), memory and of course microcontroller and computer architectures. Students interested in the field of DSP are suggested to read the introductory text by Lynn and Fuerst [18]. Likewise, many of the concepts discussed in the context of field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) by Hauck and De Hon [19], and Mayer-Baese [20], can be transferred into the digital ASIC domain. The advantage, of course, being that FPGAs offer a method of prototyping or deploying a digital circuit without the high costs associated with CMOS ASIC designs [21]. While computer architecture quickly takes steps away from the low-level details of digital computation, storage and manipulation, the de-facto references for the field are the books by Hennessy and Patterson [22]. The crucial point here is that incredibly complex systems can be created by the prudent use of modular digital designs and a suitable hierarchical design and abstraction strategy.
\nThe languages and tools typical of the digital ASIC design industry are discussed in detail in Section 3. Suffice to say that the hardware description languages (HDLs) of Verilog [23] and VHDL [24] are crucial additions to the digital ASIC designer’s repertoire of designs tools.
\nWhile the ASICs of the past were typically drawn by hand – a highly laborious task with a high-risk factor – modern ASICs are almost exclusively developed using complex computer aided design (CAD) packages. The advantages of this are clear, first, that designs can become significantly more complex in a scalable, well maintainable and modular manner and secondly that transient, temporal, thermal, frequency domain, power, parasitic circuit elements and complex second and third order effects can be added in a manner that would not be possible from a hand calculation perspective. CAD packages allow designs to be verified against multiple specifications. Likewise, simulations based upon reliable fitted models can be used to provide such a wide range of correct and erroneous stimuli that we can obtain 99.9% test coverage and a very high expectation of full functionality prior to silicon prototyping. It is possible to run a design against multiple design corners such as low/high power, low/high temperature and fast/slow transistors, allowing simulation to capture a high proportion of likely external factors and combinations thereof.
\nFor analog, MEMs and photonic ICs, the user typically defines the lengths and widths of transistors, silicon features (resonant beams, masses, etc.) or waveguide structures using established theoretical techniques and formulae, and then iterates around this design as the tools iteratively increase the complexities added to the base models.
\nDigital design now exclusively uses hardware description languages. These were initially used to describe and model digital circuits, however modern ASIC design houses use a HDL to silicon synthesis process whereby the language describes a set of logical gates and sequential (clocked) registers that are synthesised – often via complex optimisation processes – into physical logic gates, registers and interconnections that are provided as standard cells by the CMOS foundry. This type of design entry is often called the register transfer level (RTL). The standard cells are themselves designed using the analog design flows and complex models to provide known digital performance (setup, hold and propagation times, etc.). There are two crucial HDLs used within the field. The first is Verilog [23], while the second is a very high speed integrated circuit (VHSIC) HDL, called VHDL [24]. Typically, Verilog is used for hardware descriptions that are synthesised to Silicon, while VHDL is typically synthesised to programmable devices such as FPGAs [21] and complex programmable logic devices (CPLDs). This split is however a rather grey area with a great deal of company preference. These description languages should therefore be treated as complementary.
\nWhile Verilog and VHDL have structures that comprehensively cover design concepts and the required complexity, languages such as SystemVerilog [25] and SystemC are used to provide functional verification of digital logic designs. The ASIC field would therefore write a SystemVerilog testbench that simulates a wide variety of stimuli for a digital module written in Verilog or VHDL. By doing so, we can be assured of the block’s functional or logical design before we progress to more complex timing verification steps. As designs have become more complex, so have the testbenches upon which we assess a design’s verifiable functionality and use case or test coverage. To handle such complexity, the digital ASIC field has shifted to a higher-level abstraction. It is here we have introduced the universal verification methodology (UVM) [26] which treats the verification of a block using a transaction-based system. The block or design-under-test (DUT) is provided with transactions that are monitored using a secondary process, with the DUT then being given a score based upon the successful completion of that transaction. For example, a two-input 16-bit adder could be given two series of random values. These would be passed through the DUT, while the monitor would compare the DUT output values with the deterministic, design-independent addition.
\nAs part of any introduction to design methods, practices and theory, we as designers must also pay attention to industry standards. While this is perhaps not given sufficient emphasis within academia, certain aspects of commercial engineering practice need to be used independent of a student’s career goals. We should emphasise that students should read up on industry standards such as
Control of a design project allows us to manage both complexity and risk, while giving customers (or the generalised concept of a project’s stakeholder) an assurance as to the robustness of a design. ISO-9001 “
During the design process, it may be necessary to modify or feedback into the previously agreed requirements of a block. While project managers may not need to know the bit-level detail as to the change, it would be crucial to discuss the changes to a project’s costs or timeline to ensure that all involved in the project are clear of the implications.
ISO-9001 [27] is routinely used throughout engineering to ensure clear communication and the management of expectations of all involved within a design. In industry, this would be hardware engineers, project managers, product marketing executives, the board of directors and of course the assurance for the end-user that their problem has been provided with a suitable solution.
For complex electrical systems, the application – for example, military/aviation, automotive or biomedical – often includes end-use standards that impact the bit-level or electrical system design process. As an example, ISO-26262 “
One well known implication of this standard is that of redundancy within a system. For example, a set of three redundant control blocks may be created with a voting system passing the control signal to an actuator. A fault in any of the three caused by a timing or power glitch is prevented from causing erroneous action.
Likewise, a processor responsible for the car’s breaks should default to a passenger-safe state or shutdown sequence if a fault is detected within its registers via the use of bit-level parity.
When data is transmitted – but has implications for safety – error correction codes can be used to ensure that within 99% of cases the message is interpreted correctly at the receiver. The same method also allows compliance by providing a default or shut down for the remaining cases where a message cannot be guaranteed.
DO-254 “
While the universal design methodology (UDM) [30] is often applied to FPGA-based hardware design, it is applicable to a wide range of electronics projects including both analog and digital ASIC designs. The power of the UDM model is its ability to fit well with the existing structures and processes of ISO-9001, while also enforcing a robust formalism in the design process. The pathway within UDM, shown in Figure 1, includes multiple opportunities for the design to be specified and constrained in a top down manner, while also providing suitable feedback loops to ensure designs meet all specifications without undue over-engineering. UDM also includes multiple signing off and review processes, each with the purpose of finalising, verifying and capturing issues as early as possible as the design moves towards implementation and shipping. In this way, once the design is passed to physical (gate-level) implementation, i.e. synthesis to Silicon or even custom analog layout, designers should never encounter a new requirement to add a separate reset line, a new state within an initialisation or control state machine or modify the block’s frequency domain specification.
\nThe universal design methodology (UDM), with an emphasis on multiple sign-off processes within the design flow and functional and final design verification against agreed specifications.
UDM contains a significant emphasis on design verification at all stages. For example, the functional simulation of a HDL coded design is used with the design specification to ensure the design both captures all design intent within the specifications and is verifiably functionally correct and in agreement with the agreed (via review) list of specifications. Likewise, once the HDL design is synthesised to Silicon, it is formally verified via gate-level simulation or emulation on a programmable logic platform, to ensure that it meets all timing requirements and that no issues are present using a constrained random approach to testing. Part of the verification task is to demonstrate functional equivalence between the design simulated, verified and agreed upon in previous stages with the computer optimised design that was synthesised. The final review within UDM is crucial as it is at this point that all involved in the design, from marketing and product management right down to hardware and software engineers sign-off the design and prepare for manufacture and final testing of the product. UDM can therefore be instrumental in achieving agreement between professionals of highly disparate backgrounds and provides a mechanism whereby a bit-level hardware design has a proven track record and verifiable performance against a set of high-level requirements.
\nIt should be noted that ASIC design tool vendors such as Cadence and Synopsis include many sign-off checks that complement the sign-off and review steps in UDM. For example, design rule checks (DRC) and layout-versus-schematic (LVS) checks were developed such that a design is not passed to manufacture or any other stage until verifiably passed and the “green light” given. Many CMOS foundries will not fabricate a design or require extensive waivers before allowing the tape-out of an IC with known DRC errors.
\nThe design of digital, analog, and sensing ASICs is an exciting but complex field. The references and texts provided are intended as an introductory reading list. Of course, once a student has an idea of a sub-specialty they wish to pursue, they can delve far more deeply. Alongside introducing the different areas within ASIC design, some key industry standards are discussed. Students are encouraged to engage with ISO-9001 as early as possible. This is simply prudent planning for a career within robustly managed engineering projects. Finally, a design flow called the universal design methodology was briefly covered, which emphases the need for agreement as to requirements and scope, along with verification of the design throughout the lifecycle of a complex design.
\nIn recent years, the eating habits of people have changed dramatically due to various reasons. One such reason is consumer awareness of the impact of food on human health. Products that have a natural composition, that are unprocessed, and are nongenetically modified are preferred the most by the consumers. Another important factor, which determines people’s eating habits, is food allergies and intolerances, which eliminate the possibility of consumption of a particular food product. Food allergies and metabolic disorders have led to an increased demand for allergen-free food products that meet the daily requirements for protein and other nutrients. For example, in the case of gluten intolerance, it is impossible to eat food products containing gluten. For such individuals, an alternative food product is, among others, buckwheat, which, as a gluten-free pseudocereal, can be used as groats, flour in baking bread or cakes.
Buckwheat has a rich composition and high nutritional value and can be an ideal base for products that are enriched with lactic acid bacteria (LAB), including probiotics. They are defined as a functional food because when they are administered in adequate amounts, they confer specific health benefits to the consumer. Consuming functional foods helps to reduce the risk of developing diseases of affluence, such as diabetes, obesity, or cancer. Buckwheat beverage enriched with LAB and bifidobacterial is one such functional food. Its unique taste and nutritional value might be utilized to develop a new product dedicated to people with disorders of the digestive system, as well as for people who want to stay healthy.
Fermented plant-based products represent a better way to substitute dairy products that cannot be consumed by people with food allergies or intolerance. The plant-based products gain a pro-health value after the process of fermentation and at the same time, they require minimal processing. Furthermore, the probiotic LAB have a positive effect on human health by regulating the functions of the intestinal microbiota. They keep the digestive system healthy and increase immunity. They have anticarcinogenic and antiallergenic effects [1]. Food intolerances are not related to the immune system; they are caused by sensitivity to certain food ingredients, e.g. gluten [2]. At present, approximately 20% of the population is affected due to food intolerance [3]. So far, the detailed mechanism of food intolerance is not known, but it may be related to the neuroendocrine system of the digestive system [4]. In the case of treatment available for gluten intolerance, elimination of gluten from the diet is recommended. Any amount of gluten might be harmful to individuals who are gluten-intolerant. According to the literature, more than 50–100 mg of gluten per day can prove to be harmful to such individuals [5].
Buckwheat is a dicotyledonous plant and is referred to as a pseudocereal. It is classified as a secondary plant. It has a tap root system, which is 1 meter long, and has a straight stem, 60–90 cm high, and brown in color; it bears pink or white flowers. Different products are made from different parts of the plant. The grains are used to produce buckwheat flour and buckwheat, while straw, after threshing the seeds, is added to various types of fodder. During the flowering season, buckwheat provides nectar to the bees [6, 7]. Buckwheat kernels contain gluten-free protein and have well-balanced amino acid profile. The flour is a rich source of minerals such as copper, zinc, manganese, potassium, magnesium, phosphorus, and potassium. It is also rich in polyphenols such as rutin, orientin, vitexin, quercetin, isovitoxin, and isoorientin. Among the aforementioned polyphenols, rutin shows the strongest anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and protective effect. In terms of flavonoid content, tartar buckwheat seeds contain approximately 40 mg/g, whereas common buckwheat seeds contain 10 mg/g [8, 9, 10]. A previous study [11] reported that sucrose is the predominant sugar in buckwheat, whereas xylose, glucose, arabinose, and melibiose are present in much smaller quantities. According to a previous study [12], sucrose accumulates in large quantities when the dry matter content is increased. It mainly occurs in the central part of the ovule and the seed coat. Buckwheat also contains
The word “probiotic” was borrowed from Greek, wherein “probios” means “for life.” Probiotics are mainly bacterial strains from the genera
Growing consumer needs have increased the demand for functional food, which means that the food industry introduces more and more interesting and a variety of products. Currently, Europe, Japan, and the United States are the largest markets for functional products [18]. Functional foods must contain one or more compounds that trigger specific changes in the body. In particular, they should help to reduce the risk of civilization diseases, which are the greatest threat to society; for example, cancer, diabetes, heart disease, osteoporosis, neurodegenerative diseases, and hypertension [19]. It is noteworthy that functional foods help to optimize the physiological functions of the body so that it is possible to initiate repair processes and maintain health. It cannot be treated as a drug in specific disease entities, but only as a support in therapy [20]. Compounds that can be used in functional foods are polyphenols, sterols, carotenoids, probiotics, and prebiotics [21].
There are different categories of functional foods. The simplest ones are unprocessed conventional foods, for example, tomatoes, kale, raspberries, and broccoli. These foods contain a high content of ellagic acid and lycopene. is the next category is modified foods—this category contains foods that are modified by enrichment with specific ingredients. For example, orange juice with added calcium to support bone health, bread supplemented with folic acid, which is especially dedicated to pregnant women, and margarine enriched with plant stanols. The third category of functional food is a medical food, which is used in specific disease cases and can only be administered under the supervision of a doctor. These foods include supplements for phenylketonuria and diabetes and kidney and liver disease. The latter type is special-purpose food, which includes infant formulas, gluten-free foods, lactose-free foods, and foods used in a slimming diet. Therefore, it may be one of the food products that provides the necessary nutrients. In the case of some categories of food, for example gluten-free food, some components of the material are removed to avoid the aggravation of the disease [22].
Fermented foods are grouped as functional foods. Since the beginning of human civilization, fermented foods formed the basis of food, and although people were not aware of it back then, they had a positive effect on their health [23]. Fermented foods can be obtained by the spontaneous or controlled growth of microorganisms and the enzymatic conversion of their main components. Currently, fermented foods can be produced very fast, which allows for the production of thousands of various products [24]. The fermentation process of some food products gives them new health properties and features that were not present in the starting material. Furthermore, recent clinical trials have shown an existing relationship between the consumption of fermented milk products and maintaining a healthy body weight [25]. Other studies have shown that regular consumption of fermented foods such as yogurt reduces the risk of heart disease and type 2 diabetes [26, 27].
In this study, we aimed to investigate the effect of four different bacterial cultures containing LAB and bifidobacteria on the selected features of buckwheat beverage. With regard to this, we performed fermentation of the selected cultures with buckwheat beverages and evaluated the parameters.
Fermented plant beverages are very popular in Asia and Africa, for example, boza, togwa, mahewu, makgeolli, or hardalie. The most popular plant-based fermented beverage in Poland and throughout Eastern Europe is kvass. It is a product of milk-alcohol fermentation of wholemeal bread with the addition of yeast, water, and a small amount of sugar. The microorganisms present in kvass are
In recent years, many studies have reported the properties of plant-based fermented beverages. The most important feature of this type of product is the ability of LAB to carry out effective fermentation, and the pH value of the resulting product is an important parameter, which indicates the effectiveness of the fermentation process. In this study, this parameter was checked both during the fermentation process and after its completion (28 days).
Kowalska [29] used four yogurt starter cultures to ferment the buckwheat beverage: YO-MIX 207, YO-MIX 205, ABY-3, and VEGE 033. The microbial composition of the starters was as follows:
ABY-3 (Chr. Hansen, Denmark)—Streptococcus thermophilus, Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus, Lactobacillus acidophilus La-5, Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis BB-12,
YO-MIX 207 (DuPont Danisco, Denmark)—
YO-MIX 205 LYO (DuPont Danisco, Denmark)—
VEGE 033 LYO (DuPont Danisco, Denmark)—
Buckwheat beverage was prepared with 200 g of boiled buckwheat and blended with 3000 mL of drinking water. Prior to the process of sterilization, the beverage was strained through a fine sieve to get rid of the groats. The strained beverage was sterilized at 121°C for 15 min [30]. Based on the recipe of the buckwheat beverage, which was obtained by mixing the buckwheat in water in the proportion 1:15, the nutritional value of 100 g of buckwheat beverage was calculated [29]:
Fat—0.16 g (including 0.04 g of saturated acids)
Carbohydrates—4.69 g (including 0.16 g of sugars)
Proteins—0.75 g.
The average water content of buckwheat beverage was 87.9% [30].
Kowalska [29] reported that the initial pH of buckwheat (beverage before fermentation at 37°C for 5 h) was on an average 6.550 for the samples intended for fermentation with YO-MIX 207, YO-MIX 205, and ABY-3 cultures, and 6.400 for the samples intended for fermentation with VEGE 033 culture (Table 1). The most effective fermentation process was observed in the case of beverage fermented with YO-MIX 207 culture, followed by the beverage fermented with YO-MIX 205. Within 1–2 h of fermentation, both beverages reached an average pH value of 4.8, which was statistically significantly from that of before fermentation (Table 1). ABY3 and VEGE 033 cultures were less efficient in terms of acidification, in which case, the pH value did not increase until 3–4 h of the fermentation process. After fermentation for 5 h, all of the beverages reached a pH of 4.5–4.9, which means that all the bacteria carried out the fermentation process efficiently [29]. A previous study [31] also reported similar results for soybean beverage fermented with
Fermentation time [h] | Buckwheat beverages fermented by: | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
YO-MIX 207 | YO-MIX 205 | ABY-3 | VEGE 033 | |
0 | 6.550 ± 0.212a | 6.550 ± 0.212a | 6.550 ± 0.212a | 6.400 ± 0.000a |
1 | 5.185 ± 0.481b | 5.020 ± 0.389b | 5.610 ± 0.721ab | 5.770 ± 0.000ab |
2 | 4.840 ± 0.226b | 4.805 ± 0.163b | 5.085 ± 0.262b | 5.170 ± 0.000b |
3 | 4.730 ± 0.127b | 4.675 ± 0.163b | 4.860 ± 0.085b | 4.910 ± 0.000b |
4 | 4.640 ± 0.057b | 4.600 ± 0.212b | 4.825 ± 0.106b | 4.880 ± 0.000b |
5 | 4.590 ± 0.127b | 4.595 ± 0.276b | 4.790 ± 0.156b | 4.950 ± 0.000b |
pH values of buckwheat beverage during the fermentation process (mean ± standard deviation) (based on [29]).
Note: a,b—values in columns with the same letter do not differ statistically significantly for α = 0.05.
Storage time [day] | Buckwheat beverage fermented by: | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
YO-MIX 207 | YO-MIX 207 | YO-MIX 207 | YO-MIX 207 | |
0 | 4.590 ± 0.127b | 4.595 ± 0.276a | 4.790 ± 0.156a | 4.950 ± 0.000a |
7 | 4.750 ± 0.071ab | 4.750 ± 0.071a | 4.850 ± 0.071a | 4.900 ± 0.000a |
21 | 4.875 ± 0.035ab | 4.850 ± 0.071a | 4.850 ± 0.071a | 5.000 ± 0.000a |
28 | 4.920 ± 0.028a | 4.935 ± 0.049a | 4.925 ± 0.035a | 5.000 ± 0.000a |
pH values of buckwheat beverage fermented with different starter cultures (mean values and standard deviations) (based on [29]).
Note: a,b—values in columns with the same letter do not differ statistically significantly for α = 0.05.
Kowalska [29] also measured the pH of buckwheat beverage during 28 days of refrigerated storage. During refrigerated storage, the most stable pH value was recorded for buckwheat beverage fermented with VEGE 033, ABY-3, and YO-MIX 205 cultures. However, the beverage fermented with YO-MIX 207 culture showed variation in pH value during refrigerated storage.
Table 1 shows the pH value of buckwheat beverage before and after fermentation with cultures tested by Kowalska [29]. Similar results were obtained by Ziarno et al. [33]. They reported the change in pH value of bean beverage (initial pH of 6.58) after fermentation, which was 4.47 and 4.45 when fermented with YO-MIX 205 and ABY-3 cultures, respectively. At 6°C, the pH value of beverages fermented with YO-MIX 205 and ABY-3 cultures respectively decreased to 4.40 and 4.39 on day 7, 4.34 and 4.29 on day 21, and 4.33 and 4.27 on day 28 [33]. This shows that LAB continued the process of fermentation during the entire storage period, which was not observed in the research conducted by Kowalska [29].
Bacterial cell count is a very important parameter in determining the quality of the product and its health properties [34]. Manufacturers frequently check this parameter in fermented beverages. The minimum acceptable number of live LAB cells that should be present in fermented beverages is 7 log(CFU/mL) and at least 6 log(CFU/mL) for strains with probiotic properties, including probiotics of the genus
Kowalska [29] found that the changes in the number of live LAB and bifidobacteria in beverages fermented with the YO-MIX 205 and YO-MIX 207 cultures were very similar. Interestingly, after fermentation, there was a slight reduction in the number of viable bacterial cells compared to the state before fermentation. In addition, during the refrigerated storage of the fermented beverage, there were fluctuations in the number of LAB cells, both lactobacilli and lactic streptococci, as well as bifidobacteria. The number of viable cells of lactobacilli, lactic streptococci, and bifidobacteria on day 28 was over 7 log(CFU/mL), which indicated the potential health-promoting properties of the tested beverages fermented with the YO-MIX 207 and YO-MIX 205 cultures.
The smallest variation in the population of lactobacilli, lactic streptococci, and bifidobacteria was recorded for beverages fermented with ABY-3 culture (Table 3) [29]. Contrary to buckwheat beverages fermented with the YO-MIX 207 (Table 4) and YO-MIX 205 (Table 5), there were no such significant changes in the number of bacterial cells. After fermentation, the number of bifidobacterial cells decreased the most. After 7 days of refrigerated storage (4°C), there was a slight change in the number of lactobacilli, lactic streptococci, and bifidobacteria. After 28 days of storage, the average bacterial cell count was 8.0 log(CFU/mL) for lactobacilli, 7.8 log(CFU/mL) for lactic streptococci, and 8.0 log(CFU/mL) for bifidobacteria. The number of viable cells of lactobacilli, lactic streptococci, and bifidobacteria on day 28 was over 7 log(CFU/mL), which indicated the potentially health-promoting properties of the tested buckwheat beverages fermented with the ABY-3 culture [29].
Determination time | Number of lactobacilli [log(CFU/mL)] | Number of bifidobacteria [log(CFU/mL)] | Number of lactic streptococci [log(CFU/mL)] |
---|---|---|---|
Before fermentation | 8.2 ± 0.2a | 8.2 ± 0.4a | 8.2 ± 0.4a |
After fermentation | 7.9 ± 0.3a | 7.7 ± 0.1b | 8.0 ± 0.3a |
7 day of storage | 8.1 ± 0.3a | 8.2 ± 0.2ab | 8.0 ± 0.2a |
28 days of storage | 8.0 ± 0.2a | 8.0 ± 0.2ab | 7.8 ± 0.1a |
The population of live cells of lactic acid bacteria and bifidobacteria in buckwheat beverage fermented with ABY-3 culture and stored for 28 days under refrigerated condition (mean ± standard deviation) (based on [29]).
Note: a,b—values in columns with the same letter do not differ statistically significantly for α = 0.05.
Determination time | Number of lactobacilli [log(CFU/mL)] | Number of bifidobacteria [log(CFU/mL)] | Number of lactic streptococci [log(CFU/mL)] |
---|---|---|---|
Before fermentation | 8.7 ± 0.3a | 8.5 ± 0.2a | 8.4 ± 1.1a |
After fermentation | 7.8 ± 0.2b | 7.2 ± 0.1c | 7.9 ± 0.3a |
7 day of storage | 8.0 ± 0.3b | 8.1 ± 0.3ab | 8.0 ± 0.4a |
28 days of storage | 7.8 ± 0.0b | 7.7 ± 0.1b | 7.7 ± 0.3a |
The population of live cells of lactic acid bacteria and bifidobacteria in buckwheat beverage fermented with YO-MIX 207 culture and stored for 28 days under refrigerated condition (mean ± standard deviation) (based on [29]).
Note: a–c—values in columns with the same letter do not differ statistically significantly for α = 0.05.
Determination time | Number of lactobacilli [log(CFU/mL)] | Number of bifidobacteria [log(CFU/mL)] | Number of lactic streptococci [log(CFU/mL)] |
---|---|---|---|
Before fermentation | 7.9 ± 0.8a | 7.8 ± 0.7a | 8.4 ± 0.8a |
After fermentation | 7.6 ± 0.2a | 7.0 ± 0.2a | 7.8 ± 0.5a |
7 day of storage | 7.9 ± 0.6a | 7.6 ± 0.7a | 8.1 ± 0.5a |
28 days of storage | 7.6 ± 0.1a | 7.5 ± 0.3a | 7.8 ± 0.2a |
The population of live cells of lactic acid bacteria and bifidobacteria in buckwheat beverage fermented with YO-MIX 205 culture and stored for 28 days under refrigerated conditions (mean ± standard deviation) (based on [29]).
Note: a—values in columns with the same letter do not differ statistically significantly for α = 0.05.
According to Kowalska [29], in the case of buckwheat beverage fermented with VEGE 033 (Table 6), the greatest proportion in the population of bacterial cells prior to fermentation were lactic streptococci [29]. In the beverages fermented with the VEGE 033 culture, the lower number of bifidobacterial cells was found (during the entire period of cooling storage) compared to the buckwheat beverage fermented with ABY-3 culture. On the 7th day of storage of the samples of buckwheat beverages fermented with the VEGE 033 culture, the number of streptococcal cells was on average 8.2 log(CFU/mL). The number of viable lactobacilli, lactic streptococci, and bifidobacteria cells in the beverage fermented with VEGE 033 culture on day 28 was over 7 log(CFU/mL) [29].
Determination time | Number of lactobacilli [log(CFU/mL)] | Number of bifidobacteria [log(CFU/mL)] | Number of lactic streptococci [log(CFU/mL)] |
---|---|---|---|
Before fermentation | 8.7 ± 0.0a | 7.1 ± 0.1b | 9.0 ± 0.1a |
After fermentation | 7.1 ± 0.1d | 7.3 ± 0.0b | 7.9 ± 0.0c |
7 day of storage | 8.1 ± 0.1b | 8.2 ± 0.2a | 8.2 ± 0.1b |
28 days of storage | 7.7 ± 0.0c | 7.4 ± 0.1b | 7.5 ± 0.0d |
The population of live cells of lactic acid bacteria and bifidobacteria in buckwheat beverage fermented with VEGE 033 culture and stored for 28 days under refrigerated condition (mean ± standard deviation) (based on [29]).
Note: a–d—values in columns with the same letter do not differ statistically significantly for α = 0.05.
A previous study conducted on rice beverage reported low counts of bacterial cells [36]. Prior to fermentation, the number of bacterial cells in rice beverage was lower than that observed for buckwheat beverage in the research conducted by Kowalska [29] - the population of LAB was 5.0 log(CFU/mL). However, after 16-hour fermentation process, the bacterial population increased to 8.1 log(CFU/mL) and remained at this level until the end of the fermentation process [29]. However, the previous study [37] reported that after fermentation of corn or rice-based beverages, the microbial cell population was at the level of 7–8 log(CFU/mL). This number indicates that the product has probiotic properties [38].
However, another group of researchers [39] used different strains of LAB for fermentation of soy milk, including
Kowalska [29] found that in all plant-based products, there were similarities in the population of LAB, despite the diversity of the
A previous study performed fermentation of bean beverages with ABY-3 culture [33]. Prior to fermentation, the number of viable lactobacilli was 7.7 log(CFU/mL), which gradually decreased during the cold storage. On days 7 and 28 of storage, the population of lactobacilli was 7.5 log(CFU/mL) and 6.9 log(CFU/mL), respectively. According to a previous study [30], the observed lower bacterial cells after the cold storage period may result from antimicrobial compounds produced by bacteria, e.g. hydrogen peroxide, bacteriocins, or organic acids. In contrast, in the research conducted by Kowalska [29], the number of viable lactobacilli in the buckwheat beverage fermented with ABY-3 culture was slightly higher. Prior to fermentation, on days 7 and 28 of storage, the number of viable lactobacilli was 8.2 log(CFU/mL) and 8.0 log(CFU/mL), respectively. The better growth on buckwheat substrate might be due to higher sugar content and availability in plant media.
Kowalska [29] verified the content of carbohydrates using high-performance liquid chromatography. The results showed the presence of 7 carbohydrates: xylose, melibiose, fructose, arabinose, glucose, sucrose, and maltose. The initial (before fermentation) content of carbohydrate in the fermented buckwheat beverage was 4.598 g in 100 g of the product. The chromatographic analysis includes only a few selected carbohydrates, whereas the calculated value of carbohydrate content takes into account all such compounds, including starch. Therefore, it can be concluded that as a result of the cooking and sterilization of buckwheat beverage in an aqueous solution, some complex carbohydrates or polysaccharides might be released, which were determined by chromatography [29].
Immediately after the end of fermentation of buckwheat beverages, the highest total carbohydrate content was found in the beverage fermented with the ABY-3 culture (Table 7), whereas the lowest was found in the beverage fermented with the YO-MIX 207 culture (Table 8). It should be noted that both the ABY-3 culture and the YO-MIX 207 culture had a rich microbiological composition, which not only included LAB but also included bifidobacteria of different strains [29].
Carbohydrates [g/ 100 g beverage] | Before fermentation | After fermentation | After 7 days of storage | After 28 days of storage |
---|---|---|---|---|
Xylose | 0.000e | 0.129e | 0.065f | 0.193b |
Fructose | 0.096d | 0.322b | 0.132e | 0.000e |
Arabinose | 0.000e | 0.241d | 0.294c | 0.000e |
Glucose | 2.958a | 0.280c | 0.251d | 0.152c |
Melibiose | 0.000e | 0.000f | 0.318b | 0.153c |
Sucrose | 1.544b | 2.300a | 1.591a | 0.698a |
Maltose | 0.218c | 0.000f | 0.000g | 0.000e |
All | 4.598 | 3.273 | 2.650 | 1.196 |
Content of carbohydrates in buckwheat beverages fermented with ABY-3 culture (based on [29]).
Note: a–e—values in columns with the same letter do not differ statistically significantly for α = 0.05.
Carbohydrates [g/ 100 g beverage] | Before fermentation | After fermentation | After 7 days of storage | After 28 days of storage |
---|---|---|---|---|
Xylose | 0.000f | 0.000f | 0.000e | 0.143c |
Fructose | 0.096d | 0.115c | 0.076d | 0.164b |
Arabinose | 0.000e | 0.069d | 0.086c | 0.000g |
Glucose | 2.958a | 0.204b | 0.186b | 0.102d |
Melibiose | 0.000e | 0.000e | 0.000f | 0.087e |
Sucrose | 1.544b | 1.436a | 1.388a | 0.751a |
Maltose | 0.218c | 0.000f | 0.000f | 0.000f |
All | 4.598 | 1.824 | 1.736 | 1.247 |
Content of carbohydrates in buckwheat beverages fermented with YO-MIX 207 culture (based on [29]).
Note: a–g—values in columns with the same letter do not differ statistically significantly for α = 0.05.
In the case of beverage fermented with YO-MIX 205 culture (Table 9), we obtained statistically significant differences in terms of carbohydrate content before and after fermentation and during cold storage.
Carbohydrates [g/ 100 g beverage] | Before fermentation | After fermentation | After 7 days of storage | After 28 days of storage |
---|---|---|---|---|
Xylose | 0.000e | 0.000e | 0.042e | 0.233c |
Fructose | 0.096d | 0.099d | 0.093d | 0.244b |
Arabinose | 0.000e | 0.152c | 0.873b | 0.000f |
Glucose | 2.958a | 0.000e | 0.000f | 0.123d |
Melibiose | 0.000e | 0.286b | 0.188c | 0.075e |
Sucrose | 1.544b | 1.514a | 1.763a | 0.595a |
Maltose | 0.218c | 0.000e | 0.000f | 0.000f |
All | 4.598 | 2.051 | 2.959 | 1.270 |
Content of carbohydrates in buckwheat beverages fermented with YO-MIX 205 culture (based on [29]).
Note: a–f—values in columns with the same letter do not differ statistically significantly for α = 0.05.
Contrary to the buckwheat beverages fermented with the YO-MIX 205 and YO-MIX 207 cultures, the beverage fermented with VEGE 033 culture (Table 10) contained a low amount of xylose after fermentation. In this case, the xylose content decreased slightly. As in the beverages fermented with the YO-MIX 205 and YO-MIX 207 cultures, the content of sucrose, glucose, and maltose also decreased, and the content of arabinose increased. The chromatographic analysis also did not detect the presence of melibiose. Statistical analysis showed significant differences in the results of carbohydrate content during cold storage of the samples.
Carbohydrates [g/ 100 g beverage] | Before fermentation | After fermentation | After 7 days of storage | After 28 days of storage |
---|---|---|---|---|
Xylose | 0.000e | 0.080e | 0.625c | 0.705a |
Fructose | 0.096d | 0.094d | 0.000e | 0.000e |
Arabinose | 0.000e | 0.741b | 1.299b | 0.264c |
Glucose | 2.958a | 0.237c | 0.328d | 0.106d |
Melibiose | 0.000e | 0.000f | 0.000e | 0.000e |
Sucrose | 1.544b | 1.237a | 1.598a | 0.338b |
Maltose | 0.218c | 0.000f | 0.000e | 0.000e |
All | 4.598 | 2.389 | 3.851 | 1.413 |
Content of carbohydrates in buckwheat beverages fermented by VEGE 033 culture (based on [29]).
Note: a–f—values in columns with the same letter do not differ statistically significantly for α = 0.05.
Our results show differences in the fermentation abilities of the tested starter cultures, resulting from different biochemical activities (mainly saccharolytic and fermentation) of the strains present in the tested cultures [29].
It can be assumed that the changes in the content of carbohydrates during refrigerated storage were due to the changes taking place in the analyzed samples; for example, the biochemical activity of LAB and bifidobacteria, as well as enzymatic changes [29]. Due to the lack of information, it is difficult to compare the results of this study with that of others.
A previous study [40] reported contradictory results with respect to sugar content in the cooked buckwheat wort. According to the result of the aforementioned study, glucose was present in the highest quantities. However, in this study, sucrose was found to be the highest after fermentation and after the storage period, which was most likely the result of starch decomposition.
A previous study [41] reported that sucrose was the predominant carbohydrate, whereas xylose, glucose, arabinose, and melibiose were present in much smaller quantities. Another study [42] reported that with an increasing amount of water and lengthening heating time, the content of glucose increases.
According to the literature [43], fermentation of buckwheat beverages with the use of
The results of this study indicate a high potential of fermented buckwheat beverage as a probiotic product with pro-health properties. The demand for gluten-free cereal beverages is growing among people suffering from celiac disease and food intolerance. Good bacterial survival during the storage period allows achieving a therapeutic effect similar to that caused by consuming fermented milk products, such as kefir, buttermilk, or yoghurt. In addition, an additional advantage of the product is the lack of allergenic milk proteins. More and more people are experiencing side effects after drinking milk and other dairy products such as gas, indigestion, and diarrhea, which are causing them to be excluded from their diet. In such a case, dietary supplements containing probiotic strains are often used to supplement the intestinal microflora and increase the body’s immunity. Fermented buckwheat beverages can replace these types of supplements and provide other essential nutrients for the body. The product is dedicated not only to people suffering from disorders of the digestive system but also to healthy people who care about a balanced diet and want to have a healthy lifestyle. In addition to LAB and bifidobacteria, the base of the buckwheat beverage is important, as it is also a medium necessary for the growth of the bacterial population used for fermentation. Our results show that buckwheat can be successfully fermented by LAB and bifidobacteria. Its proven health properties mean that the beverage can be used to prevent civilization diseases such as diabetes, obesity, or cancer.
This work was supported by a grant from Warsaw University of Life Sciences - WULS-SGGW.
Authors have declared that they do not have any conflict of interest in publishing this research.
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