Technical parameters of the series hybrid transit bus.
\r\n\tThis edited volume will contain chapters dealing with the different aspects of basic and applied chemical ecology. Scientists working in diverse fields of chemical ecology would contribute high impact articles on chemical ecology and semiochemistry of plants and animals. This book aims to be a rich source of information for the students, teachers and researchers working in this special field of ecological science.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:null,priceUsd:null,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b0e57b577bb258d8d3290e46066153b1",bookSignature:"Prof. Sajal Ray",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6901.jpg",keywords:"Kairomone, Terpenes, Hexadecene, Sex Pheromones, Chemical Defense, Floral Scent Compound, Bisabolene, Linalool, Macrocyclic Lactone, Pinene, Terpinolene, Tritrophic Interaction",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 16th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 7th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 6th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 24th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 23rd 2019",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"7 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"173697",title:"Prof.",name:"Sajal",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"sajal-ray",fullName:"Sajal Ray",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173697/images/system/173697.jpeg",biography:"Sajal Ray received his MSc and MPhil degrees from Calcutta University in Zoology and Environmental Science respectively and was awarded Ph.D. from Jadavpur University.\r\nHis thesis reported immunotoxicity of pesticide in an economically important snail of India. As an awardee of Fogarty Visiting Fellowship, Dr. Ray carried out his postdoctoral research in Cardiac pathology at National Institutes of Health, USA. \r\nHis research interest is studying the immunological responses of mollusks, sponge, crab, and earthworm exposed to pollutants. \r\nHis team is engaged in understanding the evolutionary mechanism of immunity in phylogeny. He presented his research at various conferences including the World Congress of Malacology at Washington D.C. Sajal Ray, currently, a Professor of Zoology at Calcutta University has been teaching Zoology for nearly thirty years at postgraduate level.",institutionString:"University of Calcutta",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"University of Calcutta",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"6",title:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"177731",firstName:"Dajana",lastName:"Pemac",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/177731/images/4726_n.jpg",email:"dajana@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6883",title:"Cell Signalling",subtitle:"Thermodynamics and Molecular Control",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e4e17d85c0643c7f4d274fa9adbcc628",slug:"cell-signalling-thermodynamics-and-molecular-control",bookSignature:"Sajal Ray",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6883.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"173697",title:"Prof.",name:"Sajal",surname:"Ray",slug:"sajal-ray",fullName:"Sajal Ray"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6559",title:"Earthworms",subtitle:"The Ecological Engineers of Soil",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0780208898e98441ccea18ea373c0708",slug:"earthworms-the-ecological-engineers-of-soil",bookSignature:"Sajal Ray",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6559.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"173697",title:"Prof.",name:"Sajal",surname:"Ray",slug:"sajal-ray",fullName:"Sajal Ray"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6344",title:"Biological Resources of Water",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ca4f407275697c7cf547debc6b1e85a9",slug:"biological-resources-of-water",bookSignature:"Sajal Ray",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6344.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"173697",title:"Prof.",name:"Sajal",surname:"Ray",slug:"sajal-ray",fullName:"Sajal Ray"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5899",title:"Organismal and Molecular Malacology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a7f042a23fd6991a546812db126ef875",slug:"organismal-and-molecular-malacology",bookSignature:"Sajal Ray",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5899.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"173697",title:"Prof.",name:"Sajal",surname:"Ray",slug:"sajal-ray",fullName:"Sajal Ray"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6694",title:"New Trends in Ion Exchange Studies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3de8c8b090fd8faa7c11ec5b387c486a",slug:"new-trends-in-ion-exchange-studies",bookSignature:"Selcan Karakuş",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6694.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206110",title:"Dr.",name:"Selcan",surname:"Karakus",slug:"selcan-karakus",fullName:"Selcan Karakus"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"38367",title:"Globalization of Uncertainties: Lessons from Fukushima",doi:"10.5772/45799",slug:"globalization-of-uncertainties-lessons-from-fukushima",body:'The tragedy of Fukushima began as an earthquake followed by a tsunami of unexpected dimensions [2], but the worst came as a cascade of human mistakes done by agents of the Japanese government as well as by high rank officers of Tepco (Tokyo Electric Power Company). We are not speaking of just a natural accident, or of an unbelievable number of political mistakes, it is more than a triple disaster of earthquake, tsunami and reactor meltdown. Actually we are in front of a structural tragedy.
A year after these happenings it is evident that their consequences have been much greater than it was supposed in the first moments and that the affected people, not just Japanese citizens, are more numerous than it was expected. For example see [3]. The most damaged prefectures are Iwate, Miyagi, and Fukushima, which have a combined area about the size of Denmark or Netherlands, but the whole country has been affected by the consequences of Fukushima`s accident.
My point is that all this happened because the main concerns by the location, construction and operation of the nuclear plants in Fukushima were mere economical ones. Maximization of profit for Tepco and not the wellbeing and safety of the Japanese population was the driving force and the main criterion. In front of these facts it becomes evident the necessary self protection of society and this issue is discussed in the first part of this article, basing on Karl Polanyi´s opus magnum. Following the ideas of this author in the next section is briefly explained the concept of fictitious commodities, which Polanyi applies to labor, land and money, but I suggest to include nuclear power as a particular type of the fictitious commodity land, which has played a central role for Japan´s economic development.
The promoters and defenders of the use of nuclear energy have constructed what I suggest to call a “Gaussian” justification. It should be remembered that the normal or Gaussian distribution of events is considered the most prominent probability distribution in statistics. The “bell” shape of the normal distribution suggests that the events located in the tails or extremes of the bell, can be considered highly improbable. This idea is developed in the paragraph. But the other side of the coin is unexpected events of tremendous impact, what Taleb [4] calls “Black Swans”. After explaining this concept, it follows a review of the reactions to Fukushima, understanding the accident as a kind of “Black Swan”. This examination leads us to the crucial question: which society must be protected from the use of nuclear energy? In this part I try to answer this question taking into account the current globalization, a process that is putting into strong and speedy circulation not just commodities, money flows and information, but also fears and uncertainties.
All this cannot be understood without considering the cozy relations between economical and political elite in Japan, expressed clearly in the Amakudari-System, which is discussed in the next part of the article, which concludes with some thoughts about further lessons and consequences of Fukushima.
In The Great Transformation Karl Polanyi explains that the continuous expansion of the market mechanism sooner or later hurts the society and its reaction is the search for self protection. The author shows several examples from the history of Western, particularly English, capitalism since the times of the Industrial Revolution until the crisis years during the 30`s. However it is easy to find more and more cases of such responses of societies when the market dictatorship pervades different realms of human life, especially in the present age of Neoliberal Globalization.
From the Polanyian point of view there are two opposite forces or tendencies along the history of capitalism. One of them is the unlimited expansion of the self regulated market and the second one is the self protection of society that appears as reaction to the former. Each of them takes different historical shapes and their confrontation is always different depending on the concrete historical moment. Also the social forces promoting each tendency vary in a great scope. These protecting forces can be local or national governments, churches, labor unions, and currently NGO´s whose activities are located in several realms.
These both tendencies are fighting all the time and their fight shapes the whole dynamic of our world. It seems that during certain historical period one tendency dominates and then it is defeated, at least for a while, for the opposite force. It is important to note that this is in no way a mechanical movement, but it is the outcome of social struggles. The relevant point is that the first tendency is due to the nature of the capital accumulation and it is adequate to the unlimited search for profits that corresponds to the competition among individual enterprises, and that the second tendency must appear because the pursuit of the market logic is the transformation into commodities of three things that cannot be real commodities, because they are not produced for their sale in the market. According to Karl Polanyi, these three fictitious commodities are labor, land and money. Their commodification is essential for the continuous functioning of the capitalistic production system, but at the same time, the triumph of the unlimited expansion of self regulating market would mean the destruction of the social fabric. This is the reason for the necessary self-protection of society, whose interests can diverge from the pure economic interests of the group that is ruling the economy.
Labor, land and money are not real commodities because they are not things produced for be sold in a market. Labor is, according to Polanyi, just a different name for the human beings. Labor is a vital activity of men and women and cannot be separated from actions corresponding to other human realms. Land is a name for Nature and for the entire environment that allows our existence on this planet. At the same time, the land has several meanings for the societies. It is soil, space for living and recreation, source of food, symbol of traditions, home of the ancestors and many others. Money is a political institution and it is strongly linked to the existence of nation states. In spite of all these facts, the pace of capitalistic accumulation and even the reproduction of a whole system based on great scale industrialization require the treatment of labor, land and money as commodities. This means that they must be disposable all the time and offered at prices determined by supply and demand. By this way it is granted the uninterrupted process of industrial production and its supplementary operations, like trade and commerce, as well as other services.
The problem is that according to the market logic, if there is oversupply of some commodity, its price must descend or even be close to zero. On the other hand, if there is excessive demand, the prices can be extremely high, making such commodities totally inaccessible. Consequences of the application of this kind of mechanism are, for instance, unemployment, homeless people, and extreme spoliation of natural resources.
Under such circumstances it is necessary to take political and economical measures and these are taken usually by the governments on behalf of their societies. Depending on historical circumstances one of the three fictitious commodities can become relatively more relevant at a certain moment. But the truth is that the three are deeply related. This fact is obvious today when unemployment and monetary crisis are present everywhere. But, what is happening with land? Of course the current situation is quite different from that one studied by Karl Polanyi, but simultaneously new forms of the problem have arisen. Speaking of Japan, for instance, the rocketing prices of urban soils have played a central role during the “Bubble-Economy” and they are still a major problem for the development of many Japanese cities. Parallelly, in many countries the commercial use of land is contributing to pollution of the environment and it is even endangering the conditions of life. However, the experience of Fukushima is showing us that we are facing a new problem that was unknown to Karl Polanyi, namely, the use of nuclear power as a simple commodity. To demonstrate that this is by no means a usual commodity is also a new task for social scientists, as well as a good opportunity to further develop the theoretical approach of the author of The Great Transformation.
Some months after the publication of Polanyi`s The Great Transformation were dropped the atomic bombs over Hiroshima and Nagasaki that allegedly accelerated the end of the second World War. This event marked the beginning of the massive use of atomic energy in the “first”, as well as in the “second” and the “third” Worlds. The main outcomes have been the creation of an “atomic industry” and, coincidently, the industrial use of atomic power. This use has depended on economical and political circumstances and it has been strongly related to the military power of certain nations. It has depended too on profitability and the social acceptance of oil exploitation. As long as oil is cheap, there is no urgency of introducing the use of nuclear power. On the other hand, there is the idea that nuclear power is “clean” energy, compared to energy produced by oil and coal. However, the main raw materials used in the atomic industry, like uranium and plutonium, are like fossil fuels, non-renewable materials. In essence they are parts of the land, specifically of the subsoil. Therefore, from a Polanyian perspective they can also be considered as fictitious commodities. My point is that they are fictitious commodities as well for other reasons that Polanyi, for obvious historical circumstances, could not recognize.
First of all, nuclear materials are too dangerous and their use, even their non-military use, has consequences not just for the citizens of the nation which is applying them, but also for her neighbors and under certain circumstances the neighborhood could be the whole planet. Therefore the construction of nuclear plants cannot be regulated by the relative prices of the atomic materials. Besides this kind of materials cannot be sold to anyone with enough money to buy them. Their use implies political and even moral responsibilities. Moreover this use should not be in the hands of individuals but decided by the affected societies and social groups, and obviously regulated by governments.
Unfortunately the nuclear energy has been treated as any other sources of energy. Its use has been decided on profitability basis and according to economic criteria. This has been the case particularly of those countries, like Japan, that do not dispose of abundant fossil fuels. At this point it should be remembered that according to Karl Polanyi, the commodification of labor, land and money threats the social fabric. What happens with nuclear energy? The experience shows us that its use (or the consequences of its misuse) is certainly threatening the social relations. The situation of the 148,000 Japanese evacuees that remain at temporary shelters is a good example. But probably the main issue is the endangering of life through air, soil and water pollution. These facts allow us to speak of nuclear energy as a fictitious commodity. Because their raw materials come from the subsoil, it could also be considered as a particular sort of the fictitious commodity land. This “commodity” has played a central role in the modernization process of several countries and it was a clue factor during the whole period of the “Cold War”. In Japan it has been the axis of the so called nuclear village and a strong pillar of its modern economy.
In 1954 the Japanese government began a long term nuclear energy program. Firstly were foreign companies engaged in this program, but soon Japanese companies became leading actors in this new industry. Since then in Japan were constructed 22 nuclear plants with 54 reactors all over the country, which supply about one third of the consumed energy in the country.
The economic development Japan´s during the second half of the XX Century had a lot of factors, including cultural and even religious ones [5]. But it is impossible to explain such a rapid economic expansion without taking into account the permanent supply of cheap energy, a key input for the industrial production and particularly for the leading Japanese industries which are responsible of the “Japanese miracle”.
It is also true that Japan was forced to make use of nuclear energy, particularly after the oil crisis in the early 70´s. A safe and continuous provision of energy became national priority, but after so many years it is evident that nuclear power is not a cheap source of energy. However, the cost of electricity generated by nuclear energy does not reflect the real cost. Japanese nuclear industry still does not have any final nuclear waste disposal site. Besides there is a “statistical” justification for the use of nuclear energy: the probability of a nuclear accident is very low.
According to the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) since 1952 up to 2011 in the world has happened 33 nuclear power station accidents and incidents. Following the International Nuclear Events Scale, from 1 to 7, 12 of them have been accidents with local consequences (level 4), 13 of them were incidents or serious incidents, 5 have been accidents with wider consequences and just 3 were serious or major accidents. These data shows that just 9% of the incidents could be considered as serious or major accidents. Three accidents of this kind in a period of half a century can be seen as really few. In other words, the probability of major nuclear disasters is acceptable low. Therefore, so say its defenders, the use of nuclear energy could be seen as relatively safe.
On the other hand, particularly in Japan, the main sources of nuclear accidents are earthquakes and tsunamis. Therefore nuclear plants in this country are constructed with building technology that allows the facilities to resist such kind of natural phenomena. For the construction are taken into account the probabilities of earthquakes and tsunamis of different intensity levels. Concerning Fukushima it was calculated that in case of tsunami the waves could not be higher than 7 meters. Actually, more than 1,100 years ago was the last time that a tsunami of such scale as the last one lashed the shores of Tohoku [6]. This means, that the probability of higher sea waves was extremely low. Surprisingly, at March 11th, 2011, the waves reached 14 meters high.
The reasoning of the promoters of the use of nuclear energy is very common and it is even the dominant way of thinking in several fields of science and politics. It is namely the “Gaussian” view of the world, which orders the daily events according to the likelihood of their happening. The outcome is a statistical distribution of events called normal distribution and its graphical representation is the well known Gaussian Bell. According to this view of the world, what matters is that occurs in the center of the distribution, namely under the greatest area of the bell.
The question is if our real world is a Gaussian world or not, and therefore if the events located in the extremes of the normal distribution are truly negligible. This question becomes tremendously relevant if the supposed improbable events are matters of death or live and if they affect wide areas of our planet
In his fascinating book Taleb discusses the relevance of highly improbable events. These sorts of events are called Black Swans because before 1697, when the first Europeans discovered black swans in Western Australia, it was a common idea in the old continent that all the swans were white. Therefore a black swan was impossible or more strictly expressed the probability of seeing a black swan was minimal. Taleb demonstrates that in the field of financial and in general economic history, highly unexpected events have played a tremendous role. The examples are very numerous and cover a long time scope from the Crisis of 1929 to the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and even later.
Following the concept of Black Swan developed by Taleb, I suggest that nuclear accidents can be described as Black Swans and more precisely, that governments and entrepreneurs, political parties and other organizations who have promoted the use of nuclear energy are convinced that this use is safe because the probability of serious nuclear accidents is so low that these sorts of events are Black Swans. My point is that even if this idea could be correct, nuclear accidents do not need to be frequent to be important. They are the kind of highly improbable events that deeply impact our lives.
At this point it should be remembered the words of Hugh Gusterson [7] at the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists: “We have now had four grave nuclear reactor accidents: Windscale in Britain in 1957 (…), Three Mile Island in the United States in 1979, Chernobyl in the Soviet Union in 1986, and now Fukushima. Each accident was unique, and each was supposed to be impossible”. In 2001, Tepco estimated that the maximum tsunami at the Fukushima plant would be 5,7 meters. In fact the waves were two times higher and against the predictions of supporters of nuclear energy Fukushima was possible. However, it has been said that what happened in Fukushima was not just a natural accident, but a man-made accident [8,9,10]. The point is if such accidents can be avoided, in other words, if the nuclear energy can be used in the future in a safety way. There are basically two answers to this question. The first one is that Japan still needs the nuclear energy for the normal functioning of the economy and also that it is possible a safe use of nuclear energy. There are currently plans to set up 12 reactors nationwide. These plans contradict public opinion, which generally united in reducing nuclear plants; instead of increasing them [11]. Besides, in one of his first messages as Prime Minister, Yoshihiko Noda stated that atomic power is needed to save the economy [12]. It is also accepted that in the future, in year 2030 according to Noda [13], it is desirable to abandon the nuclear energy and it should be replaced by “green” energy sources, but now it is unavoidable, so they say, to depend on nuclear energy. At the time of the OPEC`s oil embargo in 1973, Japan`s nuclear power industry was already in existence, but then the Japanese government made major nuclear construction a priority. The goal was to reduce dependence from oil. In the 1970s the share of the country`s energy coming from oil was 80 percent and about 30 years later it was just 45 percent. But the truth is that Japan has merely shifted its dependence from oil to other fossil fuels, like coal, natural gas and nuclear power. Moreover, these fossil fuels must be imported into the country. In addition there is the opinion that nuclear power`s contribution to Japan`s energy security may have already reached the top. For example see [14]. The defenders of nuclear power say that this energy is cheap. Although, the electricity costs in Japan are some of the highest in the world. Also it is said that the nuclear power output cannot be matched by renewable sources. On the contrary, a study of Japan`s Ministry of the Environment published in April 21, 2011 [15] shows an extremely large potential for wind power generation.
But there are also other considerations for a further support of the Japanese nuclear industry. They are related with the strategic geo-political location of Japan within Asia, where the nuclear capacities of North Korea and China are not negligible. Moreover, it is also important to keep in mind the Japan-US Security Treaty which largely promoted the introduction of nuclear energy policy in Japan in 1950\'s. Thereafter, commercial nuclear plants operate from 1960\'s. Accordingly, Japan started to construct nuclear power plants because of strong US requirement and with supply of concentrated uranium and nuclear reactors despite citizen\'s contrary opinions. These opinions are the second reaction, namely, a radical and absolute rejection of nuclear energy. The argument is that this kind of power is always unsafe and it is a permanent threat to the whole humankind. Besides, there are now the possible alternative sources of energy, like wind, water, sun, biomass, for instance. Moreover, public opinion against the nuclear energy is not new in Japan. The first protests took place in the 1960´s during the student demonstrations against the Japan-United States security treaty. But never in the past reached this movement the strength it has now. A good example of the present critics is Nobel laureate Kenzaburo Oe, who is against prioritizing the economy over safety, like new Prime Minister Yoshihiko Noda is doing when he declares that idled nuclear plants should resume operation when safety is confirmed. On the contrary, Oe [16] said: “We must make a big decision to abolish all nuclear plants”. According to the famous writer, the nuclear accident at the Fukushima No. 1 plant was like a third atomic bombing that the country inflicted on itself.
In his campaign Oe is not alone. Some examples are noting worth [17]. In Yamaguchi Prefecture there is a citizens group opposing the planned construction of a nuclear plant in Kaminoseki, a nuclear project initiated by Chugoku Electric Power Co., and since March 2011 in several cities of Japan anti-nuclear protesters have taken the streets. Such demonstrations happened in Tokyo and other important cities in March, April, June and September last year. Moreover, 68 percent of respondents to an Asahi newspaper poll published on August 8 said they wanted new Prime Minister to continue the phase-out of atomic energy. Particularly, public opinion polls taken in April 2011 showed around 50% supported the use of nuclear power at present of increased levels. But one month later, the May polls [18] showed a reduction in support to around 40% and a growth in opinion to ever 40% of those wanting to decrease it and 15% wanted it abolished. At the time I am writing these lines, one year after Fukushima´s disaster, according to the opinion poll conducted recently by the Asahi newspaper [19], 57 percent of people opposed the restart of nuclear reactors with 80 percent not trusting the government\'s safety measures.
I suggest understanding these two different kinds of reactions as follows. The supporters of the first point of view are considering mainly the requirements of the economy and more precisely of the industrial capitalist market economy which is the axis of the present globalization. The defenders of the second opinion are taking into account firstly the society and her needs of security and welfare. Moreover, they are also acting on behalf of future generations. The first group is looking at the present; the second one is looking at the future. The first one worries about profitability and money earnings. The second one worries about quality of life and even about the conditions of life in the planet. In sum, the first one wants to protect the market. The second one aims at the protection of society. This leads us to the following fundamental question:
When Karl Polanyi speaks of the self-protection of society against the unlimited expansion of the self-regulated market he is talking about national societies. His scenario is the national state and its society. Six decades after the publication of The Great Transformation the neoliberal globalization has eroded the power of the nation-states as well as deepened the interactions among different national societies. Certainly it is too early to speak of a one global society, but there is no doubt that the level of interconnectedness between continents, nations, regions and peoples nowadays is higher than ever before. This fact has been strongly highlighted by the events in Fukushima that very soon became not just events of Japan but world happenings. Or in other words, facts that affect the lives of people who are living not just in the neighborhood of Fukushima or in Japan, but also in nations located close to Japan, like China and Korea, and even in countries of other continents. For instance France, where arrived some shipments of Japanese green tea contaminated with cesium. Not to mention the negative impacts in several countries where Japanese companies are located due to interruptions in the supply chains, because a lot of medium and small enterprises of the damaged areas of Japan play a key role for the smoothly functioning of whole commodity chains around the world. Moreover is also worth noting the case of Japan´s trade partners whose populations are afraid of consuming contaminated food produced in Japan.
Under these circumstances it is obvious that Fukushima was not a mere national accident and that it affected not only the Japanese society, but social groups of many countries. The Japanese society has shown that self protection is not an impossible task. The achievements of anti-nuclear protesters\' movement continuing over the last 6 decades are not negligible. While there are 22 nuclear plants in Japan, there are also around same number of nuclear plant projects which were rejected because of citizen\'s movement especially after 1970\'s. The success of similar movements in other countries depends on local and national conditions, but also on their capacity of international coordination. Such coordination is unavoidable insofar as it is not just the Japanese society which must be protected from nuclear accidents happened in Japan or in any single country, but also other societies need protection. The important point is that they need protection from events happened beyond their frontiers. Put it another way, in this case Japanese companies, like Tepco, and the Japanese government are responsible toward the Japanese society but also toward many other societies of other countries; in sum, to the whole humankind. May be in the future we could speak of the global society. Some authors do this, but in my opinion there is no yet such society. Anyway, the point is that concerning nuclear power, the deeds and omissions of private enterprises as well as national governments can affect other societies. The question that arises here is: who should protect the safety of these societies? Their national governments? Supranational or international organizations? ONG´s? Or it is necessary the building of new instances with enough international support, respect, power and resources that enable them to guarantee the safety of all human groups in the Earth?
Until now, it seems that the activities performed by the International Federation of Red Cross and the Red Crescent Societies are good examples of fruitful attempts to develop international cooperation and solidarity [20]. However, there is still enough space for many other organizations, for instance producer and consumer cooperatives, labor unions, local governments from different countries, just to mention some possibilities.
At this point is again useful to remember Polanyi. According to him, in the history of all societies the economical activities have been embedded in the society. Since the Industrial Revolution the unbounded expansion of self regulated markets has tried to construct a disembedded economy, regulated only by the market mechanism. Accordingly, the commodification of land, labor and money is just an expression of the disembedding process of the economy from society. Therefore a decommodification of the quasi-commodities (including nuclear power) would imply a process of re-embeddedment.
If this idea is correct, then what we need is a social embeddedment of nuclear power. In other words, the society or societies can be protected from the use and misuse of nuclear energy only if all the activities connected with it are strictly subordinated to social consensus and are performed under tight social control. It is possible of course that due to such control the nuclear industry should disappear and be replaced by other energy sources. But at the present moment and under current conditions the most important thing is that an effective protection of society supposes the overcoming of a present evil, namely, the fusion of the economic with the political power. This kind of perverse marriage does exist probably all over the world. In Japan it is called Amakudari and Fukushima has shown its dramatic consequences.
Behind the nuclear industry there are powerful interests, which promoted Japan`s economic rise in the 1970s and 1980s. Former Prime Minister Naoto Kan [21] talked about the power of the so-called nuclear village. More precisely, the nexus of the power companies, regulators and politicians supporting the industry is the biggest obstacle in moving away from atomic power.
It is well known that the nuclear industry everywhere is a high concentrated economic sector. Japan is not the exception. There are ten regional monopolies. These companies, so says Shigeaki Koga [22], “buy the academy by sponsoring research, buy the media through mountains of public-service advertisements and junkets, buy big business by paying top-dollar for everything, buy the bureaucrats and regulators by handing them cushy post-retirement jobs.”
The relevance of the nuclear industry is due to huge investments in nuclear plants as well as to billionaire investment projects in the extraction of uranium. Here are at stake powerful interests of companies like Mitsubishi, Hitachi, Toshiba, Japan Steel Works, Muroran, Sumitomo, Itochu Corporation, and of course their foreign partners in USA, Europe and even Asia. For detailed information see [23].
Allegedly the nuclear companies must follow certain regulations and must be closely observed and supervised by the government. The fact is that in some cases, like Tepco, the government control has been extremely loose and the company enjoyed a degree of freedom that has turned out to be harmful for the society and even dangerous for other countries. Moreover, Tepco has been the main actor of a black history of falsifications of data and other irregularities without the corresponding punishment. How could this happen? The answer is Amakudari.
The meaning of this Japanese word is literally “descend from the heaven” and it points to a very common practice in Japan, and also in other countries, which consists in the fact that retired civil servants of high ranks are hired by companies that were closely related with their ministries. Of course these old bureaucrats still have powerful connections with their former ministries, which allow them, now playing the role of private entrepreneurs, degrees of freedom that are very profitable for the companies, but not for the society.
In the 19th Century wrote Lord Acton: “All power tends to corrupt and absolute power corrupts absolutely”. There is no doubt that at least some of the former civil servants transformed in private businessmen have enjoyed very great power and influence. The use of them allowed Tepco to evade controls and regulations that in other circumstances would be unavoidable. The point is that Amakudari has produced a symbiosis between private entrepreneurs and government ministries. The consequence is that the later are more interested in protecting the former than serving the civil society. In cases of conflict between private and social interests is very likely that some civil servants become “capital servants”. Particularly in the case of Tepco it has been discovered that several former bureaucrats were hired by this company and this has been probably one important factor to explain the lack of control of the Japanese government over the nuclear company. Nevertheless, it must be admitted that the Amakudari-system made possible a close coordination between bureaucrats and industries and this coordination played an important role in the first phases of the Japanese industrialization.
Every day there are more and more news in the press about the consequences of Fukushima´s nuclear accident. The mismanagement of the crisis was the main reason for the resignation of former Prime Minister Naoto Kan and his successor, Yoshihiko Noda is facing amounting troubles, mainly because some politicians, like Yoshio Hachiro, a one-week minister of Economy, Trade and Industry, did not understand the deep meaning of the tragedy and did not perceive that many Japanese people are against the use of nuclear energy. A good example is even Mr Kan, who one year after the disaster openly declares that he is now a promoter of renewable energy [24].
The economic geography of Japan has been altered. The north-east of the country and particularly Tohoku has served as a source of energy power, manufacturing supplier, breadbasket, and labor force mainly for Tokyo, but the region has been also important for the Japanese companies located around the world. Also relevant is the fact that the Japanese regional economies are much more important for the whole Japanese economy and even for the world economy than it could be imagined. The point is that the economic potential of Japan`s regions in much larger than it is often assumed. For instance, the economy of Tohoku is similar to the economy of Argentina; Hokkaido corresponds to Ukraine, Kansai to Netherlands, Shikoku to New Zealand, just to cite some examples. Moreover, these regional economies are not only strong, but they are strongly globalized. Particularly, the numerous parts suppliers in the disaster zone could disrupt global supply chains. Therefore it has turned out that dozens of small and medium firms are vital for the leading Japanese industries, like the car industry. In other words, the successful participation of the Japanese economy in the globalization is considerably based on the smooth functioning of these tiny and almost unknown firms located far away from the capital of the country. Recognizing this fact should justify the claims of the regions and municipalities for more autonomy in several realms such as the fiscal one and also concerning energy policy. This means to rethink energy policy and decentralize decision-making. In consequence, for instance, Hokkaido could benefit from its proximity to Russia`s natural gas deposits of Siberia. Okinawa could make use of solar power. In the mountainous areas the eolic energy could be suitable. In sum, a uniform national energy policy seems to be out of place.
The work and everyday life of the Japanese people has been also altered. Several companies operating in the north-east of the country began letting more employees work outside their offices amid the electricity shortage caused by the crisis at the Fukushima No. 1 nuclear plant. This has shifted the work-life balance of many people, who is now working at home. Accordingly, if this kind of work continues for long time, the family relations will be positively transformed. Remember that the ordinary Japanese worker spends very little time with his family and sometimes he can see his children only on weekends. Besides, there is an increasing participation of women in the labor force. If these women began to work at home, it is sure that the family life will be qualitatively different. Important is also to remember that in Japan the commuting time is usually extremely long. During these hours people sleep, read or is attached to their smartphones. Now they will have the opportunity of sharing activities with their families. Besides, it seems that priorities have changed after March 11th. Now the most important thing is no higher salaries or to climb the corporate ladder, but people want to work near their families and they are more concerned about the safety of them.
In many countries of the world is usual to listen that the government bluntly lies, but in the case of Japan this negative opinion is quite new. Many Japanese people simply do not trust the government any more. To regain the confidence of the citizens, the Japanese government, particularly the national government, has a hard task to do. Something similar can be said about the industry leaders.
On the middle and long term the economy of Japan must drastically change for several reasons. One of them, the most obvious, is the fact that after the implosion of the bubble economy in the 1990s, Japan´s economy suffered rapid decline and the signs of recovery are still weak. Moreover, the current debt crisis limits the economical activities of the government. The rapidly aging population (22.7 percent of the population) shrinks the productive workforce of the nation. But the decline of the nuclear industry and the strengthening of the alternative energy industry are also important. This industry is certainly not new in Japan but now there is a favorable opinion that could be of help for its development. For more information about this issue see [25]. Another relevant aspect of the post-Fukushima Japanese economy concerns the agriculture and fishing activities. For many survivors land is the single most important asset of most households, and for the population at the sea coast fishing is the only way of life they know. According to some estimations the recovery of the Tohoku region will take over a decade, and the cost of recovery should be about 3 percent of Japanese GDP. This means a probable shortcut in the domestic supply of agricultural and sea products and consequently increasing imports of them. To satisfy the Japanese consumer, it would be necessary to modify the traditional protectionist trade policy of Japan. But this could also worsen the situation of domestic farmers and fishers. The Archimedian middle point will be surely no easy to determine.
Thinking about the kind of country the Japanese people want, one important consideration is the concentration of population, government, and industry in Tokyo. On February 27, 2012 The New York Times [26] revealed that: “In the darkest moments of last year’s nuclear accident, Japanese leaders did not know the actual extent of damage at the plant and secretly considered the possibility of evacuating Tokyo, even as they tried to play down the risks in public…” The evacuation of 13 million people is unimaginable. Where could be sheltered one tenth of the population of Japan? It was not necessary to do this, but the possibility was real and this leads us to ponder the pros and cons of megalopolis like Tokyo. This is of course not just a Japanese question. In the case of a nuclear disaster the United States, France, Germany, China and Mexico, for example, would be confronted with such a problem. But, at the same time, the disaster highlighted the weakness of sparsely populated towns, where providing social services for elderly residents is quite difficult. The best solution will be probably the construction of middle cities located in safe places.
A year after the tragedy of Fukushima numerous anti-nuclear power demonstrations have taken place in Germany, France, the United States and Japan [27]. This does not mean the victory of the anti-nuclear movement in the world. On the contrary, there are still strong defenders of the nuclear energy in the United States, in France, in China, just to mention some examples. However, the afore mentioned happenings show that it is taking shape a kind of global energy consciousness and that there are many people in the world recognizing that we all have “Fukushimas” at home.
Finally, there is one particularly controversial question. Namely, what kind of recovery will be desirable for society and which strategy could be the best one. Interesting suggestions about this topic can be read in [28]. Also relevant is to think out about the cost of recovery and who will pay for it: the consumers, the government, the industry? Should the government raise the taxes and/or sale its stocks of former national companies like Japan Post and Japan Tobacco Inc.? What is the responsibility of Tepco and how can this company pay for its mistakes. Should it review its wage structure? Besides, there are also controversial points concerning about the way of reconstruction of Japanese economy, which is neo-liberal colored. Is it the right time to look for an alternative or non-neoliberal way?
Too many questions, but the answers must be found now. There is no time to waste. The future has already arrived, although it is probably not yet the desired future.
Concurrently, the disaster highlighted the unity, solidarity, patience, courtesy, and fortitude of the Japanese people. Particularly, the victims have shown an extraordinary capacity to maintain social order among the chaos. Last, not least, the whole world has testified the great spirit and heroic acts of the Japanese people confronting the biggest nuclear tragedy since the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
If a temporary conclusion could be formulated in few words, I would say that Fukushima has demonstrated that we human and non-human beings are passengers in the same spaceship. We all share the same everyday challenges, hopes and dreams, and our responses are essentially the same everywhere. We all are confronting the same fears and uncertainties. The defeat of one is the defeat of all, but undoubtedly, the victory of one person, of one people, like the Japanese people facing the tragic consequences of Fukushima, will be a victory for all humankind.
A previous version of this article was presented at the “Conference Kyung Hee University-University of Guadalajara: New Perspectives on Economies, Societies and International Relations in East Asia and the Americas” held in Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico, October 11 and 12, 2011. I wish to thank the participants at this conference for their comments.
Also I wish to express my gratitude to Dr Kae Sekine, Assistant Professor at the Rikkyo University, Japan and to Tatsuya Shimizu from the Institute of Developing Economies-JETRO, Japan, for their remarks and valuable suggestions to a previous draft of this article.
I must mention too Mr Shosuke Narumoto, from Chiba, who kindly sent to me a DVD with rich information and moving scenes of the earthquake and the tsunami of 11 March, 2011.
As usual, the comments and suggestions of my wife, Alma, have been very valuable for me.
A transit bus is a prime commuting tool for city residents, which consumes lots of fuel every year and produces a huge amount of poisonous emissions [1]. Electrification of transit bus is a good solution for these problems. Normally, the energy storage device consists of batteries [2]. The supercapacitor is a newly developed high-power electrochemical energy storage component [3, 4]. Farkas and Bonert have predicted that a supercapacitor is a good solution for hybrid vehicles [5]. Recently, many researches were performed to study the characteristics of supercapacitors as the energy storage system (ESS) of a hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) [6, 7].
\nSupercapacitors have a large surface area of electrode materials, which normally are activated carbons, and a very thin electrolytic separator leading to a very high capacitance. They store energy electrostatically. For automotive applications, most of them are electrochemical double-layer capacitors (EDLCs) [8]. Supercapacitors have a very high power density, which is over 10 times than batteries and can be charged or discharged up to 1,000,000 times which is significantly larger than lithium-ion batteries. They also have a very long life time and a wide operation temperature range [9].
\nBecause supercapacitors have a high power density and can be charged or discharged in a short time, they can be used as a sole ESS for transit bus, which undergoes a frequent acceleration and deceleration processes. The first known transit bus powered by supercapacitors alone is Capabus operating in Shanghai since 2010. The buses were manufactured by Sunwin Bus Co., Ltd., and the supercapacitors were provided by Shanghai Aowei Co., Ltd. The transit bus can run 8–10 km each time after being fully charged. A total mileage of several million kilometers has been achieved, and the average energy consumption is close to 0.98 kWh/km [10]. Many other bus manufacturers also developed their products. Higer Bus Co., Ltd. together with an Israeli-Bulgarian bus company designed a transit bus with 20 kWh supercapacitors named as Chariot e-bus [10].
\nSupercapacitors have a low energy density of up to 10 Wh/kg. However, batteries especially lithium-ion batteries take advantage of high energy density which can be over 180 Wh/kg. For most automotive applications such as a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) or electric vehicle (EV), the ESS should guarantee a driving distance of more than 50 km normally, which can cover over 80% of people’s daily travel in Beijing. Therefore, supercapacitors are combined together with batteries as a hybrid energy storage system (HESS). The batteries provide average energy, while the supercapacitors absorb energy during regenerative braking or discharge energy during acceleration. As a result, the high-rate working conditions of the batteries are avoided, and their life spans are extended. On the other hand, the internal resistance of a supercapacitor is much lower than that of a battery; the energy efficiency of a vehicle with an HESS is also improved compared with only batteries. Moreover, the size of the ESS can be decreased if supercapacitors are used. Accordingly, the cost can be reduced. There are mainly three kinds of topologies for HESS: passive, semi-active, and active [11]. Currently, supercapacitor semi-active topology shows a better performance considering efficiency, size, cost, and complexity [12]. Many studies were carried out to determine the size of HESS and optimize the energy management [13, 14, 15, 16].
\nControl strategy design of a hybrid transit bus has important impact on system performance. The control strategy can be categorized as rule-based and optimization-based strategies [17, 18]. Rule-based control strategy specifies the power distribution between the auxiliary power unit (APU) and the ESS based on a set of rules according to the power demand of a vehicle and the state of charge (SOC) of ESS. Thermostatic control, power follower control, and fuzzy logic control are three types of rule-based control strategies [19, 20, 21, 22, 23]. Because these strategies do not need information of future driving conditions and have a low computation load, they are appropriate for real-time control application. Optimization-based control strategy splits the power demand based on an optimal algorithm and a mathematical model of the hybrid powertrain. They require the details of the entire driving profile. Normally, they are a kind of global optimization method such as dynamic programming [24], optimal control strategy [25, 26, 27], and neural network control [28]. Optimization-based control strategy can be used to estimate the theoretical maximum energy efficiency. However, it requires future information of the driving velocity and has a huge computation load. Therefore, it is infeasible for a practical real-time vehicle system.
\nIn this chapter, a series hybrid transit bus powered by a compressed natural gas (CNG) engine and supercapacitors is studied. The energy conversion characteristics of the designed series hybrid powertrain are analyzed using a mathematical model. First, two rule-based control strategies—the thermostatic control and the power follower control—are designed and compared. Later, the maximum potential of energy savings is estimated using an optimal control strategy based on dynamic programming. Finally, the operation characteristics of the series hybrid powertrain using the different control strategies are discussed. The results of this study provide a demonstration on how to design an ESS for an electric vehicle or hybrid electric vehicle from the systematic level.
\nThe designed series hybrid powertrain for a transit bus is described as follows. A CNG engine is directly connected with a permanent magnetic synchronous generator (PMSG). A high-voltage power line is connected to the generator and the ESS as well as a permanent magnetic synchronous motor (PMSM). The PMSM connected to the final drive is a specially designed low-speed and high-power PMSM. The engine is a Yuchai 6.5 L CNG engine whose rated power is 140 kW. Both the PMSG and the PMSM are developed by Jing-Jin Electric Technologies (Beijing) Co., Ltd. The PMSG is a low-speed and high-efficiency electric machine whose rated power is 135 kW. The rated power of the PMSM is slightly greater than that of the PMSG. These two high-power electric machines have already been applied to several different types of hybrid vehicles successfully. The ESS includes three parallel groups of supercapacitors, and each group consists of 13 units of Maxwell 48 V module connected in series. The total energy capacity of the ESS is 2.115 kWh, and the rated voltage is 624 V. To keep the supercapacitors from overdischarging, the minimum operation voltage of the ESS is set to 300 V.
\nThe working principle of the designed series hybrid powertrain can be explained by an energy flow diagram shown in Figure 1. When the series hybrid transit bus is running, four different operation modes are defined according to the working conditions. Two modes are used for the driving conditions, and the other two modes are for the regenerative braking conditions. For the driving mode A, the CNG engine is running, and the APU together with the ESS supplies electric power to the motor. This driving mode is activated if the required driving power is high or the SOC is low. When the SOC is high and the required driving power is less than a certain value, the ESS provides electric energy to the motor alone as the driving mode B shows. If the series hybrid bus is braking, the regenerative energy output from the motor is supplied to the ESS. Meanwhile, the APU can be activated or deactivated denoted by the braking modes A and B, respectively.
\nEnergy flow diagram of the series hybrid transit bus.
A mathematical model is established according to the working principle of the designed series hybrid powertrain. The corresponding parameters of the hybrid transit bus are listed in Table 1. The tractive force acting on a rear-wheel-driven two-axle vehicle can be determined according to the corresponding longitudinal dynamic equation expressed as
\nParameter | \nValue | \nUnit | \n
---|---|---|
Vehicle mass excluding pack | \n9000 | \nkg | \n
Cargo mass | \n3200 | \nkg | \n
Dimensions | \n8.995 × 2.42 × 3.085 | \nm × m × m | \n
Rolling resistance coefficient | \n0.0094 | \n— | \n
Aerodynamic drag coefficient | \n0.79 | \n— | \n
Vehicle frontal area | \n7.466 | \nm2 | \n
Wheel radius | \n0.506 | \nm | \n
Final gear | \n5.833 | \n— | \n
Technical parameters of the series hybrid transit bus.
The wheel and axle model first calculates the front axle load and the rear axle load according to the technical parameters of the series hybrid transit bus. Then, the tractive force coefficient of the rear tires can be determined. The slip of the tires can be modeled as a function of the tractive force coefficient. Finally, the angular speed of the rear tire can be obtained [29].
\nIf the transit bus is operating at the regenerative braking process, the required braking force Fb can be determined according to the deceleration of the vehicle. Then the regenerative braking force of the rear axle Fbr is obtained based on the following force distribution equation:
\nThe model of the final drive takes into account the friction loss Tl0, and the inertia of rotating parts J0 and is expressed as
\nwhere Tw is the output torque of the final drive and Tm and ωm are the input torque and speed of the final drive, respectively.
\nThe electric motor model determines the requested torque Tmr according to the motor inertia Jm and the output torque Tm. Then the input power Pm is calculated based on a two-dimensional (2D) lookup table measured from a motor test bench.
\nThe mathematical model of the generator is similar to the motor.
\nIf the detailed physical mechanism of supercapacitors is studied, an electrochemical model or a high-order equivalent circuit model must be adopted [30]. In this study, we only consider the systematic performance of the ESS. Therefore, the RC equivalent circuit model is built using Advisor. The internal series resistance Rs and capacitance C can be obtained according to the capacitor test procedure. The relation between the current i and the voltage Uc is expressed as
\nWith regard to the energy conversion processes during charging or discharging, the current is obtained by
\nwhere PL is the output power of the ESS. During discharging, the energy efficiency ηdch is calculated as
\nFor charging process, the energy efficiency ηch is expressed as
\nThe CNG engine model computes the requested torque Ter according to the engine output torque Te and the engine speed ωe determined by the control strategy block:
\nSubsequently, the instantaneous fuel consumption me is determined from a 2D map measured by an engine test bench.
\nThen, the equivalent fuel consumption Qe can be obtained according to the integral values of the fuel consumption and the driving distance using the density of diesel fuel ρf:
\nwhere tf is the final time of the driving cycle.
\nTo evaluate the performance of the designed series hybrid powertrain, a simulation program is developed according to the established mathematical model with MATLAB/Simulink and Advisor. Advisor is a modeling and simulation tool for hybrid electric vehicle based on MATLAB and Simulink developed by the US National Renewable Energy Laboratory [31]. The designed program is shown in Figure 2. Using a backward-facing method, the performance and fuel consumption of the series hybrid transit bus can be calculated. First, the driving force is determined based on the longitudinal dynamic equation. The rotating speed and driving torque of the rear axle are computed according to the tire model. Subsequently, the input torque and speed are determined for the final drive, and the input power of the motor is obtained. Then, the control strategy decides the power distribution between the ESS and the APU. As a result, both the output powers of the ESS and the APU are specified by the power bus. The supercapacitor model calculates the current and energy loss of the ESS. Moreover, the control strategy determines the operation torque and speed of the CNG engine according to the output power of the APU. Then, the fuel consumption is determined based on the performance maps of the CNG engine and the PMSG.
\nThe analysis program of the series hybrid powertrain.
Rule-based control strategy takes advantage of a small computation load, which is very suitable for real-time applications. Therefore, two rule-based control strategies—the thermostatic control and the power follower control—are set up, respectively. The thermostatic control is adopted first for hybrid electric vehicles due to its simple logic. When the HEV is running, if the SOC value drops to a lower bound, the engine starts and operates at a fixed point until the SOC value reaches to an upper bound. The operation condition of the engine is set to the point with the highest effective thermal efficiency.
\nLarge current variation in the ESS may occur for the thermostatic control strategy which results in high energy loss. Therefore, a more sophisticated power follower control is developed. According to this strategy, if the engine state is on, the output power of the APU follows the power demand of the transit bus along an optimal operation line (OOL). Hence, the output power of the APU is decreased, and the operation current of the ESS can be alleviated. The designed power follower control strategy is shown in Figure 3. The decision algorithm for the engine state is designed using Stateflow.
\nThe designed power follower control strategy.
Since the power follower control needs to define an OOL, the energy efficiency characteristics of the APU must be studied first. The performance map of the CNG engine is shown in Figure 4a. The blue contour denotes the engine power in kW. The black contour is the brake-specific fuel consumption (bsfc) in g/kWh. It can be seen that the minimum bsfc of the CNG engine is 196 g/kWh, which is better than that of a diesel engine. The effective thermal efficiency map of the CNG engine shown in Figure 4b is obtained based on the performance map of Figure 4a. The maximum engine efficiency achieves 36.8%, and in most of the operation regions, the effective thermal efficiency of the CNG engine is greater than 30%. The efficiency map of the PMSG is given in Figure 4c, where the highest energy efficiency is 94.5%. In most of the operation regions, the generator efficiency is greater than 89%. The efficiency decreases obviously if the generator speed is less than 500 r/min. According to the results of Figure 4b and c, the energy efficiency map of the APU is obtained as the product of the efficiencies of the CNG engine and the generator. The engine speed ranges from 900 to 2500 r/min, and the maximum engine torque is 650 Nm, which can be covered completely by the generator’s operation domain. The results are given in Figure 4d. In this figure, the x-axis is the engine speed, and the y-axis is the engine torque. The blue contour represents the APU output power in kW. The black contours denote the energy efficiency of APU, which decreases with the engine torque and is greater than 30% over the regions of middle and high engine torques. The maximum efficiency is 34.06% located very close to the point with a maximum of engine torque.
\nPerformance maps of the APU.
Subsequently, the OOL is determined according to the efficiency map of the APU. The efficiency for each point of the OOL is the maximum at each power contour. The result is shown as the green line in Figure 4d. The OOL is the same with the external profile when the engine speed is greater than 1600 r/min. Meanwhile, the engine speed of the OOL remains at 900 r/min if the APU power is less than 50 kW. The OOL appears to have a U shape when the APU power is between 50 and 100 kW. Finally, the parameters of the rule-based control strategies must be optimized. The maximum energy efficiency of the APU is 34.06%. This point is denoted as point P in Figure 8. The corresponding engine speed and torque are 1543 r/min and 650 Nm, respectively, which are specified as the operation point of the thermostatic control strategy. The lower and upper bounds of the SOC is set to 0.58 and 0.99. The other parameters are also optimized for the power follower control strategy.
\nIn order to evaluate the maximum potential of energy savings, the theoretical minimum fuel consumption of the designed series hybrid powertrain is calculated using an optimal control algorithm based on dynamic programming. Dynamic programming is a static backward-facing optimal algorithm according to Bellman’s principle of optimality. The boundary conditions of the optimal algorithm are the same with the thermostatic control.
\nThe optimization target is the total fuel consumption based on the Chinese Transit Bus City Driving Cycle (CTBCDC). The SOC of the ESS is used as the state variable, and the output power of the APU is used as the input variable. If the output power of the APU keeps constant, the fuel consumption achieves the minimum when the CNG engine operates along the OOL. Therefore, the corresponding engine output torque and speed are determined. The target function calculates the instantaneous fuel consumption at time t and is denoted by m(x(t), u(t), t). Function F(x(t), u(t), t) is the state equation determining the SOC for the next time. The initial and final states of the SOC are set to the same values as a constraint. Moreover, the SOC and the output power of the APU must be limited within the allowable ranges all the time.
\nNeither the target function nor the state equation of the designed series hybrid powertrain can be expressed as an explicit equation. Therefore, the analytic solution of this optimal problem cannot be obtained. However, a numerical optimal solution can be determined by a discrete optimal model translated from the aforementioned designed program:
\nsubject to
\nBased on the established model of the series hybrid powertrain, the numerical solution of this discrete optimization problem can be determined. The solution approximates a theoretical minimum of the continuous model if the discrete computational grids for the state and input variables are fine enough. In this study, the discretization steps for the SOC and the APU output power are set to 0.005 and 1 kW, respectively. Since the total driving time of the CTBCDC is 1305 s, a time step of 1 s is used.
\nThe optimization problem for the designed series hybrid powertrain contains the final state constraint, which can be translated to a problem without constraint via a penalty function. Sundstrom et al. have successfully applied this method to optimize the energy management problem of a parallel hybrid electric vehicle [32]. In this research, the penalty function for the state variable xi at time stage k is defined as
\nAccordingly, the cost-to-go function is defined by
\nA program is developed in MATLAB based on the designed optimal algorithm, and its working principle can be explained by Figure 5. The entire driving cycle is discretized along the time horizon from stage 1 to stage N shown as the yellow dashed lines. For time stage k, the state variable is discretized from SOCmin to SOCmax in a step of 0.005 and is expressed by xi(k), i = 1, 2, …, 79. At each state variable xi(k), the value of the cost-to-go function is denoted by Ji(k), and the corresponding penalty function is Φi(k). The input variable is discretized from 0 to Papu,max in a step of 1 kW and is denoted by uj(k), j = 1, 2, …, 136. The fuel consumption from stage k to stage k + 1 at the state xi(k) is denoted by the function mi(k). The initial and final states are constrained to the two red points S0 shown in Figure 5.
\nPrinciple of the optimal algorithm based on dynamic programming.
The algorithm first calculates the penalty function JN at the last stage for the state vector xi:
\nThen taking into account each state variable of stage N − 1, a state vector at the next time stage is computed corresponding to the input variable vector based on the state equation. This process is described by a group of lines from one state point of stage N − 1 to different positions of stage N. Because the calculated state vector for stage N may not locate exactly at the computational grid points, a linear interpolation is used to determine the values of the corresponding cost-to-go function. Meanwhile, the fuel consumption function for each state variable is calculated. As a result, the values of cost-to-go function at time stage N − 1 is obtained according to Eq. (18). The optimal path for each state variable is represented by a blue line in Figure 5. The above recurrence calculation process is repeated along the time horizon one by one until to the first time stage. Finally, an optimal map of the cost-to-go function for all the time stages and the state variables is obtained.
\nIn order to determine the optimal policy, a forward calculation process is performed based on the optimal map. The following equation is used to compute the minimum fuel consumption from the initial state S0 to the same final state, and the corresponding input variable is recorded:
\nwhere xop(k) is the optimal state variable at stage k. The optimal state value for the next time stage is determined by
\nwhere U0 is the rated voltage of the ESS. Repeating the calculation process until the last time stage, an optimal policy is obtained shown as the green line in Figure 5. The algorithm uses a weighting factor θ for the penalty function whose value specifies the importance of the SOC deviation relative to the fuel consumption. In order to make the final state of the optimal path converge to S0, various values of θ are tried. Finally, a value of 120 is specified, and the relative error of the SOC at the last state is 0.44%.
\nThe system performance and fuel economy of the series hybrid transit bus are evaluated using the CTBCDC driving cycle. The performances of the thermostatic control and the power follower control are compared. The results of the thermostatic control strategy are given in Figure 6. Figure 7 shows the results of the power follower strategy.
\nSystem performance of the thermostatic control strategy.
System performance of the power follower control strategy.
The target vehicle speed and the achievable vehicle speed are given in Figures 6a and 7a, which are denoted by the blue and magenta lines, respectively. The achievable vehicle speeds for both of the rule-based strategies can trace the target one perfectly. Therefore, both can satisfy the requirements of drivability. Figure 6b shows the input power of the PMSM as the blue lines and the output power of the CNG engine by the red lines. Figure 7b shows the results of the power follower strategy. The engine operation time of the thermostatic control is less than that of the power follower strategy, which is 141 s for the thermostatic control while 151 s for the power follower control. The engine power keeps constant for the thermostatic control. However, the engine power of the power follower control varies along the OOL within a small range. The results of the engine state for these two control strategies are shown in Figures 6c and 7c, where the engine state ON is represented by 1, and the engine state OFF is denoted by 0. The engine demonstrates a regular alternative start and stop for the thermostatic control, whereas the engine starts more frequently for the power follower control, which will worsen the engine emissions. The engine speed and torque are shown in Figure 6d and e for the thermostatic control. Compared to the results of the power follower control given in Figure 7d and e, the engine can operate more stably for the thermostatic control, which will be beneficial for the engine working life.
\nThe output power of the ESS for the thermostatic control is shown in Figure 6f, where the positive values mean discharging and the negative values denote charging (this expression is used for the following figures). Figure 7f shows the results of the power follower control. Both output powers vary all the time except for the stopping conditions. Furthermore, the variation magnitude of the thermostatic control is obviously greater than that of the power follower control. The maximum discharging power for the thermostatic control is 126.8 kW, while this value reduces to 95.68 kW for the power follower control. By contrast, the maximum charging power of the ESS for the thermostatic control is 202.8 kW, while this value reduces significantly to 106.6 kW for the power follower control. The profiles of the SOC are given in Figures 6g and 7g, respectively. In terms of the thermostatic control, the SOC shows an alternative variation process that first decreases slowly then increases rapidly. However, the SOC of the power follower control shows a relative slow augmentation process, which is in favor of the life span of the ESS.
\nThe energy efficiencies of the ESS are obtained according to Eqs. (10) and (11). The results are given in Figures 6h and 7h. The average discharging and charging efficiencies of the power follower control are 99.1 and 98.5%. As a contrast, these two values are 99.1 and 98.4% for the thermostatic control. The results indicate that the energy efficiency of the power follower control is slightly higher than the thermostatic control. The energy efficiency of supercapacitor will decrease obviously if the operation temperature is too high. Therefore, a temperature control system for the ESS is required in practice. The voltage profiles are given in Figures 6i and 7i. Both of them operate within the constraint range. The average voltage for the power follower control is 450 V, while the average voltage is 505 V for the thermostatic control. Enhancement of the operation voltage is helpful to improve the energy efficiency of the electric motor. Because the SOC value has a linear relation with the operation voltage, the variation tendency of the SOC is consistent with that of the voltage. The current profiles are given in Figures 6j and 7j. The maximum discharging and charging currents for the power follower control are 247 and 269 A. However, these two values are increased significantly to 300 and 471 A for the thermostatic control. Although supercapacitors can work with a high power rate, a lower current will be in favor of their life span. Therefore, it seems that the power follower control strategy is better than the thermostatic control.
\nTable 2 gives the equivalent fuel consumptions of these strategies. The equivalent fuel consumption is 17.32 L/100 km for the power follower strategy, while it equals 17.51 L/100 km for the thermostatic control strategy. In contrast to a conventional vehicle powered solely by the same CNG engine, the fuel consumptions of the two rule-based strategies are decreased by 52%. Figure 8 is used to explain the reason from a viewpoint of energy efficiency. The OOL is displayed as the green line. Point P is the operation point of the thermostatic control whose energy efficiency is 34.06%. Because most of the APU output power of the thermostatic control first charges to the ESS and then outputs to the power line, the overall energy efficiency of the series hybrid powertrain decreases slightly to 33.2%, which is denoted by a blue contour L in Figure 8. The operation points of the power follower control are described by the cyan points. Most of the APU output power is delivered directly to the power line for the power follower strategy. The energy efficiencies for the thermostatic control approximate the line L, while the energy efficiencies of the power follower control remain at the cyan points. Therefore, the fuel economy of the power follower control is a little higher than that of the thermostatic control.
\nPowertrain | \nFuel consumption (L/100 km) | \nEnergy reduction (%)a | \n
---|---|---|
Conventional bus using a CNG engine | \n36.60 | \n\n |
Hybrid bus using the thermostatic control | \n17.51 | \n52.2 | \n
Hybrid bus using the power follower control | \n17.32 | \n52.7 | \n
Hybrid bus using optimal control | \n15.72 | \n57.1 | \n
Results of fuel consumption.
Relative to the conventional bus with a CNG engine.
Comparison of energy efficiencies of different control strategies.
The optimal performance of the series hybrid powertrain is shown in Figure 9. Figure 9a is the velocity profile of the CTBCDC cycle. The corresponding input power required by the PMSM is shown in Figure 9b, where the positive values are used for the driving mode and the negative values are used for the regenerative braking mode. These two profiles are used as input parameters for the optimal algorithm. The optimal results of the output power of the APU are given in Figure 9c, which demonstrates a series of short impulse when the transit bus undergoes an acceleration process. Furthermore, the number of the impulse increases as the power demand of the motor rises. The APU stops if the power demand of the motor is negative. The corresponding engine output torque and speed are shown in Figure 9d and e, respectively. The optimal engine speed and torque remain around 1500 r/min and 600 Nm. The reason for such an optimal trajectory can be explained as follows. The operation points of the CNG engine for the optimal control are described by the red points in Figure 8. These red points are very close to the point P where the energy efficiency is the highest. Therefore, an overall minimum of the fuel consumption is realized. On the other hand, the internal series resistance of the ESS consumes part of the energy during the charging or discharging process, especially for large current conditions. To avoid too much energy loss of the ESS, the optimal policy will try to use the APU power to satisfy the power demand of the PMSM exactly. In other words, the optimal policy is obtained if the APU operates at the maximum energy efficiency point and the amount of the output power equals to the power demand of the PMSM, leading to the energy supply in the form of a series of impulse.
\nSystem performance of the optimal control by dynamic programming.
The output power of the supercapacitors is given in Figure 9f. Generally, the variation tendency of the output power is similar to that of the power follower control shown in Figure 7f. However, a series of impulses occur under the driving modes due to the same reason for the output power of the APU. The SOC profile is given in Figure 9g. The optimal SOC remains within a small interval around the initial valleys. Only two valleys occur at the high-velocity condition with rapid braking. The energy loss of the ESS is decreased if the current of the ESS is limited within a small range. Thus, the fuel consumption can be reduced. The calculated energy efficiencies of the ESS are shown in Figure 9h. The average energy efficiency is very close to the results of the rule-based strategies. The output voltage and current are given in Figures 9i and j, respectively. The output voltage is proportional to the SOC. The optimal current demonstrates a similar tendency as that of the power follower control. However, more spikes occur at the driving conditions.
\nThe optimal equivalent fuel consumption is 15.72 L/100 km listed in Table 2. Compared to the conventional transit bus, the optimal fuel consumption of the hybrid bus can be decreased by 57% if the quantity of fuel consumed during the starting processes is ignored. In practice, the fuel consumption including starting process will be increased slightly. Taking the optimal result as a reference, the fuel consumptions of the rule-based control strategies are increased by approximate 1.7 L/100 km.
\nIn this chapter, the energy efficiency of a series hybrid transit bus powered by a CNG engine and supercapacitors was evaluated. A mathematical model was established, and three different control strategies were designed. The performance characteristics of two rule-based control strategies were compared to the result of the optimal control using dynamic programming. Based on our analysis, the following can be concluded:
The performance of the designed series hybrid transit bus powered by a CNG engine and supercapacitors can fulfill the requirements of the vehicle. Because supercapacitors take advantage of low energy loss and can recover the vehicle’s kinetic energy efficiently during regenerative braking, the fuel consumption of the designed series hybrid powertrain is decreased significantly by approximately 52% compared to a conventional transit bus under the CTBCDC driving cycle. The results indicate that supercapacitors are a good solution for the ESS of the hybrid transit bus.
The energy efficiency of the designed series hybrid transit bus using the power follower control strategy is slightly greater than that of the thermostatic control strategy because the operation current of the ESS remains at a low level. The thermostatic control has a relatively simple logic and less starting times compared with the power follower control. In practice, the most suitable control strategy should be selected according to the requirements of system performance including efficiency, cost, size, reliability, emissions, and so on.
The maximum energy efficiency of the designed series hybrid powertrain is estimated using an optimal algorithm based on dynamic programming. The optimal fuel consumption can be decreased by 57% compared to the results of the conventional transit bus. Although the fuel consumption from the rule-based control strategies is slightly higher than that of the optimal control, taking into account the operation requirements of the engine, the rule-based control strategies are more practical for real-time application. However, the result of the optimal control provides some useful insights for real-time control strategy design.
\n auxiliary power unit brake-specific fuel consumption compressed natural gas Chinese Transit Bus City Driving Cycle electrochemical double-layer capacitor energy storage system electric vehicle hybrid energy storage system hybrid electric vehicle optimal operation line plug-in hybrid electric vehicle permanent magnetic synchronous generator permanent magnetic synchronous motor state of charge
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
IntechOpen Compacts provide a mid-length publishing format which bridges the gap between journal articles, book chapters and monographs, and cover content across all scientific disciplines. Compacts are the preferred publishing option for brief research reports on new topics, in-depth case studies, dissertations, or essays exploring new ideas, issues or broader topics on the research subject.
",metaTitle:"IntechOpen Compacts",metaDescription:"IntechOpen Compacts present a mid-length publishing format which bridges the gap between journal articles, book chapters, and monographs and covers content across all scientific disciplines.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/compacts",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Without sacrificing the quality of carefully edited and produced peer-reviewed content, Compacts are published as part of IntechOpen’s book collection but on a faster schedule, typically 4-6 weeks after acceptance. With an average of 132,000 visitors per week, publishing in Compacts not only guarantees high visibility but also facilitates international content sharing. As a fully Open Access publisher, the utilization of a CC BY NC 4.0 license means that other researchers will never have to pay permission fees and can adapt, use, and further build upon the material published in Compacts, eliminating any barriers to the further development of scientific research.
\\n\\nCOMPACTS-SHORT FORM MONOGRAPH
\\n\\nCOST
\\n\\n4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
\\n\\nThe final price will depend on the volume of the publication and includes project management, editorial and peer-review services, technical editing, language copyediting, cover design, book layout, book promotion and ISBN assignment.
\\n\\n*The price does not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate applicable in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT by providing us with their VAT registration number. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\\n\\nOptional Services
\\n\\nIntechOpen has collaborated with Enago, through its sister company, Ulatus – one of the world’s leading providers of book translation services. The services are designed to convey the essence of your work seamlessly to readers from across the globe in their own language. Enago’s expert translators incorporate cultural nuances in translations to make the content relevant for local audiences while retaining the original meaning and style. With a high degree of linguistic and subject expertise, Enago translators are equipped to handle all complex and multiple overlapping themes encompassed in a single book to deliver a superior quality of translation.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Authors that wish to use this service will receive a 20% discount on all translation work. For more information or a quote, please visit: https://www.enago.com/intech.
\\n\\nFUNDING
\\n\\nWe feel that financial barriers should never prevent researchers from publishing their research. Please consult our Open Access Funding page to explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication.
\\n\\nBENEFITS
\\n\\nPUBLISHING PROCESS STEPS
\\n\\nSee a complete overview and description of the steps involved in the publishing process here.
\\n\\nSEND YOUR PROPOSAL
\\n\\nIf you are interested in publishing your book with IntechOpen, please submit your book proposal by completing the Publishing Proposal Form.
\\n\\nNot sure if this is the right option for you? Please refer back to the main Publish with IntechOpen page or feel free to contact us directly at book.department@intechopen.com
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Without sacrificing the quality of carefully edited and produced peer-reviewed content, Compacts are published as part of IntechOpen’s book collection but on a faster schedule, typically 4-6 weeks after acceptance. With an average of 132,000 visitors per week, publishing in Compacts not only guarantees high visibility but also facilitates international content sharing. As a fully Open Access publisher, the utilization of a CC BY NC 4.0 license means that other researchers will never have to pay permission fees and can adapt, use, and further build upon the material published in Compacts, eliminating any barriers to the further development of scientific research.
\n\nCOMPACTS-SHORT FORM MONOGRAPH
\n\nCOST
\n\n4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
\n\nThe final price will depend on the volume of the publication and includes project management, editorial and peer-review services, technical editing, language copyediting, cover design, book layout, book promotion and ISBN assignment.
\n\n*The price does not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate applicable in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT by providing us with their VAT registration number. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\n\nOptional Services
\n\nIntechOpen has collaborated with Enago, through its sister company, Ulatus – one of the world’s leading providers of book translation services. The services are designed to convey the essence of your work seamlessly to readers from across the globe in their own language. Enago’s expert translators incorporate cultural nuances in translations to make the content relevant for local audiences while retaining the original meaning and style. With a high degree of linguistic and subject expertise, Enago translators are equipped to handle all complex and multiple overlapping themes encompassed in a single book to deliver a superior quality of translation.
\n\nIntechOpen Authors that wish to use this service will receive a 20% discount on all translation work. For more information or a quote, please visit: https://www.enago.com/intech.
\n\nFUNDING
\n\nWe feel that financial barriers should never prevent researchers from publishing their research. Please consult our Open Access Funding page to explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication.
\n\nBENEFITS
\n\nPUBLISHING PROCESS STEPS
\n\nSee a complete overview and description of the steps involved in the publishing process here.
\n\nSEND YOUR PROPOSAL
\n\nIf you are interested in publishing your book with IntechOpen, please submit your book proposal by completing the Publishing Proposal Form.
\n\nNot sure if this is the right option for you? Please refer back to the main Publish with IntechOpen page or feel free to contact us directly at book.department@intechopen.com
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5318},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:4830},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1469},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:9372},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:837},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:14789}],offset:12,limit:12,total:108346},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"0",sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish"},books:[{type:"book",id:"6942",title:"Social Work Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"222c8a66edfc7a4a6537af7565bcb3de",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Bala Nikku",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6942.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"263576",title:"Dr.",name:"Bala",surname:"Nikku",slug:"bala-nikku",fullName:"Bala Nikku"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Edward R Rhodes and Dr. Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8694",title:"Novel Aspects on Encephalomyelitis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"253dc5b6fd0ca3b3fd4820ac8d538792",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Lourdes de Fátima Ibañez-Valdés and Prof. Humberto Foyaca Sibat",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8694.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"35158",title:"Dr.",name:"Lourdes de Fátima",surname:"Ibañez-Valdés",slug:"lourdes-de-fatima-ibanez-valdes",fullName:"Lourdes de Fátima Ibañez-Valdés"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9126",title:"Respiratory Physiology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"e57374d11c8da9e7c70631881dcf55fa",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Ketevan Nemsadze",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9126.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"149748",title:"Dr.",name:"Ketevan",surname:"Nemsadze",slug:"ketevan-nemsadze",fullName:"Ketevan Nemsadze"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9307",title:"Monocrystalline and Polycrystalline Silicon",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"d551f2f31d76d6620b9175331c32e326",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. M. Taha Demirkan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9307.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"270288",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Taha",surname:"Demirkan",slug:"m.-taha-demirkan",fullName:"M. Taha Demirkan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9080",title:"Bovine Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0e07da77d0439523980177f4d3534567",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Rita Payan-Carreira and Dr. Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9080.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"38652",title:"Dr.",name:"Rita",surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9464",title:"Health Benefits of Tea (Camellia sinensis)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f8945b63ec8437f5589e4168ff682e2d",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Kula Kamal Senapati",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9464.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"234221",title:"Dr.",name:"Kula Kamal",surname:"Senapati",slug:"kula-kamal-senapati",fullName:"Kula Kamal Senapati"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7996",title:"Wildfire in the Wildland Urban Interface",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"caac4a94c451c97cf8b52a6dcbac746b",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Jason Gordon",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7996.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"264298",title:"Dr.",name:"Jason",surname:"Gordon",slug:"jason-gordon",fullName:"Jason Gordon"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9056",title:"Multiple Chronic Conditions - Overview and Management of Chronic Disease Clusters",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c842c2f3339a6a9290603393ab741253",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Sevgi Akarsu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9056.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"182444",title:"Prof.",name:"Sevgi",surname:"Akarsu",slug:"sevgi-akarsu",fullName:"Sevgi Akarsu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9224",title:"Distributed Computing - Principles and Practices",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"19d48e221488c1a086945120776441f3",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Thummuru Gunasekhar and Dr. Komati Thirupathi Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9224.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"298899",title:"Dr.",name:"Thummuru",surname:"Gunasekhar",slug:"thummuru-gunasekhar",fullName:"Thummuru Gunasekhar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9297",title:"Smart Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"139621c1c59461cc2dd2fa3632449513",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Prasanta Ghosh, Dr. Arti Rushi and Dr. Kunal Datta",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9297.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"294687",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanta",surname:"Ghosh",slug:"prasanta-ghosh",fullName:"Prasanta Ghosh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8556",title:"Mars Exploration",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"44538d785d8dfcc0d4f809e3a62b0035",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Giuseppe Pezzella and Prof. Antonio Viviani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8556.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"14939",title:"Prof.",name:"Giuseppe",surname:"Pezzella",slug:"giuseppe-pezzella",fullName:"Giuseppe Pezzella"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:35},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:33},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:30},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:25},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:68},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:13},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:37},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:14},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:136},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:20},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:14},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Insectology",value:39,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Genesiology",value:300,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",value:521,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Intelligent System",value:535,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:500},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7640",title:"Perspective of Carbon Nanotubes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8b85a9957fad5206369eadf0c1ffa27d",slug:"perspective-of-carbon-nanotubes",bookSignature:"Hosam El-Din Saleh and Said Moawad Mohamed El-Sheikh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7640.jpg",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam El-Din",middleName:"M.",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-el-din-saleh",fullName:"Hosam El-Din Saleh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7583",title:"Advanced Computational Fluid Dynamics for Emerging Engineering Processes",subtitle:"Eulerian vs. Lagrangian",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"896509fa2e7e659811bffd0f9779ca9d",slug:"advanced-computational-fluid-dynamics-for-emerging-engineering-processes-eulerian-vs-lagrangian",bookSignature:"Albert S. Kim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7583.jpg",editors:[{id:"21045",title:"Prof.",name:"Albert S.",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"albert-s.-kim",fullName:"Albert S. Kim"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7839",title:"Malaria",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"91cde4582ead884cb0f355a19b67cd56",slug:"malaria",bookSignature:"Fyson H. Kasenga",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7839.jpg",editors:[{id:"86725",title:"Dr.",name:"Fyson",middleName:"Hanania",surname:"Kasenga",slug:"fyson-kasenga",fullName:"Fyson Kasenga"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7698",title:"Educational Psychology",subtitle:"Between Certitudes and Uncertainties",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"740943e2d029253e777150e98ebe2f0d",slug:"educational-psychology-between-certitudes-and-uncertainties",bookSignature:"Victori?a Trif",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7698.jpg",editors:[{id:"201656",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Victorița",middleName:null,surname:"Trif",slug:"victorita-trif",fullName:"Victorița Trif"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7000",title:"Legume Crops",subtitle:"Characterization and Breeding for Improved Food Security",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4d0f73bf883bbb984cc2feef1259a9a7",slug:"legume-crops-characterization-and-breeding-for-improved-food-security",bookSignature:"Mohamed Ahmed El-Esawi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7000.jpg",editors:[{id:"191770",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed A.",middleName:null,surname:"El-Esawi",slug:"mohamed-a.-el-esawi",fullName:"Mohamed A. El-Esawi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7093",title:"Pneumothorax",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0b1fdb8bb0448f48c2f234753898f3f8",slug:"pneumothorax",bookSignature:"Khalid Amer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7093.jpg",editors:[{id:"63412",title:"Dr.",name:"Khalid",middleName:null,surname:"Amer",slug:"khalid-amer",fullName:"Khalid Amer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7612",title:"Electrospinning and Electrospraying",subtitle:"Techniques and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"77e9708250507395a4bea2c17d012982",slug:"electrospinning-and-electrospraying-techniques-and-applications",bookSignature:"Sajjad Haider and Adnan Haider",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7612.jpg",editors:[{id:"110708",title:"Dr.",name:"Sajjad",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"sajjad-haider",fullName:"Sajjad Haider"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8323",title:"Traditional and Complementary Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"60eadb1783d9bba245687adf284d4871",slug:"traditional-and-complementary-medicine",bookSignature:"Cengiz Mordeniz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8323.jpg",editors:[{id:"214664",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Cengiz",middleName:null,surname:"Mordeniz",slug:"cengiz-mordeniz",fullName:"Cengiz Mordeniz"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7646",title:"Scientometrics Recent Advances",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"86bbdd04d7e80be14283d44969d1cc32",slug:"scientometrics-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Suad Kunosic and Enver Zerem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7646.jpg",editors:[{id:"88678",title:"Prof.",name:"Suad",middleName:null,surname:"Kunosic",slug:"suad-kunosic",fullName:"Suad Kunosic"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8516",title:"Metacognition in Learning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5fa6eaad7b509b8b7ec5124d79e5f605",slug:"metacognition-in-learning",bookSignature:"Nosisi Feza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8516.jpg",editors:[{id:"261665",title:"Prof.",name:"Nosisi",middleName:"N.",surname:"Feza",slug:"nosisi-feza",fullName:"Nosisi Feza"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7404",title:"Hysteresis of Composites",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8540fa2378dbb92e50411cfebfb853a6",slug:"hysteresis-of-composites",bookSignature:"Li Longbiao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7404.jpg",editors:[{id:"260011",title:"Dr.",name:"Li",middleName:null,surname:"Longbiao",slug:"li-longbiao",fullName:"Li Longbiao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7878",title:"Advances in Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation",subtitle:"Volume 3",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f95bf990273d08098a00f9a1c2403cbe",slug:"advances-in-extracorporeal-membrane-oxygenation-volume-3",bookSignature:"Michael S. Firstenberg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7878.jpg",editors:[{id:"64343",title:null,name:"Michael S.",middleName:"S",surname:"Firstenberg",slug:"michael-s.-firstenberg",fullName:"Michael S. Firstenberg"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:4406},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7640",title:"Perspective of Carbon Nanotubes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8b85a9957fad5206369eadf0c1ffa27d",slug:"perspective-of-carbon-nanotubes",bookSignature:"Hosam El-Din Saleh and Said Moawad Mohamed El-Sheikh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7640.jpg",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam El-Din",middleName:"M.",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-el-din-saleh",fullName:"Hosam El-Din Saleh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7583",title:"Advanced Computational Fluid Dynamics for Emerging Engineering Processes",subtitle:"Eulerian vs. Lagrangian",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"896509fa2e7e659811bffd0f9779ca9d",slug:"advanced-computational-fluid-dynamics-for-emerging-engineering-processes-eulerian-vs-lagrangian",bookSignature:"Albert S. Kim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7583.jpg",editors:[{id:"21045",title:"Prof.",name:"Albert S.",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"albert-s.-kim",fullName:"Albert S. Kim"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7839",title:"Malaria",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"91cde4582ead884cb0f355a19b67cd56",slug:"malaria",bookSignature:"Fyson H. Kasenga",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7839.jpg",editors:[{id:"86725",title:"Dr.",name:"Fyson",middleName:"Hanania",surname:"Kasenga",slug:"fyson-kasenga",fullName:"Fyson Kasenga"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7698",title:"Educational Psychology",subtitle:"Between Certitudes and Uncertainties",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"740943e2d029253e777150e98ebe2f0d",slug:"educational-psychology-between-certitudes-and-uncertainties",bookSignature:"Victori?a Trif",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7698.jpg",editors:[{id:"201656",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Victorița",middleName:null,surname:"Trif",slug:"victorita-trif",fullName:"Victorița Trif"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7000",title:"Legume Crops",subtitle:"Characterization and Breeding for Improved Food Security",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4d0f73bf883bbb984cc2feef1259a9a7",slug:"legume-crops-characterization-and-breeding-for-improved-food-security",bookSignature:"Mohamed Ahmed El-Esawi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7000.jpg",editors:[{id:"191770",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed A.",middleName:null,surname:"El-Esawi",slug:"mohamed-a.-el-esawi",fullName:"Mohamed A. El-Esawi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7093",title:"Pneumothorax",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0b1fdb8bb0448f48c2f234753898f3f8",slug:"pneumothorax",bookSignature:"Khalid Amer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7093.jpg",editors:[{id:"63412",title:"Dr.",name:"Khalid",middleName:null,surname:"Amer",slug:"khalid-amer",fullName:"Khalid Amer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7612",title:"Electrospinning and Electrospraying",subtitle:"Techniques and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"77e9708250507395a4bea2c17d012982",slug:"electrospinning-and-electrospraying-techniques-and-applications",bookSignature:"Sajjad Haider and Adnan Haider",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7612.jpg",editors:[{id:"110708",title:"Dr.",name:"Sajjad",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"sajjad-haider",fullName:"Sajjad Haider"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8323",title:"Traditional and Complementary Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"60eadb1783d9bba245687adf284d4871",slug:"traditional-and-complementary-medicine",bookSignature:"Cengiz Mordeniz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8323.jpg",editors:[{id:"214664",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Cengiz",middleName:null,surname:"Mordeniz",slug:"cengiz-mordeniz",fullName:"Cengiz Mordeniz"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7646",title:"Scientometrics Recent Advances",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"86bbdd04d7e80be14283d44969d1cc32",slug:"scientometrics-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Suad Kunosic and Enver Zerem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7646.jpg",editors:[{id:"88678",title:"Prof.",name:"Suad",middleName:null,surname:"Kunosic",slug:"suad-kunosic",fullName:"Suad Kunosic"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8516",title:"Metacognition in Learning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5fa6eaad7b509b8b7ec5124d79e5f605",slug:"metacognition-in-learning",bookSignature:"Nosisi Feza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8516.jpg",editors:[{id:"261665",title:"Prof.",name:"Nosisi",middleName:"N.",surname:"Feza",slug:"nosisi-feza",fullName:"Nosisi Feza"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7698",title:"Educational Psychology",subtitle:"Between Certitudes and Uncertainties",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"740943e2d029253e777150e98ebe2f0d",slug:"educational-psychology-between-certitudes-and-uncertainties",bookSignature:"Victori?a Trif",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7698.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201656",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Victorița",middleName:null,surname:"Trif",slug:"victorita-trif",fullName:"Victorița Trif"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8747",title:"Asphalt and Asphalt Mixtures",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6083f7c9881029f1e033a1e512af7e20",slug:"asphalt-and-asphalt-mixtures",bookSignature:"Haitao Zhang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8747.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"260604",title:"Prof.",name:"Haitao",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"haitao-zhang",fullName:"Haitao Zhang"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8516",title:"Metacognition in Learning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5fa6eaad7b509b8b7ec5124d79e5f605",slug:"metacognition-in-learning",bookSignature:"Nosisi Feza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8516.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"261665",title:"Prof.",name:"Nosisi",middleName:"N.",surname:"Feza",slug:"nosisi-feza",fullName:"Nosisi Feza"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7000",title:"Legume Crops",subtitle:"Characterization and Breeding for Improved Food Security",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4d0f73bf883bbb984cc2feef1259a9a7",slug:"legume-crops-characterization-and-breeding-for-improved-food-security",bookSignature:"Mohamed Ahmed El-Esawi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7000.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"191770",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed A.",middleName:null,surname:"El-Esawi",slug:"mohamed-a.-el-esawi",fullName:"Mohamed A. El-Esawi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8292",title:"Oral Health by Using Probiotic Products",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"327e750e83634800ace02fe62607c21e",slug:"oral-health-by-using-probiotic-products",bookSignature:"Razzagh Mahmoudi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8292.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"245925",title:"Dr.",name:"Razzagh",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoudi",slug:"razzagh-mahmoudi",fullName:"Razzagh Mahmoudi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8323",title:"Traditional and Complementary Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"60eadb1783d9bba245687adf284d4871",slug:"traditional-and-complementary-medicine",bookSignature:"Cengiz Mordeniz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8323.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"214664",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Cengiz",middleName:null,surname:"Mordeniz",slug:"cengiz-mordeniz",fullName:"Cengiz Mordeniz"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8347",title:"Computer Architecture in Industrial, Biomechanical and Biomedical Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3d7024a8d7d8afed093c9c79ec31f15a",slug:"computer-architecture-in-industrial-biomechanical-and-biomedical-engineering",bookSignature:"Lulu Wang and Liandong Yu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8347.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"257388",title:"Dr.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"lulu-wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7583",title:"Advanced Computational Fluid Dynamics for Emerging Engineering Processes",subtitle:"Eulerian vs. Lagrangian",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"896509fa2e7e659811bffd0f9779ca9d",slug:"advanced-computational-fluid-dynamics-for-emerging-engineering-processes-eulerian-vs-lagrangian",bookSignature:"Albert S. Kim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7583.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"21045",title:"Prof.",name:"Albert S.",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"albert-s.-kim",fullName:"Albert S. Kim"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7839",title:"Malaria",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"91cde4582ead884cb0f355a19b67cd56",slug:"malaria",bookSignature:"Fyson H. Kasenga",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7839.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"86725",title:"Dr.",name:"Fyson",middleName:"Hanania",surname:"Kasenga",slug:"fyson-kasenga",fullName:"Fyson Kasenga"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7093",title:"Pneumothorax",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0b1fdb8bb0448f48c2f234753898f3f8",slug:"pneumothorax",bookSignature:"Khalid Amer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7093.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"63412",title:"Dr.",name:"Khalid",middleName:null,surname:"Amer",slug:"khalid-amer",fullName:"Khalid Amer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"161",title:"Algebra",slug:"algebra",parent:{title:"Mathematics",slug:"mathematics"},numberOfBooks:4,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:37,numberOfWosCitations:10,numberOfCrossrefCitations:4,numberOfDimensionsCitations:17,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"algebra",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"8599",title:"Polynomials",subtitle:"Theory and Application",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1c36cace7f309250a777c0f404a2d79f",slug:"polynomials-theory-and-application",bookSignature:"Cheon Seoung Ryoo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8599.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"230100",title:"Prof.",name:"Cheon Seoung",middleName:null,surname:"Ryoo",slug:"cheon-seoung-ryoo",fullName:"Cheon Seoung Ryoo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6526",title:"Matrix Theory",subtitle:"Applications and Theorems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"007221e88f11abf3c1bee9ba865c51b3",slug:"matrix-theory-applications-and-theorems",bookSignature:"Hassan A. Yasser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6526.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68107",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan",middleName:"Abid",surname:"Yasser",slug:"hassan-yasser",fullName:"Hassan Yasser"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5134",title:"Applied Linear Algebra in Action",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2aeb0040a0135ad33564d0f5f19d6103",slug:"applied-linear-algebra-in-action",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Katsikis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5134.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"12289",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasilios",middleName:"N.",surname:"Katsikis",slug:"vasilios-katsikis",fullName:"Vasilios Katsikis"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2738",title:"Linear Algebra",subtitle:"Theorems and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d4a676338d6da7a444a01743804f93a",slug:"linear-algebra-theorems-and-applications",bookSignature:"Hassan Abid Yasser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2738.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68107",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan",middleName:"Abid",surname:"Yasser",slug:"hassan-yasser",fullName:"Hassan Yasser"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:4,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"37780",doi:"10.5772/46482",title:"Algebraic Theory of Appell Polynomials with Application to General Linear Interpolation Problem",slug:"algebraic-theory-of-appell-polynomials-with-application-to-general-linear-interpolation-problem",totalDownloads:2183,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"linear-algebra-theorems-and-applications",title:"Linear Algebra",fullTitle:"Linear Algebra - Theorems and Applications"},signatures:"Francesco Aldo Costabile and Elisabetta Longo",authors:[{id:"143684",title:"Prof.",name:"Francesco A.",middleName:null,surname:"Costabile",slug:"francesco-a.-costabile",fullName:"Francesco A. Costabile"},{id:"145195",title:"Dr.",name:"Elisabetta",middleName:null,surname:"Longo",slug:"elisabetta-longo",fullName:"Elisabetta Longo"}]},{id:"37785",doi:"10.5772/48198",title:"Partition-Matrix Theory Applied to the Computation of Generalized-Inverses for MIMO Systems in Rayleigh Fading Channels",slug:"partition-matrix-theory-applied-to-the-computation-of-generalized-inverses-for-mimo-systems-in-rayle",totalDownloads:2515,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"linear-algebra-theorems-and-applications",title:"Linear Algebra",fullTitle:"Linear Algebra - Theorems and Applications"},signatures:"P. Cervantes, L.F. González, F.J. Ortiz and A.D. García",authors:[{id:"140284",title:"Mr.",name:"Pedro C.",middleName:null,surname:"Lozano",slug:"pedro-c.-lozano",fullName:"Pedro C. Lozano"},{id:"154942",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez",slug:"luis-gonzalez",fullName:"Luis Gonzalez"}]},{id:"60350",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74105",title:"Cramer’s Rules for the System of Two-Sided Matrix Equations and of Its Special Cases",slug:"cramer-s-rules-for-the-system-of-two-sided-matrix-equations-and-of-its-special-cases",totalDownloads:270,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"matrix-theory-applications-and-theorems",title:"Matrix Theory",fullTitle:"Matrix Theory - Applications and Theorems"},signatures:"Ivan I. Kyrchei",authors:[{id:"226980",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Kyrchei",slug:"ivan-kyrchei",fullName:"Ivan Kyrchei"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"50239",title:"Matrices, Moments and Quadrature: Applications to Time- Dependent Partial Differential Equations",slug:"matrices-moments-and-quadrature-applications-to-time-dependent-partial-differential-equations",totalDownloads:1834,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"applied-linear-algebra-in-action",title:"Applied Linear Algebra in Action",fullTitle:"Applied Linear Algebra in Action"},signatures:"James V. Lambers, Alexandru Cibotarica and Elisabeth M. Palchak",authors:[{id:"178867",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"James",middleName:null,surname:"Lambers",slug:"james-lambers",fullName:"James Lambers"},{id:"184082",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandru",middleName:null,surname:"Cibotarica",slug:"alexandru-cibotarica",fullName:"Alexandru Cibotarica"},{id:"184083",title:"MSc.",name:"Elisabeth",middleName:null,surname:"Palchak",slug:"elisabeth-palchak",fullName:"Elisabeth Palchak"}]},{id:"50163",title:"Structured Approaches to General Inverse Eigenvalue Problems",slug:"structured-approaches-to-general-inverse-eigenvalue-problems",totalDownloads:1704,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"applied-linear-algebra-in-action",title:"Applied Linear Algebra in Action",fullTitle:"Applied Linear Algebra in Action"},signatures:"Patrick Dumond and Natalie Baddour",authors:[{id:"62384",title:"Dr.",name:"Natalie",middleName:null,surname:"Baddour",slug:"natalie-baddour",fullName:"Natalie Baddour"},{id:"178920",title:"Dr.",name:"Patrick",middleName:null,surname:"Dumond",slug:"patrick-dumond",fullName:"Patrick Dumond"}]},{id:"37782",title:"Gauge Theory, Combinatorics, and Matrix Models",slug:"gauge-theory-combinatorics-and-matrix-models",totalDownloads:2059,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"linear-algebra-theorems-and-applications",title:"Linear Algebra",fullTitle:"Linear Algebra - Theorems and Applications"},signatures:"Taro Kimura",authors:[{id:"140579",title:"Dr.",name:"Taro",middleName:null,surname:"Kimura",slug:"taro-kimura",fullName:"Taro Kimura"}]},{id:"66332",title:"Polynomials with Symmetric Zeros",slug:"polynomials-with-symmetric-zeros",totalDownloads:255,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"polynomials-theory-and-application",title:"Polynomials",fullTitle:"Polynomials - Theory and Application"},signatures:"Ricardo Vieira",authors:null},{id:"50675",title:"Eigenvalue Problems",slug:"eigenvalue-problems",totalDownloads:1324,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"applied-linear-algebra-in-action",title:"Applied Linear Algebra in Action",fullTitle:"Applied Linear Algebra in Action"},signatures:"Aleksandra Kostić",authors:[{id:"178893",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Aleksandra",middleName:null,surname:"Kostić",slug:"aleksandra-kostic",fullName:"Aleksandra Kostić"}]},{id:"50709",title:"Likelihood Ratio Tests in Multivariate Linear Model",slug:"likelihood-ratio-tests-in-multivariate-linear-model",totalDownloads:1074,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"applied-linear-algebra-in-action",title:"Applied Linear Algebra in Action",fullTitle:"Applied Linear Algebra in Action"},signatures:"Yasunori Fujikoshi",authors:[{id:"178988",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasunori",middleName:null,surname:"Fujikoshi",slug:"yasunori-fujikoshi",fullName:"Yasunori Fujikoshi"}]},{id:"65150",title:"The Orthogonal Expansion in Time-Domain Method for Solving Maxwell Equations Using Paralleling-in-Order Scheme",slug:"the-orthogonal-expansion-in-time-domain-method-for-solving-maxwell-equations-using-paralleling-in-or",totalDownloads:212,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"polynomials-theory-and-application",title:"Polynomials",fullTitle:"Polynomials - Theory and Application"},signatures:"Zheng-Yu Huang, Zheng Sun and Wei He",authors:null},{id:"37786",title:"A Linear System of Both Equations and Inequalities in Max-Algebra",slug:"a-linear-system-of-both-equations-and-inequalities-in-max-algebra",totalDownloads:1834,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"linear-algebra-theorems-and-applications",title:"Linear Algebra",fullTitle:"Linear Algebra - Theorems and Applications"},signatures:"Abdulhadi Aminu",authors:[{id:"140280",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulhadi",middleName:null,surname:"Aminu",slug:"abdulhadi-aminu",fullName:"Abdulhadi Aminu"}]},{id:"50312",title:"Nonnegative Inverse Elementary Divisors Problem",slug:"nonnegative-inverse-elementary-divisors-problem",totalDownloads:845,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"applied-linear-algebra-in-action",title:"Applied Linear Algebra in Action",fullTitle:"Applied Linear Algebra in Action"},signatures:"Ricardo L. Soto",authors:[{id:"141560",title:"PhD.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"Soto",slug:"ricardo-soto",fullName:"Ricardo Soto"}]},{id:"64679",title:"Obtaining Explicit Formulas and Identities for Polynomials Defined by Generating Functions of the Form F(t)x ⋅ G(t)α",slug:"obtaining-explicit-formulas-and-identities-for-polynomials-defined-by-generating-functions-of-the-fo",totalDownloads:190,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"polynomials-theory-and-application",title:"Polynomials",fullTitle:"Polynomials - Theory and Application"},signatures:"Dmitry Kruchinin, Vladimir Kruchinin and Yuriy Shablya",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"algebra",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10080",title:"Vortex Dynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"ea97962e99b3e0ebc9b46b48ba5bea14",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Zambri Harun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10080.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"243152",title:"Dr.",name:"Zambri",middleName:null,surname:"Harun",slug:"zambri-harun",fullName:"Zambri Harun"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8903",title:"Carbon Based Material for Environmental Protection and Remediation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"19da699b370f320eca63ef2ba02f745d",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Mattia Bartoli and Dr. Marco Frediani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8903.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"188999",title:"Dr.",name:"Mattia",middleName:null,surname:"Bartoli",slug:"mattia-bartoli",fullName:"Mattia Bartoli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8771",title:"Raman Scattering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"1354b3097eaa5b27d9d4bd29d3150b27",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Samir Kumar and Dr. Prabhat Kumar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8771.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"296661",title:"Dr.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"samir-kumar",fullName:"Samir Kumar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10073",title:"Recent Advances in Nanophotonics-Fundamentals and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"aceca7dfc807140870a89d42c5537d7c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Mojtaba Kahrizi and Ms. Parsoua Abedini Sohi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10073.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"113045",title:"Dr.",name:"Mojtaba",middleName:null,surname:"Kahrizi",slug:"mojtaba-kahrizi",fullName:"Mojtaba Kahrizi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10132",title:"Applied Computational Near-surface Geophysics - From Integral and Derivative Formulas to MATLAB Codes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"38cdbbb671df620b36ee96af1d9a3a90",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Afshin Aghayan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10132.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"311030",title:"Dr.",name:"Afshin",middleName:null,surname:"Aghayan",slug:"afshin-aghayan",fullName:"Afshin Aghayan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10110",title:"Advances and Technologies in Building Construction and Structural Analysis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"df2ad14bc5588577e8bf0b7ebcdafd9d",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Ali Kaboli and Dr. Sara Shirowzhan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10110.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"309192",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Kaboli",slug:"ali-kaboli",fullName:"Ali Kaboli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10175",title:"Ethics in Emerging Technologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9c92da249676e35e2f7476182aa94e84",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Ali Hessami",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10175.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"108303",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Hessami",slug:"ali-hessami",fullName:"Ali Hessami"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9284",title:"Computational Aeroacoustics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"7019c5e5985faef7dc384c87dca5c8ef",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Ramesh K. Agarwal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9284.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"38519",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramesh K.",middleName:null,surname:"Agarwal",slug:"ramesh-k.-agarwal",fullName:"Ramesh K. Agarwal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:16},humansInSpaceProgram:{},teamHumansInSpaceProgram:{},route:{name:"book.detail",path:"/books/antidepressants-preclinical-clinical-and-translational-aspects",hash:"",query:{},params:{book:"antidepressants-preclinical-clinical-and-translational-aspects"},fullPath:"/books/antidepressants-preclinical-clinical-and-translational-aspects",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()