Linear regression analysis of AFM1-fortified sample A for the determination of LOQ
\r\n\tBesides the development of cryptographic tools (hardware and software), we are also interested in the applications of cryptography in current and future scenarios like blockchain, internet of things, industry 4.0, privacy enforcement, cybersecurity and special algorithms such as zero-knowledge proofs and identity-based cryptography.
\r\n\r\n\t
\r\n\tFinally, cryptography does not live in a vacuum, but it is intertwined with our society, sometimes rising questions that are beyond the purely technical realm. For example: Is the weakening introduced by key escrow mechanisms worth the gain? How does cryptography interact with privacy rights? What is the economic impact of cryptography? We welcome contribution to those less technical questions as well.
Aflatoxins are a group of structurally related mycotoxins produced by certain species of the genus
According to worldwide regulations for mycotoxins in food and feed compiled by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 60 countries have already established regulatory limits for AFM1 in raw milk and milk products. The report also indicates that the limits vary from ND (not detectable) to 15 µg/L [4]. The values of 0.05 µg/L and 0.5 µg/L are the two most prevalent regulatory limits for AFM1 in milk products, enforced in 34 and 22 countries, respectively. The maximum permitted level for AFM1 established by the European Community is 0.025 µg/kg for infant formulae and follow-on formulae, including infant milk and follow-on milk, while the limit for raw milk and heat-treated milk is 0.05 µg/kg [5]. The U.S. regulatory standard for AFM1 is 0.5 µg/L [4]. There are still several countries, including Thailand, that have not yet established regulatory limits for AFM1 in dairy products.
The law that regulates the quality of milk products in Thailand is the Notification of the Ministry of Public Health No. 265, which regulates only cow milk products. However, the law does not specify the regulatory standards for AFM1 but states that “…
In Thailand, the number of dairy goats is approximately 5% that of dairy cows [8–10]. Goat milk is consumed by only a small percentage of the country’s population, particularly Thai people who have an allergy to cow milk. Goat milk has been shown to form finer and softer curds than cow milk following acidification under conditions similar to those in the stomach, thus making it more readily digested [11]. It has been reported that micellar caseins of human and goat milk were 96% hydrolyzed by pepsin and trypsin in
Thailand is administratively divided into four regions: central, north, northeast and south. The central region was selected for this study, since this region has the highest number of dairy goats and the highest rate of goat milk production, accounting for approximately 60% of the national total [8–10]. There are no internationally published reports regarding the quality and levels of AFM1 in goat milk produced in Thailand.
The purpose of this study was to investigate whether the concentrations of AFM1 in raw and pasteurized goat milk produced in Thailand are within the acceptable level for consumption.
AFM1 reference standard (from
Raw goat milk samples were collected from private farms, while pasteurized goat milk samples were purchased from supermarkets in the central region of Thailand. In Thailand, commercial pasteurized milk is produced by heat treatment, either at 63 oC for 30 min or at 72 oC for at least 15 s [6]. All milk samples were collected over three years: January–February of the years 2009–2011. Both types of milk samples were frozen at –20 °C until analysis (within one month from the collection date for raw milk, or 2 months from the manufacturing date for pasteurized milk). A total of 90 milk samples were collected and analyzed in this study.
The extraction procedure was performed using the manufacturer’s recommendations, as previously described by Ruangwises et al. [13]. Briefly, 50 ml of raw milk or pasteurized milk sample was pipetted into a 50-ml plastic centrifuge tube. Milk samples were defatted by centrifugation at 3,500
A complete liquid chromatographic system (ProStar; Varian, Palo Alto CA, USA) consisted of a HPLC pump (model 240), an auto injector (model 410), a column oven (model 510), and a fluorescence detector (model 363). The HPLC conditions for analysis of AFM1 were as follows: column, Spherisorb ODS-2 (Waters, Milford MA, USA); column temperature, 40 °C; mobile phase, water:methanol:acetonitrile (57:23:20); flow rate, 1 ml/min; and detector, fluorescence spectrophotometer (excitation 360 nm; emission 440 nm).
The Q2B procedure of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration [14] was used for determination of the limit of quantification (LOQ) for AFM1. Milk samples (50 ml) were fortified with standard AFM1 at four concentrations of 0.025, 0.050, 0.125 and 0.250 µg/L, while blank samples were not fortified with standard AFM1. Concentrations of AFM1 in AFM1-fortified milk samples and blank samples were quantified as described above in Section 2.3 using AflaM1TM immunoaffinity columns. All samples were analyzed for AFM1 in duplicate.
Individual linear regression lines were obtained from least-square regression analyses of the residual peak areas versus the four concentrations of fortified AFM1 (0.025, 0.050, 0.125 and 0.250 µg/ml). The residual peak areas were peak areas of AFM1-fortified samples minus the peak area of blank sample. A total of 12 regression lines (six regression lines each for intraday and interday analyses) were obtained by least-square linear regression. The LOQ of the method was calculated using the equation LOQ = 10 σ/S, where σ is the standard deviation of
A randomized block experiment was used to evaluate the differences in AFM1 concentrations in the two types of milk samples and among the three collection years. Duncan’s multiple comparison test was applied to obtain significance levels between the raw milk and pasteurized milk, and among each year of individual milk products (
Table 1 shows the results of analysis and a regression line obtained from least-square analysis of Sample A, of which the slope and
Table 4 shows the incidence and concentrations of AFM1 in raw and pasteurized goat milk samples. The incidence of AFM1 in raw goat milk collected in 2009, 2010 and 2011 was 46.7% (7/15), 66.7% (10/15) and 60.0% (9/15), respectively, while the incidence in pasteurized milk was 53.3% (8/15), 46.7% (7/15) and 53.3% (8/15), respectively. The total incidence of positive samples with respect to 90 samples analyzed in this study was 54.4% (49/90). Of the 49 positive samples, only 7 samples (14.3%) were contaminated with AFM1 above the EU standard of 0.05 µg/L. The three-year average concentrations of AFM1 found in the raw and pasteurized milk samples were 0.043 and 0.040 µg/L, respectively. The maximum concentration found in this study was 0.086 µg/L, which was far below the U.S. regulatory limit of 0.5 µg/L. In this study, statistical analysis showed that there were no significant differences in AFM1 concentrations among the raw and pasteurized milk samples and across the two types of milk samples collected over a three-year period.
When compared to cow milk, goat milk has a lower percentage of positive samples and lower AFM1 concentrations. Ghanem and Orfi [15] reported that the average concentration of AFM1 in raw goat milk (0.019 µg/L, n = 11), collected from markets in Syria between April 2005 and April 2006, was less than that in raw cow milk (0.143 µg/L, n = 74); the percentage of positive samples of goat milk (7 samples, 63.6%) was also less than that of cow milk (70 samples, 94.6%). Hussain et al. [16] found that 6 (20%) of 30 raw goat milk samples were contaminated with AFM1 at an average concentration of 0.002 µg/L, while 15 (37.5%) of 40 raw cow milk samples were contaminated with an average AFM1 level of 0.014 µg/L. Rahimi et al. [17] reported that the incidence of AFM1 in raw goat and cow milk samples collected from Ahvaz in Khuzestan province, Iran, between November 2007 and December 2008, was 31.7% (19/60) and 78.7% (59/75), respectively. Concentrations of AFM1 in raw milk samples of both species were 0.0301 and 0.0601 µg/L, respectively.
0 | \n\t\t\t6,410 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t||
0.025 | \n\t\t\t11,126.5 | \n\t\t\t4,716.5 | \n\t\t||
0.050 | \n\t\t\t16,144.5 | \n\t\t\t9,734.5 | \n\t\t||
0.125 | \n\t\t\t29,251 | \n\t\t\t22,841 | \n\t\t||
0.250 | \n\t\t\t52,773 | \n\t\t\t46,363 | \n\t\t||
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t slope = 184,141; \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
Linear regression analysis of AFM1-fortified sample A for the determination of LOQ
1 Average value of two determinations
2 Residual peak area = peak area of AFM1-fortified sample – peak area of blank sample
\n\t\t\t | ||
Intraday ( | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
A | \n\t\t\t184,141 | \n\t\t\t197.86 | \n\t\t
B | \n\t\t\t180,733 | \n\t\t\t293.38 | \n\t\t
C | \n\t\t\t183,706 | \n\t\t\t141.26 | \n\t\t
D | \n\t\t\t179,857 | \n\t\t\t549.02 | \n\t\t
E | \n\t\t\t180,039 | \n\t\t\t207.84 | \n\t\t
F | \n\t\t\t181,224 | \n\t\t\t109.74 | \n\t\t
Interday ( | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
G | \n\t\t\t181,454 | \n\t\t\t127.39 | \n\t\t
H | \n\t\t\t175,861 | \n\t\t\t432.76 | \n\t\t
I | \n\t\t\t185,285 | \n\t\t\t223.45 | \n\t\t
J | \n\t\t\t179,462 | \n\t\t\t442.02 | \n\t\t
K | \n\t\t\t175,904 | \n\t\t\t339.74 | \n\t\t
L | \n\t\t\t178,545 | \n\t\t\t639.60 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Slopes and
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | |||||||||||
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | |||||||
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | ||||
0.025 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 0.023 ± 0.001 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 4.3 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 92.1 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 0.024 ± 0.002 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 7.5 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 94.1 | \n\t\t
0.050 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 0.046 ± 0.001 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 2.2 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 91.9 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 0.046 ± 0.002 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 3.5 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 91.4 | \n\t\t
0.125 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 0.112 ± 0.003 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 2.7 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 89.3 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 0.111 ± 0.004 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 3.9 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 88.8 | \n\t\t
0.250 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 0.225 ± 0.002 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 1.1 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 89.8 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 0.222 ± 0.005 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 2.1 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 89.0 | \n\t\t
Accuracy and precision of determination of AFM1 in goat milk
a Values are mean ± SD
b % RSD = percent relative standard deviation.
\n\t\t\t | |||||||
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | ||||||
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | ||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
2009 | \n\t\t\t15 | \n\t\t\t7 (46.7) | \n\t\t\t0.042 ± 0.012 | \n\t\t\t0.022–0.061 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 6 (85.7) | \n\t\t\t1 (12.5) | \n\t\t
2010 | \n\t\t\t15 | \n\t\t\t10 (66.7) | \n\t\t\t0.049 ± 0.018 | \n\t\t\t0.025–0.086 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 8 (80.0) | \n\t\t\t2 (20.0) | \n\t\t
2011 | \n\t\t\t15 | \n\t\t\t9 (60.0) | \n\t\t\t0.036 ± 0.015 | \n\t\t\t0.018–0.066 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 8 (88.9) | \n\t\t\t1 (11.1) | \n\t\t
Total | \n\t\t\t45 | \n\t\t\t26 (57.8) | \n\t\t\t0.043 ± 0.017 | \n\t\t\t0.018–0.086 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 22 (84.6) | \n\t\t\t4 (15.4) | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t | |||||
2009 | \n\t\t\t15 | \n\t\t\t8 (53.3) | \n\t\t\t0.039 ± 0.017 | \n\t\t\t0.015–0.075 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 7 (87.5) | \n\t\t\t1 (12.5) | \n\t\t
2010 | \n\t\t\t15 | \n\t\t\t7 (46.7) | \n\t\t\t0.045 ± 0.015 | \n\t\t\t0.022–0.061 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 6 (85.7) | \n\t\t\t1 (14.3) | \n\t\t
2011 | \n\t\t\t15 | \n\t\t\t8 (53.3) | \n\t\t\t0.035 ± 0.019 | \n\t\t\t0.014–0.073 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 7 (87.5) | \n\t\t\t1 (12.5) | \n\t\t
Total | \n\t\t\t45 | \n\t\t\t23 (51.1) | \n\t\t\t0.040 ± 0.016 | \n\t\t\t0.014–0.073 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 20 (87.0) | \n\t\t\t3 (13.0) | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Incidence and concentrations of AFM1 in raw and pasteurized goat milk samples collected within the central region of Thailand
1Numbers in parentheses are percentages for each year
2Means and ranges of AFM1 concentrations in the positive samples
3AFM1 incidence of the positive samples
Numbers in parentheses are percentages with respect to the positive samples
High incidence and concentrations of AFM1 in cow milk have also been found in Thailand. Ruangwises and Ruangwises [18] reported that all of 240 raw cow milk samples collected from 80 milk tanks at a milk collecting center in the central region of Thailand were found to be contaminated with AFM1 at an average concentration of 0.070 µg/L. For pasteurized milk samples, our previous studies showed that AFM1 was found in 349 (83.1%) of 420 pasteurized milk samples, collected from 40 provinces in all four regions of Thailand from May 2006 to January 2008, with AFM1 concentrations ranging between 0.012 and 0.114 µg/L [13,19].
Table 5 shows the incidence and concentrations of AFM1 in raw and pasteurized goat milk from various countries. For raw goat milk, Assem et al. [20] found that all of the three raw milk samples collected from markets in Lebanon between March–July 2010 contained AFM1 less than the LOQ of 0.005 ng/ml. Ozdemir [21] found that the mean concentration of AFM1 in 93 positive samples out of 110 raw milk samples collected from the city of Kilis, Turkey, from March–April 2006 was 0.019 µg/L. For pasteurized milk, Oliveira and Ferraz [22] determined the concentrations of AFM1 in 12 pasteurized goat milk samples collected from the state of Sao Paulo, Brazil, and found that 7 samples (58.3%) were contaminated with an average concentration of 0.034 µg/L.
The levels of AFM1 in goat milk are influenced by both feeding practices and the types of feedstuffs. Virdis et al. [23] determined the concentrations of AFM1 in goat milk collected from two groups of farms with different feeding practices – extensive and intensive farms – in Sardinia, Italy, between the years 2003 and 2004. In extensive farms, goats were principally fed on grass and naturally growing bushes which were often present in marginal areas, supplemented with low levels of concentrates consisting of broad bean (
HPLC chromatograms of AFM1 with a retention time of approximately 6.8 min: (A) standard 10 µg/L AFM1, (B) goat sample contaminated with 0.05 µg/L AFM1, and (C) uncontaminated goat milk sample
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Lebanon | \n\t\t\tMar–July | \n\t\t\t3 | \n\t\t\t0 (0) | \n\t\t\t< 0.005 | \n\t\t\tAssem et al. | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | 2010 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | (2011) | \n\t\t
Iran | \n\t\t\tNov 2007 – | \n\t\t\t60 | \n\t\t\t19 (31.7) | \n\t\t\t0.0301 ± 0.0183 | \n\t\t\tRahimi et al. | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | Dec 2008 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | (2010) | \n\t\t
Pakistan | \n\t\t\tJan–Dec | \n\t\t\t30 | \n\t\t\t6 (20) | \n\t\t\t0.002 ± 0.005 | \n\t\t\tHussain et al. | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | 2007 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | (2010) | \n\t\t
Turkey | \n\t\t\tMar–Apr | \n\t\t\t110 | \n\t\t\t93 (84.5) | \n\t\t\t0.019 | \n\t\t\tOzdemir (2007) | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | 2006 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | (0.005–0.117)2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
Syria | \n\t\t\tApr 2005 – | \n\t\t\t11 | \n\t\t\t7 (63.6) | \n\t\t\t0.019 ± 0.0138 | \n\t\t\tGhanem and Orfi | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | Apr 2006 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | (0.008–0.054) | \n\t\t\t(2009) | \n\t\t
Thailand | \n\t\t\tJan 2008 – | \n\t\t\t45 | \n\t\t\t26 (57.8) | \n\t\t\t0.036 ± 0.015 | \n\t\t\tPresent study | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | Feb 2011 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | (0.011–0.064) | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t | |||
Brazil | \n\t\t\tOct 2004 – | \n\t\t\t12 | \n\t\t\t7 (58.3) | \n\t\t\t0.072 ± 0.048 | \n\t\t\tOliveira and Ferraz | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | May 2005 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | (2007) | \n\t\t
Thailand | \n\t\t\tJan 2008 – | \n\t\t\t45 | \n\t\t\t23 (51.1) | \n\t\t\t0.034 ± 0.014 | \n\t\t\tPresent study | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | Feb 2011 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | (0.010–0.058) | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
Incidence and concentrations of AFM1 in raw and pasteurized goat milk in various countries
1 Concentrations of AFM1 in positive samples
2 Values in parentheses are ranges
The observation that the incidence and concentrations of AFM1 in goat milk are relatively lower than those in cow milk can be explained in terms of the feeding procedure and the carry-over rate of AFB1 in feedstuffs to AFM1 in the milk. Cows are generally fed with several major AFB1-contaminated feedstuffs: corn, cotton seed, and concentrated feed. Unlike cows, goats are fed with fresh grass but not corn or cotton seed; the main AFB1-contaminated feedstuffs fed to goats are concentrate feedstuffs. Motawee et al. [24] explained the different feeding patterns of cows and goats in Egypt. Cows are generally kept in enclosed areas and fed with a large proportion of AFB1-contaminated feedstuffs, with a short period of time for grazing on pasture; while goats are allowed to graze on pasture in the morning and are brought back into the enclosed areas for concentrate feedstuffs in the evening. Hussain et al. [16] explained that goats in Pakistan are mainly fed by grazing on pasture. AFB1-contaminated feedstuffs – corn, cotton seed, and concentrate feed – are not used to feed goats. In Thailand, the feeding procedures for cows and goats are similar to those in Egypt and Pakistan [25].
The carry-over rate of AFB1 in feedstuffs to AFM1 in milk is relatively lower in goats than in cows. The carry-over rates in cows have been reported to vary from 0.3% to 6.2%, with a mean value of 1.81% (n = 42) [26]. In Thailand, Ruangwises and Mhosatanun [27] determined the carry-over rates during the early lactation period (the first 4 weeks of lactation) in nine cows fed with feedstuffs naturally contaminated with AFB1. The carry-over rates ranged between 1.96% and 3.12%, with an average value of 2.02%. For goats, Smith et al. [28] reported an average carry-over rate of 0.55% in three goats which were fed with feedstuffs containing 100 ppb AFB1. Mazzette et al. [29] found an average carry-over rate of 0.26% in three goats within 72 h after receiving a single oral dose of 0.8 mg of AFB1.
This study showed that 49 samples (54.4%) of the 90 goat milk samples collected within the central region of Thailand in January–February of the years 2009–2011 were contaminated with AFM1 equal to or more than the LOQ of 0.01 µg/L. Concentrations of AFM1 were not significantly different among the raw and pasteurized milk samples and across the two types of milk samples collected over three years. Of the 49 positive samples, 7 samples (14.3%) had AFM1 greater than the EU regulatory limit of 0.05 µg/L. All 90 goat milk samples contained AFM1 below the U.S. regulatory limit of 0.5 µg/L. This study presents the first internationally published report on the contamination of AFM1 in raw and pasteurized goat milk produced in Thailand. The present study and our three previous reports on the occurrence of AFM1 in cow milk products [13,18,19] suggest that regulatory standards be adopted for AFM1 to ensure the quality of raw milk and milk products in Thailand.
This study was financially supported in part by The 40th Anniversary of Khon Kaen University Fund. The authors thank Mrs. Chailai Kuwattananukul and Sunan Rangseekansong for their technical assistance, and Mr. Christopher Salisbury, Chiang Mai University, Thailand, for reviewing the manuscript.
Sometimes, people’s behavior falls into unethical situations. Such behaviors are dependent on the context in which they occur, the points of view of those involved, the social norms in which people are framed, and what is considered morally correct [1]. In the world, several infamous cases of unethical conduct have come to light in academic [2, 3], governmental [4, 5], or corporate [6] contexts, among others. For example, in the Chilean national context, there are cases of collusion where various institutions have been involved, such as pharmaceutical corporations, radio stations, food companies, paper product companies, medical doctors, airlines, supermarkets, public transportation, etc. [7]. Internationally, one of the most notorious and recent cases of unethical professional conduct is that of the Cambridge Analytica scandal [8], which adds to dozens of other corruption cases that have occurred in different parts of the world [9]. Likewise, the impact on the environment, and technological advances in areas such as machine learning, cybersecurity and big-data, have generated new ethical dilemmas and situations in which professionals are expected to be able to deal with ethically [10].
One way to minimize breaches of ethical behavior involves incorporating ethics education into higher education, so that instructional activities and learning environments are provided, with the capacity to stimulate reflection, argumentation, ethical discernment and moral reasoning around ethical issues. In addition, it is of utmost importance that these opportunities equally reach all students in higher education, notwithstanding their gender, cultural background or whether their field of study is in the sciences or in the humanities. Higher education institutions have become aware of the urgency and relevance of these skills [11, 12, 13, 14, 15], considering them an essential and transversal component of academic curricula [16].
The literature identifies a growing need and relevance of ethics education in various learning domains and occupations, such as information systems [17, 18], auditing [19], marketing [20], taxes [21], among others. In the domains of computer science and software engineering, the software industry has been faced with an ethical crisis [22, 23], as users are increasingly aware about their personal data being utilized by platforms and services for various uses, including production of discriminatory profiles [24], and disinformation and fake news through massive manipulation of public speech, which has included electoral interference [25].
Professional and academic associations, as well as accreditation boards and agencies in a variety of fields, including engineering [26], computer science [27], business [28] and accounting [29] have taken notice of the importance of ethics in higher educational curricula and professional practice. In accreditation, there has been an increasing demand for the inclusion of courses in the areas of ‘social, ethical and professional issues’. For instance, according to ABET [26], accredited computer science programs must cultivate “an understanding of professional, ethical, legal, security and social issues and responsibilities”.
Although ethics is nowadays present in business and engineering school curricula, and it is part of the competencies in many of undergraduate and graduate profiles in universities around the world, teaching ethics in business [13, 30] or engineering [14, 15] is not a simple task, since there are epistemological, methodological and pedagogical differences in how teachers and students perceive ethics. Although there is a growing consensus that ethics teaching is important, there is little consensus on how to do it. Traditional forms of ethical training, including lecturing and case-based analysis dominate classrooms. These offer limited possibilities for students’ active participation, which is highly desirable in their ethical training, [16, 31]. The activities in ethical training promoting the socialization of points of view, participation in discussions, reflection, and the development of ethical discernment are not those that predominate in traditional pedagogy. The ethical debates around ethical cases or dilemmas assume that students must not only demonstrate the ability to apply moral reasoning and develop ethical judgments, but also to communicate these processes competently and meaningfully, expecting to be heard, understood and respected by their classmates and the teacher [29].
With the intent of fostering the development of ethics skills in higher education, in the period 2018–2019 the present authors developed a collaborative web application called EthicApp, compatible with any current desktop computer or mobile device, including smartphones. EthicApp supports teachers in preparing and executing pedagogical tasks involving students’ ethical discernment and reflection around ethical cases, in either face-to-face or online settings [32, 33]. Our early research with EthicApp focused on promoting higher level thinking processes, including reflection, argumentation, ethical discernment and moral reasoning. In addition, with EthicApp we strove to provide students equal opportunities for participation in ethics classes.
The first version of EthicApp consisted of a pedagogical flow comprising successive phases in which the students conduct ethical judgments individually, then in a small groups. The design sought that students express their judgments without inhibitions, so interactions among students were kept anonymous, even while working collaboratively. On the other hand, the teacher could monitor the activity and easily notice the groups of students presenting the greatest differences in the ethical evaluation of the case discussed. Lastly, the teacher could engage the entire class group in a discussion, for reflection on divergent ethical judgments found, and encourage students to further reason, argue and debate considering different points of view.
We conducted an initial pilot study of EthicApp, reported in [32], involving 35 Civil Engineering students from the Faculty of Engineering and Applied Sciences at Universidad de los Andes, Santiago, Chile. The analysis of students’ behavior revealed that ethical judgments tend to be stable in the successive phases of the activity. However, it was observed that judgments tended to change more in groups where greater discussion occurred, and that the converse also happened. For this reason, we then considered that a desirable modification to the activity would consist in automating group composition, in such way that students with different views are brought together. Heterogeneous student grouping was thus hypothesized to increase students’ interest in discussing the ethical case, and therefore, fostering a space where students have greater opportunity of modifying their ethical judgments as a result of argumentative and reflective processes in a social setting.
In [33], an experimental study was conducted with EthicApp in online mode, involving a cohort of 72 Civil Engineering students in the Professional Ethics Seminar course, in the same institution as in [32]. Greater chat interactions were observed among group peers in the heterogeneous grouping condition than in the random condition. In addition, it was identified, both in the heterogeneous and random grouping conditions, that the more chat messages were exchanged among the students, the more they produced argumentative discourse. Highly significant correlations were found among these variables. Lastly, it was found that male and female students benefit equally from the learning opportunities that are possible with the heterogeneous equally under the heterogeneous grouping condition, as no interaction effects were found among the quantity of chat message exchanges and gender.
In this chapter, we report on the development of EthicApp-RP, a social platform aimed at higher education settings, for fostering reflection and moral reasoning around ethical cases through a role-playing activity. In the following sections, we present the theoretical underpinnings of this research, the design principles of EthicApp-RP, the description of its instructional design, and a pilot study with business students to attest its technical and pedagogical usability, as well its effectiveness at fulfilling desirable qualities of role-playing activities in ethics education.
According to [34, 35], ethics is a systematic approach to understand, analyze and distinguish issues of right and wrong, good and bad, admirable and deplorable in their relation to well-being and relationships between sentient beings. Ethics is an active process rather than a static one, which is why some ethicists use the expression ‘doing ethics’. When people ‘do ethics’, they need to support their beliefs and claims with sound reasoning. In other words, even if people believe that ethics is totally subjective, they must be able to justify their positions before others through insights, reflections and arguments based on theory, context, rules, and rationality. In addition, feelings and emotions are a normal part of everyday life and can also play a legitimate role in ethics. However, people sometimes allow their emotions to outweigh good decisions related to ethics. Evaluations generated through the practice of ethics require a balance of emotion and reason. In contrast to ethics, morality is the set of beliefs, behaviors and specific ways of deriving from ethics. Morality can vary in a given population, depending on people’s education, beliefs, social situation and culture. A person’s morals are considered good or bad through systematic ethical discernment and reflection. The converse of morality is immorality, which means that a person’s behavior is contrary to accepted social, religious, cultural or professional ethical standards and principles. Examples of immorality include dishonesty, fraud, murder, and acts of sexual abuse. Amoral is a term used to refer to actions that can normally be judged as moral or immoral, but which are performed with a lack of concern for good behavior. For example, murder is immoral, but if a person commits it without any feeling of remorse, or perhaps even a sense of pleasure, they act amorally.
According to [13, 35], ethics is a set of concerns, rules, principles, virtues, values and decision processes that allow people to live together and pursue their common and individual interests. As already made clear above, in the news everyday situations are seen that violate ethical principles in general, with a wide range of consequences for companies and citizens. Therefore, pedagogical artifacts and practices must be provided, which meet usability criteria [36], designed to help students from a wide variety of professionals, to be more ethical when making decisions in their future work fields. Ethical decision-making and moral reasoning are fundamental for future professional success and can be achieved by developing the skills of reflection, argumentation, discernments and moral reasoning, while students participate and communicate among them with equal opportunities [12, 37, 38].
Ethical discernment is a characteristic of people that allows them to recognize the existence of an ethical dilemma, [20, 39]. The recognition of an ethical dilemma implies perceiving a problem or conflict in some situation or decision, whose dilemma becomes an ethical problem. It is considered that, if the ethical problem is not perceived, the process required to argue and reflect on ethical judgments will not happen [20, 39]. Therefore, it is necessary to distinguish both concepts: ethical dilemma and problem. An ethical dilemma exists when there is a situation where someone will consider one or more alternatives of action, including not acting at all, that are different consistent or inconsistent with some formal or informal rule, code or ethical norm [20]. An ethical problem does not exist until it is perceived as such, and then it happens that an attempt is made to resolve ethical dilemmas; that is, it occurs when a person perceives that their duties and responsibilities towards one group are inconsistent with their duties towards another group, including themselves. For the model developed by [20], only important ethical dilemmas will have an intense ethical conflict, provided that these are perceived as a type of problem. People often approach ethics with an initial expectation that there will be a correct answer to every question posed. It is important to help them accept the fact that there will not always be a correct answer, but one that requires personal judgment [40]. According to Kohlberg [29], ethical training should be encouraged, without limiting students to the role of mere spectators who only seek to apply the most appropriate ethical standard to each situation; but rather to carry out activities in which they participate, express, and make it easier for them to carry out their ethical evaluations, argued in an honest and authentic way, without feeling inhibited by their peers.
In [37, 40, 41], it is indicated that the key skills of ethical discernment are the following: a)
According to [35], there is a growing need for well-established ethical frameworks and practices in ethical training in business schools [13, 28, 42, 43, 44], and in engineering education [14, 15, 45, 46]; who have the responsibility of providing their students with training in their ethical discernment, argumentation and reflections [30]. According to [40], if a business or engineering schools provides what we call ‘reactive’ ethics education, which only serves to inform the practice of statutory and regulatory requirements and responsibility to shareholders, it is most likely that the organizations introduce procedures that merely comply with legal ethical business practice. However, for organizations to adopt an ethical stance and socially responsible thinking, they also need to be ‘proactive’, with fundamental ethics programs taught by business and engineering schools. A ‘proactive’ ethics education implies the development of flexible but ethical managerial thinking and practice, that can be applicable to different contexts. For this, it is necessary that business and engineering schools establish the importance of contributions that increase moral reasoning, the improvement of ethical training and the development of decision-making skills with an ethical approach and leadership. Boo and Koh’s research [47] identifies that top management support, with links between ethical behavior, professional success, and ethical organizational climate are all that is necessary for effective ethical codes. It could be argued that corporate malfeasance, as in Enron and Parmalat [48], would have been prevented by properly employing and monitoring ‘reactive’ and ‘proactive’ business ethics practices and procedures. Clearly more profound changes in culture are necessary, and values are needed in organizations to deal with these types of problems.
According to Holsapple et al. [15], teachers in engineering schools often describe ethics education as a balance between knowledge of ethical codes of conduct and understanding of ethical rights and errors. However, graduates often report that their ethical training relied almost entirely on the application of codes, implying less depth and complexity in the analysis of ethical dilemmas. While ethics is intended to be a central component of today’s engineering curriculum, it is often perceived as a marginal requirement that must be met [14]. According to [45], the pedagogy of ethics for engineers must consider the characteristics of thought inherent in the scientific training of students and their future professional approach. The authors characterize the mentality of engineers with the following description: the real world is what can be touched and measured, the prototype of rational thinking is mathematical-deductive reasoning, and the best results are obtained by following standard procedures. Therefore, it is a priority to recognize the difficulties of engineering students to recognize the value of ethics, along with moral discernment and reflection. In a systematic review of the literature on interventions for teaching engineering ethics in the USA, Hess and Fore [49] report that the most common methods involved exposing students to codes or standards, using case studies (cased-based learning) and discussions. They emphasize the need to develop learning experiences where students reflect on their own emotions and those of others, with greater empathy with the actors involved and the situations.
In [37], a quantitative grouping procedure was carried out to derive a typology of instruction in ethics education with respect to four categories of instruction. These include content, processes, methods of delivery, and instructional activities. Eight instructional approaches were identified through this grouping procedure, each with different levels of effectiveness based on one of nine commonly used ethical criteria. Viable approaches to ethics training, of which effect size estimates (i.e., Cohen’s
In the Faculty of Economics and Business at University of Chile, based on the contents of the cases described in [51], a methodology is applied based on a) case reading, b) identification of relevant actors, c) identification of premises in conflict, d) evaluation of alternatives and decision-making, and e) plenary discussion and conclusion in teams of 5 to 7 members, with the support of the socrative.com application to collect opinions. This methodology is applied in various courses requiring ethical education, such as Management and Business, Costs and Budgets, Business Income, Tax Economics, and Introduction to Economics, among others. Several advantages have been observed, including that the group discussion permits listening and analyzing diverse perspectives, improving the depth of analysis and discussion of the case and the ethical dilemmas identified. The moderator facilitates aspects to be debated and opens instances to spur students’ critical reasoning. The use of socrative.com allows to have a record of the conclusions of the groups, thus facilitating the teacher’s review after the session is finished. Among the cons, not all students’ opinions can be effectively captured, because some students are apprehensive about openly exposing their comments. Moreover, limitations on the quantity and quality of the interactions arise due to time restrictions, and that the activity is done in a single class session.
In [52], to establish the case, face-to-face interviews with people directly or indirectly involved with business ethical dilemmas in real life are organized in class, so the experience of the actors involved is counted on. Then a discussion is held among the participants based on a specific ethical dilemma. The advantage of this variant is that, by being in contact with the person interviewed, it is possible to have a more direct contact with the various ethical dilemmas that are experienced in the professional field. It is expected that this level of proximity to the problem will allow the generation of greater affective empathy in the students and thereby improve their decision-making in real situations, taking advantage of the ‘sensitization’ of the students as a benefit of the process. In addition, while discussing during class, students learn from each other by presenting their own arguments that support the decision made. As for the disadvantages, it requires great preparation to be carried out, since it implies counting on a person involved in a real case. A record of what was discussed with the interviewee is not generated, but only what was noted by the interviewers, so the teacher does not know the points discussed by the group at the time of generating the discussions. This methodology was applied to ethics courses at Kenan-Flagler Business School of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
The CBL is a useful method to bring students closer to real ethical and professional decisions, without the consequences that decision making entails for case roles and stakeholders in real situations. The method manages to generate both the capacity for critical analysis and cognitive empathy. Despite being a method with many advantages, its main disadvantage is its structuredness. Preparation of structured cases is required, with sufficient contextualization and depth to understand the problem and achieve a connection between the students and the roles. In contrast, real life scenarios are often ill-structured and decision making relies on limited information.
The method used in the York University School of Engineering [46] applies role-playing with theatrical elements to teach decision making on controversial ethical issues. The activity encompasses the following phases: a) role assignment: each student receives information on their role based on a script prepared by the teacher; b) discussion: the teacher presents questions about the case, and each student exposes and discusses their points of view, based on their role, in relation to these questions with their classmates; c) deepening: at some point in the discussion, the students can elaborate more detail about their positions, and expect their classmates to do so as well. With additional details provided by each role, the students can complete their analysis of the situation; d) plenary: after the discussions, the teacher begins a closing phase, in which the analyses achieved previously for each question are synthesized. Theatrical elements are used through the role-playing process, including costumes, music and other recorded media, which allow to further increase the credibility of the recreation. The authors who propose this activity [46] indicate advantages compared to other traditional methods, similar to those found other RPL designs, such as greater student involvement, engagement and dynamism in interactions. Among the disadvantages, it is indicated that a high degree of preparation is required, including the activity script, the description of the roles involved, as well as the theatrical resources that complement the exercise.
According to [43], who proposed an RPL activity that was incorporated into a financial management course for undergraduate and graduate students, RPL has the advantage of creating low-risk conditions so that students can express their opinions and perceptions with minimal teacher intervention. For RPL to be successful, the activity needs to be potentially conflictive, and ideally allow the majority of students to identify with some role, in order to encourage participation. The roles should result in personifications by which students can feel comfortable and immersed. Otherwise, the students will unlikely be able to imagine the actions the role would likely perform, nor relate their own experiences emphatically with the situation as experienced by the role.
The RPL is a dynamic and simple method to understand, and it allows to keep students more involved in the case or problem, since they internalize themselves from their role to defend their positions, and from where it is attractive to keep participating. As a general disadvantage, it is observed that identifying with a unique role in the game and defending their position from the perspective of that role, can cause students to then focus the solutions on the character they had to interpret, closing the possibility to the other characters or, sometimes, reducing the role of the decision-maker in the case.
Based on the analysis of literature in the field of ethics education already exposed in [32, 33], this section present the design principles for EthicApp-RP, comprising relevant functions for supporting case-based learning in ethics [31, 53, 54] and role-playing 43, 44, 46]. Its design principles are as: 1) embeddable in traditional courses, 2) easy to use, 3) implicit interactions to support student and teacher roles, 4) multidimensional judgements, 5) anonymity, 6) support for reflection, discussion and argumentation, 7) domain independency, 8) efficient information management, 9) combine individual work and group work, 10) Flexibility, and 11) device independence.
All these principles are explained in detail in section 5.1 of a previous research which instructional design were based entirely on a cased-based learning methodology, and applying differentials to the selection of statements [32]. Regarding to requirement 2) a desirable level of technical usability is given by mean score equal or above 75 in the System Usability Scale (SUS) [36]. For requirement 4) applied to EthicApp-RP, the students must express their ethical judgement on the given case by ordering (i.e., prioritizing) a set of actions, according to a prescribed criterion, and by providing justification on the ordering of one or more of the actions. The criterion prompts the student to reason according to their assigned role, and based on that specific perspective, prioritize decisions considering their effect on different stakeholders, with the intent to reach the most beneficial (or least detrimental) solution pathway to the ethical problem. In order to attest the qualities of requirement 6), mean scores in the range of 4 to 5 points in the constructs of the Pedagogically Meaningful Learning Questionnaire (PMLQ) [55], are considered a desirable objective. Regarding 19), EthicApp-RP supports flexibility in its pedagogical flow; that is, while the activity must always begin with a mandatory individual phase to collect students’ initial appraisal of the case, the successive phases, i.e., individual or collaborative, shall be optional and configured on-the-fly, thus allowing different phase configurations depending on timing constraints and pedagogical goals in which the activity is enacted, [37, 41].
The design of EthicApp-RP permits the teacher conducting role-playing activities comprising an arbitrary number of phases, including both individual and collaborative work. In spite of this flexibility, activities based on EthicApp-RP will commonly follow the jigsaw Collaborative Learning Flow Pattern [56]. Under this pattern, the activity is structured based on the following successive phases:
(a) Activity configuration panel, which allows the teacher to configure and start activity phases with different configuration parameters on the fly, (b) Teacher’s progress dashboard, where students’ and groups’ progress can be seen.
Students’ user interface, showing (a) the Individual Response phase, in which the student ranks actions and provides justification for it, (b) the ‘Expert Groups’ phase, in which students with the same role discuss their responses anonymously.
‘Social and Professional Environment’ is a compulsory, first-year course, in the curricula of ‘Information Engineering and Management Control’, and ‘Accounting and Auditing’ degrees at the Faculty of Economics and Business (‘Facultad de Economía y Negocios’, FEN) at Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile. This course aims that students reflect on current socio-environmental challenges in relation to their future professional occupations. Since 2013, Ethical Discernment (ED) was integrated as a transversal skill at FEN, thus it ceased being taught as a dedicated course. The ED competence is defined at FEN as
The course is focused on five main themes: 1) Sustainable Human Development, 2) Poverty and Inequality, 3) Education, 4) Citizen Participation, and 5) Multiculturalism and Gender. Critical discussion is fostered based on these themes, for which students are provided the pertaining literature. In each course topic, special attention is paid to students’ ability to analyze social problems and ethical issues raised, as well as establishing links with professional practice, and proposing possible solutions to the problems. Consistently with this rationale, the analysis of ethical dilemmas is part of the course methodology.
Due to the COVID19 pandemic in 2020, the development of the course was faced with the challenge of maintaining the active learning methods in an online format, as these were customary in face-to-face classes. For this reason, it was decided to pilot EthicApp-RP in the course, in order to facilitate conducting role-playing activities in the third course unit. An ad hoc ethical dilemma was written, based on the challenges that the country was experiencing due to the pandemic. The dilemma closely resembled the national reality at the time of the activity.
In total, 85 students participated in the trial activities, divided into two sections of 49 and 36 students, respectively. In both sections the activity lasted one hour, however, it was conducted at different times and guided by different teachers. Participation was entirely online, with use of Cisco Webex for synchronous communication.
Table 1 summarizes the steps followed in the pilot activity. Before class, the students had to study the case, which basically described the state of events in the Chilean education system in the midst of the COVID-19 crisis. In synthesis: The education system had been challenged with the need to migrate all levels of education to online formats. Adoption of online education meant that all educational levels had to sacrifice learning outcomes and contents, due to reduction of effective class time.
T | Description (T: Time in Minutes, A: Asynchronous) | |
---|---|---|
Before class | A | Students were announced that an ethical discernment activity would take place next class. They were asked to create their account at EthicApp-RP, and read the case text, available at the course website. |
Briefing | 5 | The students were welcomed to class, and the objective of the activity was presented. A general summary of the case was then displayed. |
Ethical Case Reading | 5 | The students entered EthicApp-RP with their credentials, and found the text of the case, so that they had it available during the activity. |
Individual Work Phase | 5 | Each student was assigned one of the following roles: Secretary of Education, Secretary of Finance, Head of Higher Education Students, Parents Association, and Association of School Principals, Teachers’ Union. Details about the assigned role and their participation in the case were provided as well. Each student had to individually adopt their role and prioritize the actions. |
Expert Groups Phase | 15 | Groups of 4–5 students were formed, with all students having the same role. Each group was asked to first reflect on the case and the actions proposed. Then, students in their assigned roles were asked to take a position in the case, by prioritizing the actions, and providing justification for the chosen prioritization. |
Mixed Groups Phase | 15 | New groups were formed, this time composed of students with different roles. Each student had to defend the interests associated with their role. Then each student was again asked to prioritize the lines of action, and to provide justification for the prioritization, considering the discussion that just took place in the mixed group. |
Plenary Discussion | 15 | A final plenary session was held, where each heterogeneous group (i.e., from the previous phase) presented their prioritization to the rest of the class. The discussion emphasized the importance of considering the stakeholders of interest in the decision-making process, as well as the changes in prioritizations found through the three previous activity phases. Lastly, the students were asked to share their impressions and feedback on the activity through a survey at menti.com. |
Description of the role-playing activity based on EthicApp-RP.
In the individual work phase, each student was assigned the role of a decision maker, automatically, by EthicApp-RP (see Table 1). According to the assigned role, each student had to prioritize a set of actions to cope with the crisis (see Table 2). The intent was that each student prioritized the actions considering resource limitations, and the interests of the stakeholders they represented and society as a whole. Next, the ‘Expert Groups’, ‘Mixed Groups’ and ‘Plenary Discussion’ phases ensued.
ID | Action | Description |
---|---|---|
A1 | Hygiene & Security | Purchase of hygiene and safety products for a ‘safe return’ to classrooms in public schools. |
A2 | Special Educators | Hire of educators who can remotely provide personalized attention to students with special learning needs. |
A3 | Devices and Connectivity | Delivery of computers and internet connectivity to students in the 40% most vulnerable families, so that they can connect to classes. |
A4 | Teacher Salaries | Payment of salaries to teachers of private and subsidized schools, to ensure the continuity of the provision of educational services. |
A5 | 11-12th Grade Tutors | Reinforcement sessions for 11th and 12th grade students, so that they can sit higher education admissions tests in better conditions. |
A6 | University Funding | Subsidy to universities for the payment of additional salaries to teachers, allowing to provide an additional summer semester to students at no cost. |
List of actions prioritized by the different roles in the activity.
The entirety of the cohort, i.e., 85 students, connected to EthicApp-RP at the beginning of the activity. However, two students entered late and were not assigned to a group, thus only 83 participated in the first phase, and 81 thereby submitted their response. In the role assignment performed by EthicApp-RP in phase 1 (i.e., ‘Individual response’), there were between 13 and 15 students assigned to each role. The roles were assigned to the students in the following quantities: Secretary of Education to 15 students, Secretary of Finance to 14, Head of Higher Education Students to 14, Parents Association to 13, Association of School Principals to 13, and Teachers’ Union to 14 students.
In phase 2 (i.e., ‘Expert Groups’), 81 students participated. In the first section, the groups were more numerous, composed of 7 to 9 students, while in the second section, the groups involved from 5 to 7 students. Finally, in the third phase (i.e., ‘Mixed Groups’), 80 students submitted responses.
Regarding chat messages, a significant increase was observed between phases 2 and 3 (see Figure 3-left), especially in the roles of Secretary of Education, Secretary of Finance, and Head of Higher Education Students. This is an expected behavior in mixed groups, since in previous studies it has been determined that in groups where there are different points of view, the discussion is greater than in groups with more homogeneous views [32].
At the left, number of chat messages per role and phase. At the right, distribution of chat messages per role and phase.
The distributions of chat messages per student considering the different roles follow a similar trend to that observed with respect to the totality of messages by role (see Figure 3-right). In particular, in phase 3, certain outliers are observed for the roles of Secretary of Education and Secretary of Finance.
Through the successive phases of the activity, all roles placed action A3 – ‘Devices and Connectivity’ as the first priority, and the last priority was that of A6 – ‘University Funding’ (see Figure 4). It can be seen that the priorities evolved throughout the three phases; however, the first three priorities remained relatively stable. Apart from the first priority already mentioned, in second place of priorities, the action A4 – ‘Teacher Salaries’ dominated in the three phases, and in the third place, there was a similar number of preferences for A5 – ‘11-12th Grade Tutors’, A4 – ‘Teacher Salaries’, and A2 – ‘Special Educators’.
Frequency of action rankings per phase.
Figure 5 shows Sankey networks depicting how first priority preferences evolved in each of the roles through the three phases. It can be seen that the first priority varies according to each role. Notably, in the first phase, the first priority for the secretaries of Education (a) and Finance (b) is distributed in four actions. In contrast, for Teachers’ Union and Parents Association, the action A3 – ‘Devices and Connectivity’ clearly dominates. In the case of Principals, there are three priority actions, and in the case of the Head of Higher Education Students, action A3 is dominant, and three other actions have less weight.
Sankey charts depicting the evolution of the first priority chosen by students with different roles throughout the activity.
In the second phase, of expert groups, the first priority was changed in each of the roles. In the case of the Secretary of Education, A3 starts to acquire major importance. In the case of the Secretary of Finance, A1 – ‘Hygiene and Security’ acquires much greater importance than in the first phase. For the Teacher’s Union role, A3 increases its importance, with only one participant who maintained their preference for A2 – ‘Special Educators’. All of the students with the role of Parents Association representatives prioritized A3 first. The representatives of the Association of School Principals maintained the same actions in first priority, increasing in importance A1. Finally, for Head of Higher Education Students, A3 increases its importance and a student appears prioritizing A1 first.
In the third phase, only the role of Secretary of Finance maintains a prioritization where A1 and A3 are equally divided in first place. For all other roles, action A3 takes on the highest importance.
To determine the students’ perception of technical usability of EthicApp-RP, the SUS questionnaire, based on 10 Likert 1–5 scale items [36] was administered in online format to the participating students, [57]. A total of 39 responses were gathered, of which two responses were ruled out as invalid, thus 37 responses are considered in this analysis. The distribution of scores is shown in Figure 6. The mean score was 78.6/100 (SD = 13.8), the minimum was 47.5 points, the median 75, and the maximum 100. Only four students (11% of responses) gave a score lower than 68, which is considered average usability according to [36].
Distribution of EthicApp-RP SUS scores.
Table 3 shows the items from the SUS questionnaire, with their respective descriptive statistics. Students consider the use of the relevant tool in university courses (question 1). On the other hand, it is observed that the application was, on average, easy to learn to use (question 3), without the students having received training prior to the activity carried out. Also, the functions are easy to remember (question 4) and understand (question 5) for most students.
N | Item | ||
---|---|---|---|
1 | I think that I would like to use EthicApp-RP frequently in university courses. | 4.38 | 0.70 |
2 | I found EthicApp-RP unnecessarily complex. | 1.80 | 0.85 |
3 | I thought EthicApp-RP was easy to use. | 4.25 | 0.63 |
4 | I think that I would need the support of a technical person to be able to use EthicApp-RP. | 2.20 | 1.04 |
5 | I found the various functions in EthicApp-RP were well integrated. | 4.25 | 0.71 |
6 | I thought there was too much inconsistency in EthicApp-RP. | 1.88 | 0.79 |
7 | I would imagine that most people would learn to use EthicApp-RP very quickly. | 4.30 | 0.52 |
8 | I found EthicApp-RP very cumbersome to use. | 1.52 | 0.72 |
9 | I felt very confident using EthicApp-RP. | 4.03 | 0.80 |
10 | I needed to learn a lot of things before I could get going with EthicApp-RP. | 2.17 | 1.01 |
EthicApp-RP Usability Scale results.
The evaluation of Pedagogical Usability, that is, the appraisal of the pedagogical qualities of the design and the use of EthicApp-RP, was carried out through an adaptation of the Pedagogically Meaningful Learning Questionnaire (PMLQ) [55], with a total of 34 Likert items in a 1–5 scale, [58]. This instrument allows evaluating pedagogical usability considering a series of criteria, as shown in Table 4. PMLQ was applied in conjunction with SUS, hence the same number of valid responses was obtained, i.e., 37 out of a total of 39.
Construct | Abbrev. | Items | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Applicability | AP | 5 | 4.48 | 0.45 |
Added Value | AV | 3 | 4.42 | 0.55 |
Cooperative/Collaborative Learning | CL | 3 | 4.57 | 0.59 |
Feedback | FE | 3 | 4.41 | 0.54 |
Flexibility | FL | 4 | 4.44 | 0.50 |
Goal Orientation | GO | 3 | 4.47 | 0.55 |
Learner Activity | LA | 3 | 4.13 | 0.61 |
Learner Control | LC | 4 | 4.35 | 0.60 |
Motivation | MO | 3 | 4.53 | 0.45 |
Valuation of previous knowledge | VP | 3 | 4.49 | 0.52 |
Results of the PMLQ instrument, by construct.
It is observed that in every construct the average score obtained is in within the range of 4–5, which meets the pedagogical usability goals established at the outset of EthicApp-RP’s development process.
Students’ written justifications in the EthicApp-RP activity were analyzed for complexity of ethical reasoning. For this, the rubric of the Association of American Colleges and Universities (AAC&U) on Ethical Reasoning was used [59]. This rubric was preferred, since it was developed by teams of faculty experts representing colleges and universities across the United States, “
Level | Description |
---|---|
Benchmark (1) | Student states a position but cannot state the objections to and assumptions and limitations of the different perspectives/concepts. |
Milestone A (2) | Student states a position and can state the objections to, assumptions and implications of different ethical perspectives/concepts but does not respond to them (and ultimately objections, assumptions, and implications are compartmentalized by student and do not affect student’s position.) |
Milestone B (3) | Student states a position and can state the objections to, assumptions and implications of, and respond to the objections to, assumptions and implications of different ethical perspectives/concepts, but the student’s response is inadequate. |
Capstone (4) | Student states a position and can note the objections to, assumptions and implications of and can reasonably defend against the objections to, assumptions and implications of different ethical perspectives/concepts, and the student’s defense is adequate and effective. |
Ethical Reasoning Value Rubric (AAC&U) criteria used in classification of students’ justifications, according to [59].
Each of the students’ justifications was analyzed and scored by one of the researchers. Later, another researcher assigned scores and the differences were discussed. Only in four cases out of 717 registered justifications it was necessary to make an adjustment to the assigned score.
Students who were assigned a score of 1 to their justifications (46%), normally used the same measure as justification or stated comments as ‘it was the most important’. Students who were assigned a score of 2 (40%), were able to relate at least one variable or different perspective as part of the justification but did not explore further possible implications in their statements. The students who had a score of 3 (5%), managed to incorporate different perspectives, but their base assumption was inadequate, so the justification lost sense. Lastly, 9% of the students reached the maximum score. This result was expected, because the students are in the first year of their studies, and the ethical discrimination competence is developed throughout the duration of the entire program. Those students who achieved the maximum score, probably had a previous development of the competence, because this was the first activity of this type that was developed in the subject.
At the end of each session in the trial, the students were asked to give their opinion on the activity through a short comment. The collection of this information was carried out through menti.com. In total, 58 comments from students were collected. In sum, 20 different themes were identified in the responses through an inductive process. Figure 7 shows the percentage of responses found involving each of the themes. The dominant themes were that the activity was fun (39.7%), interesting (12.1%), and that it allowed the students to share different points of view (32.8%) through discussions (13.8%) and debate (6.9%). In some cases, the students declared having engaged in heated debates and arguments with their peers (6.9%). Many highlighted the challenge of reaching a consensus (12.1%), given the different views that the adoption of the different roles led to. On the other hand, some of the students stated that the activity required them to think empathically (8.6%) with regard to the implications of their decisions in the lives of people affected by the pandemic, as well as the decisions made by other roles.
Theme categories found in students’ feedback.
In this chapter we presented EthicApp-RP, a social platform aimed at fostering ethical reasoning, discussion and argumentation in higher education students, through a role-playing learning activity based on the jigsaw pattern. The results of the pilot activity show that the instructional design can be well enacted with business students in a synchronous online setting, that technical (see section 6.1) and pedagogical usability (see section 6.2) are positively regarded by the students, and the pedagogical goals of the activity were effectively fulfilled. The latter included eliciting students’ reflection, argumentation, ethical discernments and moral reasoning through role-playing, while providing all students with equal opportunities for participation.
Sankey network analysis revealed that the students made decisions throughout the activity phases in ways in which their effective role personification was achieved, while they were doing discernment, reflection and argumentation processes by online chat messages. In addition, the justifications with which the students ranked the actions hierarchically, shows that 40% of the cohort was able to give an elaborate argument for their decisions, and 9% provided justifications of an outstanding level, which is a positive result considering the cohort was composed of business freshmen. The students considered the activity to be fun, interesting and that it fostered discussion and sharing of different points of view.
Compared to other role-playing learning activities, EthicApp-RP requires minimal logistical preparation, as the tool transparently guides students through the process, facilitating information sharing and synchronous communication among them. Furthermore, the teacher can follow the development of the activity using a progress dashboard in real time that EthicApp-RP has as a functionality. Requirements for case specification remain similar to other role-playing learning activities reported in the literature. These include the elaboration of a case based on a real or fictious situation comprising one or more ethical dilemmas, and the definition of several decision-making roles with different interests and priorities. EthicApp-RP’s requirements and features make it applicable to a wide variety of learning domains and contexts in higher education, including disciplines in both science and the humanities.
This research was funded by ‘Concurso de Proyectos de Investigación – FEN 2020’, and CONICYT/FONDECYT Initiation into Research grant 11160211.
IntechOpen implements a robust policy to minimize and deal with instances of fraud or misconduct. As part of our general commitment to transparency and openness, and in order to maintain high scientific standards, we have a well-defined editorial policy regarding Retractions and Corrections.
",metaTitle:"Retraction and Correction Policy",metaDescription:"Retraction and Correction Policy",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/retraction-and-correction-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"IntechOpen’s Retraction and Correction Policy has been developed in accordance with the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) publication guidelines relating to scientific misconduct and research ethics:
\\n\\n1. RETRACTIONS
\\n\\nA Retraction of a Chapter will be issued by the Academic Editor, either following an Author’s request to do so or when there is a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct. Upon receipt of a report by a 3rd party, the Academic Editor will investigate any allegations of scientific misconduct, working in cooperation with the Author(s) and their institution(s).
\\n\\nA formal Retraction will be issued when there is clear and conclusive evidence of any of the following:
\\n\\nPublishing of a Retraction Notice will adhere to the following guidelines:
\\n\\n1.2. REMOVALS AND CANCELLATIONS
\\n\\n2. STATEMENTS OF CONCERN
\\n\\nA Statement of Concern detailing alleged misconduct will be issued by the Academic Editor or publisher following a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct when:
\\n\\nIntechOpen believes that the number of occasions on which a Statement of Concern is issued will be very few in number. In all cases when such a decision has been taken by the Academic Editor the decision will be reviewed by another editor to whom the author can make representations.
\\n\\n3. CORRECTIONS
\\n\\nA Correction will be issued by the Academic Editor when:
\\n\\n3.1. ERRATUM
\\n\\nAn Erratum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter originates from the production process handled by the publisher.
\\n\\nA published Erratum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\\n\\n3.2. CORRIGENDUM
\\n\\nA Corrigendum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter is a result of an Author’s miscalculation or oversight. A published Corrigendum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\\n\\n4. FINAL REMARKS
\\n\\nIntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
\\n\\nIn the case of Retraction or removal of the Work, the publisher will be under no obligation to refund the APC.
\\n\\nThe general principles set out above apply to Retractions and Corrections issued in all IntechOpen publications.
\\n\\nAny suggestions or comments on this Policy are welcome and may be sent to permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2017-09-11
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen’s Retraction and Correction Policy has been developed in accordance with the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) publication guidelines relating to scientific misconduct and research ethics:
\n\n1. RETRACTIONS
\n\nA Retraction of a Chapter will be issued by the Academic Editor, either following an Author’s request to do so or when there is a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct. Upon receipt of a report by a 3rd party, the Academic Editor will investigate any allegations of scientific misconduct, working in cooperation with the Author(s) and their institution(s).
\n\nA formal Retraction will be issued when there is clear and conclusive evidence of any of the following:
\n\nPublishing of a Retraction Notice will adhere to the following guidelines:
\n\n1.2. REMOVALS AND CANCELLATIONS
\n\n2. STATEMENTS OF CONCERN
\n\nA Statement of Concern detailing alleged misconduct will be issued by the Academic Editor or publisher following a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct when:
\n\nIntechOpen believes that the number of occasions on which a Statement of Concern is issued will be very few in number. In all cases when such a decision has been taken by the Academic Editor the decision will be reviewed by another editor to whom the author can make representations.
\n\n3. CORRECTIONS
\n\nA Correction will be issued by the Academic Editor when:
\n\n3.1. ERRATUM
\n\nAn Erratum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter originates from the production process handled by the publisher.
\n\nA published Erratum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\n\n3.2. CORRIGENDUM
\n\nA Corrigendum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter is a result of an Author’s miscalculation or oversight. A published Corrigendum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\n\n4. FINAL REMARKS
\n\nIntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
\n\nIn the case of Retraction or removal of the Work, the publisher will be under no obligation to refund the APC.
\n\nThe general principles set out above apply to Retractions and Corrections issued in all IntechOpen publications.
\n\nAny suggestions or comments on this Policy are welcome and may be sent to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2017-09-11
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5818},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5287},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1757},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10539},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:909},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15929}],offset:12,limit:12,total:119317},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"12"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10760",title:"Steppe Biome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"982f06cee6ee2f27339f3c263b3e6560",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10760.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10763",title:"Biodiversity of Ecosystems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c96b42d4539957c58dfc2eb8fd9ffc21",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Levente Hufnagel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10763.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"10864",title:"Dr.",name:"Levente",surname:"Hufnagel",slug:"levente-hufnagel",fullName:"Levente Hufnagel"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10766",title:"Landscape Architecture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"bf47534a17fef030dc256b541482553c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr.Ing. Mustafa Ergen and Associate Prof. Yasar Bahri Ergen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10766.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"166961",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Mustafa",surname:"Ergen",slug:"mustafa-ergen",fullName:"Mustafa Ergen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10845",title:"Marine Ecosystems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"b369ac809068d2ebf1f8c26418cc6bec",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10845.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10846",title:"Stormwater",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9bfae8caba192ce3ab6744c9cbefa210",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10846.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:27},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:47},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8472",title:"Bioactive Compounds in Nutraceutical and Functional Food for Good Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8855452919b8495810ef8e88641feb20",slug:"bioactive-compounds-in-nutraceutical-and-functional-food-for-good-human-health",bookSignature:"Kavita Sharma, Kanchan Mishra, Kula Kamal Senapati and Corina Danciu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8472.jpg",editors:[{id:"197731",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavita",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"kavita-sharma",fullName:"Kavita Sharma"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9685",title:"Agroecosystems",subtitle:"Very Complex Environmental Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c44f7b43a9f9610c243dc32300d37df6",slug:"agroecosystems-very-complex-environmental-systems",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9685.jpg",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8564",title:"Cell Interaction",subtitle:"Molecular and Immunological Basis for Disease Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"98d7f080d80524285f091e72a8e92a6d",slug:"cell-interaction-molecular-and-immunological-basis-for-disease-management",bookSignature:"Bhawana Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8564.jpg",editors:[{id:"315192",title:"Dr.",name:"Bhawana",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"bhawana-singh",fullName:"Bhawana Singh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9629",title:"Electroencephalography",subtitle:"From Basic Research to Clinical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8147834b6c6deeeec40f407c71ad60b4",slug:"electroencephalography-from-basic-research-to-clinical-applications",bookSignature:"Hideki Nakano",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9629.jpg",editors:[{id:"196461",title:"Prof.",name:"Hideki",middleName:null,surname:"Nakano",slug:"hideki-nakano",fullName:"Hideki Nakano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9161",title:"Frailty in the Elderly",subtitle:"Understanding and Managing Complexity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a4f0f2fade8fb8ba35c405f5ad31a823",slug:"frailty-in-the-elderly-understanding-and-managing-complexity",bookSignature:"Sara Palermo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9161.jpg",editors:[{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8760",title:"Structure Topology and Symplectic Geometry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8974840985ec3652492c83e20233bf02",slug:"structure-topology-and-symplectic-geometry",bookSignature:"Kamal Shah and Min Lei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8760.jpg",editors:[{id:"231748",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"kamal-shah",fullName:"Kamal Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"2160",title:"MATLAB",subtitle:"A Fundamental Tool for Scientific Computing and Engineering Applications - Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd9c658341fbd264ed4f8d9e6aa8ca29",slug:"matlab-a-fundamental-tool-for-scientific-computing-and-engineering-applications-volume-1",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Katsikis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2160.jpg",editors:[{id:"12289",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasilios",middleName:"N.",surname:"Katsikis",slug:"vasilios-katsikis",fullName:"Vasilios Katsikis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"3568",title:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"830bbb601742c85a3fb0eeafe1454c43",slug:"recent-advances-in-plant-in-vitro-culture",bookSignature:"Annarita Leva and Laura M. R. Rinaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3568.jpg",editors:[{id:"142145",title:"Dr.",name:"Annarita",middleName:null,surname:"Leva",slug:"annarita-leva",fullName:"Annarita Leva"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7031",title:"Liver Pathology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"631321b0565459ed0175917f1c8c727f",slug:"liver-pathology",bookSignature:"Vijay Gayam and Omer Engin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7031.jpg",editors:[{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"3560",title:"Advances in Landscape Architecture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a20614517ec5f7e91188fe8e42832138",slug:"advances-in-landscape-architecture",bookSignature:"Murat Özyavuz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3560.jpg",editors:[{id:"93073",title:"Dr.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Ozyavuz",slug:"murat-ozyavuz",fullName:"Murat Ozyavuz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8511",title:"Cyberspace",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8c1cdeb133dbe6cc1151367061c1bba6",slug:"cyberspace",bookSignature:"Evon Abu-Taieh, Abdelkrim El Mouatasim and Issam H. Al Hadid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8511.jpg",editors:[{id:"223522",title:"Dr.",name:"Evon",middleName:"M.O.",surname:"Abu-Taieh",slug:"evon-abu-taieh",fullName:"Evon Abu-Taieh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5319},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8472",title:"Bioactive Compounds in Nutraceutical and Functional Food for Good Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8855452919b8495810ef8e88641feb20",slug:"bioactive-compounds-in-nutraceutical-and-functional-food-for-good-human-health",bookSignature:"Kavita Sharma, Kanchan Mishra, Kula Kamal Senapati and Corina Danciu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8472.jpg",editors:[{id:"197731",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavita",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"kavita-sharma",fullName:"Kavita Sharma"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9685",title:"Agroecosystems",subtitle:"Very Complex Environmental Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c44f7b43a9f9610c243dc32300d37df6",slug:"agroecosystems-very-complex-environmental-systems",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9685.jpg",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8564",title:"Cell Interaction",subtitle:"Molecular and Immunological Basis for Disease Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"98d7f080d80524285f091e72a8e92a6d",slug:"cell-interaction-molecular-and-immunological-basis-for-disease-management",bookSignature:"Bhawana Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8564.jpg",editors:[{id:"315192",title:"Dr.",name:"Bhawana",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"bhawana-singh",fullName:"Bhawana Singh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9629",title:"Electroencephalography",subtitle:"From Basic Research to Clinical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8147834b6c6deeeec40f407c71ad60b4",slug:"electroencephalography-from-basic-research-to-clinical-applications",bookSignature:"Hideki Nakano",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9629.jpg",editors:[{id:"196461",title:"Prof.",name:"Hideki",middleName:null,surname:"Nakano",slug:"hideki-nakano",fullName:"Hideki Nakano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8760",title:"Structure Topology and Symplectic Geometry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8974840985ec3652492c83e20233bf02",slug:"structure-topology-and-symplectic-geometry",bookSignature:"Kamal Shah and Min Lei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8760.jpg",editors:[{id:"231748",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"kamal-shah",fullName:"Kamal Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9161",title:"Frailty in the Elderly",subtitle:"Understanding and Managing Complexity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a4f0f2fade8fb8ba35c405f5ad31a823",slug:"frailty-in-the-elderly-understanding-and-managing-complexity",bookSignature:"Sara Palermo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9161.jpg",editors:[{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"2160",title:"MATLAB",subtitle:"A Fundamental Tool for Scientific Computing and Engineering Applications - Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd9c658341fbd264ed4f8d9e6aa8ca29",slug:"matlab-a-fundamental-tool-for-scientific-computing-and-engineering-applications-volume-1",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Katsikis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2160.jpg",editors:[{id:"12289",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasilios",middleName:"N.",surname:"Katsikis",slug:"vasilios-katsikis",fullName:"Vasilios Katsikis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7031",title:"Liver Pathology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"631321b0565459ed0175917f1c8c727f",slug:"liver-pathology",bookSignature:"Vijay Gayam and Omer Engin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7031.jpg",editors:[{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"3568",title:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"830bbb601742c85a3fb0eeafe1454c43",slug:"recent-advances-in-plant-in-vitro-culture",bookSignature:"Annarita Leva and Laura M. R. Rinaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3568.jpg",editors:[{id:"142145",title:"Dr.",name:"Annarita",middleName:null,surname:"Leva",slug:"annarita-leva",fullName:"Annarita Leva"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9515",title:"Update in Geriatrics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"913e16c0ae977474b283bbd4269564c8",slug:"update-in-geriatrics",bookSignature:"Somchai Amornyotin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9515.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185484",title:"Prof.",name:"Somchai",middleName:null,surname:"Amornyotin",slug:"somchai-amornyotin",fullName:"Somchai Amornyotin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9021",title:"Novel Perspectives of Stem Cell Manufacturing and Therapies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"522c6db871783d2a11c17b83f1fd4e18",slug:"novel-perspectives-of-stem-cell-manufacturing-and-therapies",bookSignature:"Diana Kitala and Ana Colette Maurício",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9021.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"203598",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Diana",middleName:null,surname:"Kitala",slug:"diana-kitala",fullName:"Diana Kitala"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7030",title:"Satellite Systems",subtitle:"Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9db6d2645ef248ceb1b33ea75f38e88",slug:"satellite-systems-design-modeling-simulation-and-analysis",bookSignature:"Tien Nguyen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7030.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"210657",title:"Dr.",name:"Tien M.",middleName:"Manh",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"tien-m.-nguyen",fullName:"Tien M. Nguyen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10413",title:"A Collection of Papers on Chaos Theory and Its Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"900b71b164948830fec3d6254b7881f7",slug:"a-collection-of-papers-on-chaos-theory-and-its-applications",bookSignature:"Paul Bracken and Dimo I. Uzunov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10413.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92883",title:"Prof.",name:"Paul",middleName:null,surname:"Bracken",slug:"paul-bracken",fullName:"Paul Bracken"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9154",title:"Spinal Deformities in Adolescents, Adults and Older Adults",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"313f1dffa803b60a14ff1e6966e93d91",slug:"spinal-deformities-in-adolescents-adults-and-older-adults",bookSignature:"Josette Bettany-Saltikov and Gokulakannan Kandasamy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9154.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"94802",title:"Dr.",name:"Josette",middleName:null,surname:"Bettany-Saltikov",slug:"josette-bettany-saltikov",fullName:"Josette Bettany-Saltikov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8148",title:"Investment Strategies in Emerging New Trends in Finance",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3b714d96a68d2acdfbd7b50aba6504ca",slug:"investment-strategies-in-emerging-new-trends-in-finance",bookSignature:"Reza Gharoie Ahangar and Asma Salman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8148.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"91081",title:"Dr.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Gharoie Ahangar",slug:"reza-gharoie-ahangar",fullName:"Reza Gharoie Ahangar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10201",title:"Post-Transition Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cc7f53ff5269916e3ce29f65a51a87ae",slug:"post-transition-metals",bookSignature:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman, Abdullah Mohammed Asiri, Anish Khan, Inamuddin and Thamer Tabbakh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10201.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9959",title:"Biomedical Signal and Image Processing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"22b87a09bd6df065d78c175235d367c8",slug:"biomedical-signal-and-image-processing",bookSignature:"Yongxia Zhou",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9959.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"259308",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongxia",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"yongxia-zhou",fullName:"Yongxia Zhou"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8472",title:"Bioactive Compounds in Nutraceutical and Functional Food for Good Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8855452919b8495810ef8e88641feb20",slug:"bioactive-compounds-in-nutraceutical-and-functional-food-for-good-human-health",bookSignature:"Kavita Sharma, Kanchan Mishra, Kula Kamal Senapati and Corina Danciu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8472.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"197731",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavita",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"kavita-sharma",fullName:"Kavita Sharma"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8760",title:"Structure Topology and Symplectic Geometry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8974840985ec3652492c83e20233bf02",slug:"structure-topology-and-symplectic-geometry",bookSignature:"Kamal Shah and Min Lei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8760.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"231748",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"kamal-shah",fullName:"Kamal Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"906",title:"Bacteriology",slug:"pure-microbiology-bacteriology",parent:{title:"Pure Microbiology",slug:"pure-microbiology"},numberOfBooks:2,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:46,numberOfWosCitations:22,numberOfCrossrefCitations:21,numberOfDimensionsCitations:36,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"pure-microbiology-bacteriology",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"5831",title:"Clostridium Difficile",subtitle:"A Comprehensive Overview",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fabbec5ed99960d2fb904f16790e8b97",slug:"clostridium-difficile-a-comprehensive-overview",bookSignature:"Shymaa Enany",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5831.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",slug:"shymaa-enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5471",title:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"514afc8c2d4eb28ddca22c032ad96d9e",slug:"frontiers-in-i-staphylococcus-aureus-i-",bookSignature:"Shymaa Enany and Laura E. Crotty Alexander",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5471.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",slug:"shymaa-enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:2,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"54154",doi:"10.5772/67338",title:"Staphylococcus aureus: Overview of Bacteriology, Clinical Diseases, Epidemiology, Antibiotic Resistance and Therapeutic Approach",slug:"staphylococcus-aureus-overview-of-bacteriology-clinical-diseases-epidemiology-antibiotic-resistance-",totalDownloads:5558,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:12,book:{slug:"frontiers-in-i-staphylococcus-aureus-i-",title:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus",fullTitle:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus"},signatures:"Arumugam Gnanamani, Periasamy Hariharan and Maneesh Paul-\nSatyaseela",authors:[{id:"192829",title:"Dr.",name:"Arumugam",middleName:null,surname:"Gnanamani",slug:"arumugam-gnanamani",fullName:"Arumugam Gnanamani"},{id:"204388",title:"Dr.",name:"Periasamy",middleName:null,surname:"Hariharan",slug:"periasamy-hariharan",fullName:"Periasamy Hariharan"},{id:"204389",title:"Dr.",name:"Maneesh",middleName:null,surname:"Paul-Satyaseela",slug:"maneesh-paul-satyaseela",fullName:"Maneesh Paul-Satyaseela"}]},{id:"53782",doi:"10.5772/66645",title:"Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in Food- Producing and Companion Animals and Food Products",slug:"methicillin-resistant-staphylococcus-aureus-mrsa-in-food-producing-and-companion-animals-and-food-pr",totalDownloads:2233,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:11,book:{slug:"frontiers-in-i-staphylococcus-aureus-i-",title:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus",fullTitle:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus"},signatures:"Jungwhan Chon, Kidon Sung and Saeed Khan",authors:[{id:"189634",title:"Dr.",name:"Kidon",middleName:null,surname:"Sung",slug:"kidon-sung",fullName:"Kidon Sung"},{id:"190400",title:"Dr.",name:"Jungwhan",middleName:null,surname:"Chon",slug:"jungwhan-chon",fullName:"Jungwhan Chon"},{id:"190401",title:"Dr.",name:"Saeed",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"saeed-khan",fullName:"Saeed Khan"}]},{id:"52755",doi:"10.5772/65978",title:"Bee Products and Essential Oils as Alternative Agents for Treatment of Infections Caused by S. aureus",slug:"bee-products-and-essential-oils-as-alternative-agents-for-treatment-of-infections-caused-by-s-aureus",totalDownloads:1467,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"frontiers-in-i-staphylococcus-aureus-i-",title:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus",fullTitle:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus"},signatures:"Piotr Szweda and Barbara Kot",authors:[{id:"117528",title:"Dr.",name:"Szweda",middleName:null,surname:"Piotr",slug:"szweda-piotr",fullName:"Szweda Piotr"},{id:"189685",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Barbara",middleName:null,surname:"Kot",slug:"barbara-kot",fullName:"Barbara Kot"},{id:"195004",title:"Dr.",name:"Barbara",middleName:null,surname:"Kot",slug:"barbara-kot",fullName:"Barbara Kot"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"54154",title:"Staphylococcus aureus: Overview of Bacteriology, Clinical Diseases, Epidemiology, Antibiotic Resistance and Therapeutic Approach",slug:"staphylococcus-aureus-overview-of-bacteriology-clinical-diseases-epidemiology-antibiotic-resistance-",totalDownloads:5558,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:12,book:{slug:"frontiers-in-i-staphylococcus-aureus-i-",title:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus",fullTitle:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus"},signatures:"Arumugam Gnanamani, Periasamy Hariharan and Maneesh Paul-\nSatyaseela",authors:[{id:"192829",title:"Dr.",name:"Arumugam",middleName:null,surname:"Gnanamani",slug:"arumugam-gnanamani",fullName:"Arumugam Gnanamani"},{id:"204388",title:"Dr.",name:"Periasamy",middleName:null,surname:"Hariharan",slug:"periasamy-hariharan",fullName:"Periasamy Hariharan"},{id:"204389",title:"Dr.",name:"Maneesh",middleName:null,surname:"Paul-Satyaseela",slug:"maneesh-paul-satyaseela",fullName:"Maneesh Paul-Satyaseela"}]},{id:"55751",title:"Overview of Clostridium difficile Infection: Life Cycle, Epidemiology, Antimicrobial Resistance and Treatment",slug:"overview-of-clostridium-difficile-infection-life-cycle-epidemiology-antimicrobial-resistance-and-tre",totalDownloads:2124,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"clostridium-difficile-a-comprehensive-overview",title:"Clostridium Difficile",fullTitle:"Clostridium Difficile - A Comprehensive Overview"},signatures:"Joana Isidro, Aristides L. Mendes, Mónica Serrano, Adriano O.\nHenriques and Mónica Oleastro",authors:[{id:"164933",title:"Prof.",name:"Mónica Alexandra",middleName:null,surname:"Sousa Oleastro",slug:"monica-alexandra-sousa-oleastro",fullName:"Mónica Alexandra Sousa Oleastro"},{id:"200015",title:"Dr.",name:"Joana",middleName:null,surname:"Isidro",slug:"joana-isidro",fullName:"Joana Isidro"},{id:"200016",title:"MSc.",name:"Aristides",middleName:null,surname:"Mendes",slug:"aristides-mendes",fullName:"Aristides Mendes"},{id:"200017",title:"Prof.",name:"Mónica",middleName:null,surname:"Serrano",slug:"monica-serrano",fullName:"Mónica Serrano"},{id:"200019",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:null,surname:"Henriques",slug:"adriano-henriques",fullName:"Adriano Henriques"}]},{id:"53534",title:"Role of Nasal Staphylococcus aureus Carriage in Transmission Among Contact Athletes",slug:"role-of-nasal-staphylococcus-aureus-carriage-in-transmission-among-contact-athletes",totalDownloads:1053,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"frontiers-in-i-staphylococcus-aureus-i-",title:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus",fullTitle:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus"},signatures:"Kotaro Suzuki",authors:[{id:"189571",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotaro",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kotaro-suzuki",fullName:"Kotaro Suzuki"}]},{id:"53377",title:"Staphylococcus aureus Bacteremia in Adults",slug:"staphylococcus-aureus-bacteremia-in-adults",totalDownloads:1432,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"frontiers-in-i-staphylococcus-aureus-i-",title:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus",fullTitle:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus"},signatures:"Dima Youssef and Kate Molony",authors:[{id:"190397",title:"Dr.",name:"Dima",middleName:null,surname:"Youssef",slug:"dima-youssef",fullName:"Dima Youssef"},{id:"195814",title:"Dr.",name:"Kate",middleName:null,surname:"Molony",slug:"kate-molony",fullName:"Kate Molony"}]},{id:"52755",title:"Bee Products and Essential Oils as Alternative Agents for Treatment of Infections Caused by S. aureus",slug:"bee-products-and-essential-oils-as-alternative-agents-for-treatment-of-infections-caused-by-s-aureus",totalDownloads:1467,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"frontiers-in-i-staphylococcus-aureus-i-",title:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus",fullTitle:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus"},signatures:"Piotr Szweda and Barbara Kot",authors:[{id:"117528",title:"Dr.",name:"Szweda",middleName:null,surname:"Piotr",slug:"szweda-piotr",fullName:"Szweda Piotr"},{id:"189685",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Barbara",middleName:null,surname:"Kot",slug:"barbara-kot",fullName:"Barbara Kot"},{id:"195004",title:"Dr.",name:"Barbara",middleName:null,surname:"Kot",slug:"barbara-kot",fullName:"Barbara Kot"}]},{id:"54496",title:"Clostridium difficile Infection: Pathogenesis, Diagnosis and Treatment",slug:"clostridium-difficile-infection-pathogenesis-diagnosis-and-treatment",totalDownloads:1179,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"clostridium-difficile-a-comprehensive-overview",title:"Clostridium Difficile",fullTitle:"Clostridium Difficile - A Comprehensive Overview"},signatures:"Laura Fernández-García, Lucia Blasco, María López and Maria\nTomás",authors:[{id:"198586",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Tomas",slug:"maria-tomas",fullName:"Maria Tomas"},{id:"204982",title:"Ms.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Fernandez-García",slug:"laura-fernandez-garcia",fullName:"Laura Fernandez-García"},{id:"204983",title:"Ms.",name:"Lucia",middleName:null,surname:"Blasco",slug:"lucia-blasco",fullName:"Lucia Blasco"},{id:"204984",title:"Ms.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez",slug:"maria-lopez",fullName:"Maria Lopez"}]},{id:"54736",title:"Assays for Measuring C. difficile Toxin Activity and Inhibition in Mammalian Cells",slug:"assays-for-measuring-c-difficile-toxin-activity-and-inhibition-in-mammalian-cells",totalDownloads:833,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"clostridium-difficile-a-comprehensive-overview",title:"Clostridium Difficile",fullTitle:"Clostridium Difficile - A Comprehensive Overview"},signatures:"Mary Ann Cox, Lorraine D. Hernandez, Pulkit Gupta, Zuo Zhang,\nFred Racine and Alex G. Therien",authors:[{id:"171428",title:"Dr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Therien",slug:"alex-therien",fullName:"Alex Therien"}]},{id:"52584",title:"PCR Assay for Detection of Staphylococcus aureus in Fresh Lettuce (Lactuca sativa)",slug:"pcr-assay-for-detection-of-staphylococcus-aureus-in-fresh-lettuce-lactuca-sativa-",totalDownloads:1434,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"frontiers-in-i-staphylococcus-aureus-i-",title:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus",fullTitle:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus"},signatures:"Andrés F. Chávez‐Almanza, Jaime López‐Cervantes, Ernesto U.\nCantú‐Soto, Dalia I. Sánchez‐Machado and Olga N. Campas‐Baypoli",authors:[{id:"190200",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaime",middleName:null,surname:"López-Cervantes",slug:"jaime-lopez-cervantes",fullName:"Jaime López-Cervantes"},{id:"195405",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Andres",middleName:null,surname:"Chavez Almanza",slug:"andres-chavez-almanza",fullName:"Andres Chavez Almanza"},{id:"195406",title:"Dr.",name:"Ernesto",middleName:"Uriel",surname:"Cantú-Soto",slug:"ernesto-cantu-soto",fullName:"Ernesto Cantú-Soto"}]},{id:"53035",title:"Effects of Electronic (e)-Cigarette Vapor on Staphylococcal Virulence: Are E-Cigarettes Safer than Conventional Cigarettes?",slug:"effects-of-electronic-e-cigarette-vapor-on-staphylococcal-virulence-are-e-cigarettes-safer-than-conv",totalDownloads:1155,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"frontiers-in-i-staphylococcus-aureus-i-",title:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus",fullTitle:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus"},signatures:"Laura E. Crotty Alexander, Shymaa Enany and Elisa McEachern",authors:[{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",slug:"shymaa-enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany"},{id:"194113",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:"Elise",surname:"Crotty Alexander",slug:"laura-crotty-alexander",fullName:"Laura Crotty Alexander"},{id:"195095",title:"Ms.",name:"Elisa",middleName:null,surname:"McEachern",slug:"elisa-mceachern",fullName:"Elisa McEachern"}]},{id:"56444",title:"Introductory Chapter: Clostridium difficile Infection Overview",slug:"introductory-chapter-clostridium-difficile-infection-overview",totalDownloads:890,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"clostridium-difficile-a-comprehensive-overview",title:"Clostridium Difficile",fullTitle:"Clostridium Difficile - A Comprehensive Overview"},signatures:"Shymaa Enany",authors:[{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",slug:"shymaa-enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"pure-microbiology-bacteriology",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/books/aflatoxins-recent-advances-and-future-prospects/occurrence-of-aflatoxin-m1-in-raw-and-pasteurized-goat-milk-in-thailand",hash:"",query:{},params:{book:"aflatoxins-recent-advances-and-future-prospects",chapter:"occurrence-of-aflatoxin-m1-in-raw-and-pasteurized-goat-milk-in-thailand"},fullPath:"/books/aflatoxins-recent-advances-and-future-prospects/occurrence-of-aflatoxin-m1-in-raw-and-pasteurized-goat-milk-in-thailand",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()