Water permeability of alkali-activated slag cement stone vs. slag fineness.
\n
Strength classes of the alkali-activated cements (compressive strength at age of 28 days) are designated in the national standard of Ukraine DSTU B V.2.7-181:2009 “Cements, alkaline” [9]. High properties of the alkali-activated cement stone are attributed to its structure, which is different from that of portland cement, considerably lower solubility of hydration products and absence in them of Ca(OH)2 and calcium sulphoaluminate hydrates [10, 11].
\n\nAccording to the national standard of Ukraine [12], heavyweight and super heavyweight alkali-activated cement concretes are designated in classes in compressive strength at standard age (28 days).
\nIn compressive strength, the alkali-activated cement concretes are designated, similar to EN-206, as below:
\n\tC8/10; C12/15; C16/20; C20/25; C25/30; C30/37; C35/45; C40/50; C45/55; C50/60; C55/67; C60/75; C70/85; C80/95; C90/105; C100/115; C110/125.
In flexural strength, the alkali-activated cement concretes are designated as below:
\n\tin axial tension: Ct0.8; Ct1.2; Ct1.6; Ct2.0; Ct2.4; Ct2.8; Ct3.2; Ct3.6; Ct4.0.
\tin tensile bending strength: Ctв0.8; Ctв1.2; Ctв1.6; Ctв2.0; Ctв2.4; Ctв2.8; Ctв3.2; Ctв3.6; Ctв4.0; Ctв4.4; Ctв4.8; Ctв5.2; Ctв5.6; Ctв6.0; Ctв6.4; Ctв6.8; Ctв7.2; Ctв7.6; Ctв8.0; Ctв8.4; Ctв8.8.
where Ct is the characteristic strength in axial tension (MPa) and Ctв is the characteristic tensile bending strength (MPa).
\nAs a rule, tensile strength of coarse aggregates in the alkali-activated cement concrete constitutes 10–20% of compressive strength, depending upon type and density of alkaline activator and alkali-activated cement composition.
\nStrength of the alkali-activated cement concretes is kept under control, chiefly, by a proper choice of alkaline activator and its content. The greatest effect on strength characteristics is made by soluble sodium silicates. The alkali-activated cement concretes made using sodium silicates have high compressive strength reaching 120–140 MPa. They have close values of compressive strength measured on cubes not depending upon a modulus of basicity and slag content. This is especially clearly expressed in the steam-cured alkali-activated cement concretes. A conclusion was drawn that the lowering of the slag content in the concrete mix from 500 to 300 kg per 1 m3, the alkaline activator represented by sodium silicates, would affect early strength gain and has no any effect on values of final compressive strength. Strength of the alkali-activated cement concretes made using sodium carbonate as alkaline activator varies between 45 and 80 MPa. Type of slag also affects strength gain, and this is especially clearly expressed in the alkali-activated cement concretes that hardened in normal conditions, which continue to attain strength at the later ages. With decrease in blast-furnace slag basicity and slag content, the strength of these concretes will decrease by 10–15 MPa. The highest compressive strength (116–123 MPa) is characteristic of the steam-cured alkali-activated cement concretes made using neutral blast-furnace slags and low-modulus sodium silicates (silicate modulus Ms = 1–2). Strength of the steam-cured alkali-activated cement concretes increases with decrease in silicate modulus of sodium silicate and is higher than that of the concretes that hardened for 28 days in normal conditions. The concretes hardening in normal conditions, similar to steam-cured concretes, exhibit the highest compressive strength in case of using neutral slags and low-modulus sodium silicates. The alkali-activated acid slag cement concretes have rather slow early strength gain. However, after two years the strength has increased by 2–2.6 times. High-modulus sodium silicates are not recommended for the alkali-activated cement concretes in which acid slags are used and for hardening in water. The above combination of cement components can be used under condition that basicity of the binding system will be increased by introduction of high-basic additives [13, 14].
\nAs follows from Ref. [15], not depending upon slag characteristics and nature of alkaline activator, the alkali-activated cement concretes continue to gain strength steadily in normal conditions, in the air and in water even after they have already gained a 28-day strength.
\nWater permeability is the most widely used key characteristic of permeability of concrete and is expressed as the highest pressure of water at which water still does not penetrate into the test specimen and this characteristic is called a “filtration coefficient”. This coefficient is expressed as a quantity of liquid penetrating through a unit of cross section per unit of time at head gradient of 1.
\nThe alkali-activated cement concretes, to which more strict requirements (low water permeability and high corrosion resistance) are applied, are classified with regard to water permeability as the following: W2; W4; W6; W8; W10; W12; W14; W16; W18; W20; W25; W30 (W—water permeability, pressure in atm) [12].
\nSpecific features of pore structure of the alkali-activated cement concretes, their high water retaining capacity and lack of segregation in the alkali-activated cement concrete mixtures result in possibility to design concretes with the lower water permeability [16].
\nDensity of the alkali-activated cement concretes increases, and water permeability decreases with time and depends upon chemical-mineralogical composition, slag fineness, and cement content (Tables 4 and 5).
\nCharacteristics of water permeability | \nSlag fineness (m2/kg) (measured by Blaine) | \n||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
230 | \n300 | \n420 | \n510 | \n600 | \n|
Pressure at which filtration occurs (MPa) | \n2.5 | \n3.7 | \n4.1 | \n4.3 | \n3.6 | \n
Filtration coefficient (Kf⋅10−13) (cm/s) | \n4.7 | \n3.1 | \n0.6 | \n0.1 | \n0.9 | \n
Water permeability of alkali-activated slag cement stone vs. slag fineness.
Concrete mix design (%) | \nw/c | \nWater adsorption (%) | \nCompressive strength (MPa) | \nPressure at which filtration is observed (MPa) | \nFiltration coefficient (cm/s) | \n|
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Slag | \nSand | \n|||||
15 | \n85 | \n0.60 | \n8.3 | \n30.1 | \n0.4 | \n1.3 × 10−6 | \n
20 | \n80 | \n0.40 | \n7.2 | \n39.7 | \n0.8 | \n5.3 × 10−7 | \n
25 | \n75 | \n0.36 | \n4.1 | \n45.5 | \n1.8 | \n0.8 × 10−10 | \n
30 | \n70 | \n0.33 | \n3.7 | \n56.7 | \n3.4 | \n0.4 × 10−11 | \n
Water permeability of fine aggregate alkali-activated slag cement concretes vs. slag content.
Strength gain and decrease in water permeability of the alkali-activated cement concrete depend upon the cement content: with the cement content reaching 20%, a decrease in water permeability while hardening of the concrete specimens in high humidity conditions has been reported: by 20 times after 1 year and as much as by 200 times after 5 years. The concretes with the cement content between 25 and 40% at this age were dense enough not to allow water to penetrate into them even at pressures of 4–5 MPa [15].
\nWater permeability of the alkali-activated cement concretes decreases in case of using aggregates with properly selected particle size distribution providing minimum void content. So, the lowest value (Kf = 0.9 × 10−12 cm/s) corresponds to void content of 32.3%. Water permeability of the alkali-activated cement concretes can be improved by addition of clays, which, participating in the structure formation processes, increase density of the concrete. A determining role is played by mineralogical composition of clays. The fine aggregate alkali-activated cement concrete with the highest density was produced using sands containing 10% of coal and mining wastes. Glauconite clay, in its action on water permeability, is similar to kaolinite clay, and its maximum allowed quantity is 5%. The use of bentonite clay is found to be of no favour due to its coagulation during mixing with alkaline activator solutions.
\nFiltration coefficient of the alkali-activated cement concretes made using aggregates containing up to 15% of clay, at the initial test ages, due to its slow interaction with alkaline activators, remained rather high (Kf = 3 × 10−9 cm/s). However, after 1 year it has decreased by 5–7 times, after 5 years by 20 times. The decrease in water permeability can be provided by application of special techniques of mixing, in particular, under vibration which was found to decrease filtration coefficient by 25–30 times compared to mixing in traditional mixers.
\nThe most favourable conditions which allow for to reach similar low water permeability, as those of the concretes hardened in normal conditions, are: steam curing in closed moulds at T = 373 K with a temperature rise for 3–4 h and isothermal heating for 4 h. The longer isothermal curing has no sense since a density of the concrete does not change.
\nAccording to long-term test results, strength, density, and water permeability of the alkali-activated cement concretes tended to improve with time (Figure 1) not depending upon applied curing conditions, but with the higher rate when the concrete specimens were allowed to cure in water and in high humidity conditions.
\nCompressive strength gain (MPa) and water permeability (MPa) of alkali-activated cement concretes vs. cure conditions: a—high humidity; b—dry; c—in water and cure regimes: Q—after steam curing; 1, 3, 6, 12—at age of 1, 3, 6, and 12 months, respectively.
Due to specific features of a capillary pore structure, water permeability of the alkali-activated cement concretes remained almost unchanged and still rather low after attacks of cyclic unfavourable conditions: heating-cooling, wetting-drying, freezing-thawing (Table 6). Water permeability as a function of concrete structure is the most important physical characteristic defining degree of deterioration under exposure of various aggressive environments, since corrosion processes start at the interfacial surface of external environment and concrete and proceed inward the concrete-reaching pores and capillaries.
\nWater permeability of the alkali-activated cement concrete can be improved by optimization of its composition with application of conventional techniques.
\nComposition no | \nHeating-cooling | \nWetting-drying | \nFreezing-thawing | \n||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cycles | \n|||||||||
50 | \n100 | \n200 | \n50 | \n100 | \n200 | \n50 | \n100 | \n200 | \n|
Permeability expressed as pressure (MPa) | \n|||||||||
1 | \n1 | \n8 | \n7 | \n13 | \n15 | \n14 | \n15 | \n17 | \n16 | \n
2 | \n5 | \n5 | \n4 | \n9 | \n10 | \n11 | \n11 | \n12 | \n13 | \n
Changes in water penetration of alkali-activated slag cement concrete after cyclic exposures.
Notes
1. Concrete mix design (composition no. 1), 1 m3: ground granulated blast-furnace slag—500 kg, ultrafine (desert) sand—300 kg, coarse aggregate (5/20)—1175 kg, and sodium metasilicate (density = 1220 kg/m3)—200 l.
2. Concrete mix design (composition no. 2), 1 m3: portland cement—500 kg, river sand—300 kg, coarse aggregate (5/20)—1175 kg, and water—200 l.
Durability of the alkali-activated cement concrete in mineral salt solutions is affected by ion composition, concentration and exposure conditions and is predetermined by specific features of micro- and macrostructure affected by slag composition, type and quantity of alkaline activator, as well as by cure conditions. The alkali-activated cement concretes exhibit high resistance in solutions of magnesium chlorides and nitrates considerably exceeding those of sulphate-resisting portland cements [17].
\nResistance of the alkali-activated cement concretes in sulphate solutions is determined by cations of sulphate salts as well as by alkali-activated cement composition. In sodium sulphate solutions, the alkali-activated cement concretes, not depending upon alkali-activated cement composition, are not subjected to deterioration. This is attributed to lack of conditions for the formation of insoluble corrosion products.
\nSulphates of polyvalent metals (magnesium, manganese, aluminium, nickel, copper, zinc, etc.), as well as those of ammonia that form insoluble (silicate hydrates, hydroxides) or volatile (ammonia) compounds, are more aggressive environments. These compounds react actively with the alkali-activated cement stone solid phase with the formation of gypsum dehydrate. A degree of aggressiveness of these sulphate compounds is determined by properties of cations, permeability of corrosion products and pH-values of the formed hydroxides.
\nDepending upon properties of cation, resistance of the alkali-activated slag cements in sulphate solutions decreases in the following sequence: Na+ > Zn2+ > Cu2+ > Ni2+ > A13+ > NH4+ > Mg2+ > Mn2+ [18].
\nNos | \nAlkaline activator | \nCoefficient of corrosion resistance after immersion, duration in months | \n|||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
3% concentration | \n6% concentration | \n||||||||
1 | \n3 | \n6 | \n12 | \n1 | \n3 | \n6 | \n12 | \n||
1 | \nSodium hydroxide | \n1.02 | \n1.00 | \n0.63 | \n0 | \n1.15 | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n
2 | \nSodium carbonate | \n1.10 | \n0.74 | \n0.65 | \n0 | \n1.18 | \n0.42 | \n0.29 | \n0 | \n
3 | \nSodium metasilicate | \n1.01 | \n1.04 | \n1.24 | \n0 | \n1.49 | \n0.43 | \n0.27 | \n0 | \n
4 | \nSodium disilicate | \n1.37 | \n1.28 | \n3.60 | \n1.35 | \n1.51 | \n1.40 | \n2.87 | \n1.07 | \n
5 | \nSodium silicate (Ms = 3.0) | \n2.97 | \n4.49 | \n9.90 | \n3.09 | \n3.62 | \n9.05 | \n13.96 | \n2.50 | \n
Corrosion resistance of alkali-activated slag cement concretes made with various alkaline activators in MgSO4 solutions.
Corrosion of the alkali-activated cement stone in MgSO4-solutions takes place similar to corrosion of portland cement stone: occurrence of cracks, mainly perpendicular to a longitudinal axis of a specimen, curvature of the specimen, increase in linear dimensions and volume, deterioration.
\nAt equal densities of alkaline activators, the corrosion resistance of the alkali-activated cements in MgSO4 solutions tends to improve depending upon a type of alkaline activator in the following sequence: NaOH < Na2CO3 ≈ Na2SiO3 < Na2Si2O5 < Na2O ⋅ 2.65SiO2 (Table 7).
\nAn alkaline activator solution content to slag content ratio affects corrosion resistance in MgSO4 solutions. The higher is this ratio, the lower is the corrosion resistance due to the higher porosity and higher is the permeability of the resulted stone.
\nHeat-treated alkali-activated cement concretes made with sodium silicate (Ms = 1–3) have the lower resistance compared to that of similar concretes that hardened in normal conditions. The use in this case of non-silicate compounds of alkali metals has positive effect on corrosion resistance of the alkali-activated cements in MgSO4 solutions.
\nIn general, the comparative test results of the alkali-activated, portland and sulphate-resisting portland cements showed that in the conditions of full immersion, the alkali-activated cement concretes had higher resistance in the solutions of sodium sulphates (Kr24 ≥ 1), magnesium chloride, and nitrate and had similar corrosion resistance in marine environment to that of sulphate-resisting cement (Kr24 ≥ 0.55. Whear: Kr—ratio of strength of a specimen exposed to aggressive environment to that of a specimen stored in water; 24—a number of months).
\nAnalysis of specific deterioration of the alkali-activated cement stone and known types of corrosion suggested that alkali-activated cement hydration products were represented by four groups of substances varying in resistance in aggressive environments:
\n–\tthe most easily dissolved—“free” (unbound) alkaline activator;
–\tless dissoluble compared to alkalis, but relatively easily dissoluble substances of the sodium silicate or calcium-sodium silicates types that are present in a gel-like state;
–\trelatively resistant to dissolution calcium silicate hydrates and calcite;
–\tthe most poorly dissoluble crystalline calcium silicate hydrates and sodium aluminosilicate hydrates.
Prevalence of one of these or those groups in the cement hydration products determines variations in corrosion resistance.
\nCorrosion resistance of the alkali-activated slag cement concretes in organic environments is dependent upon an alkali-activated cement composition, character of pore structure of the resulted concrete as well as reactivity of aggressive environments.
\nCorrosion resistance expressed by Kr was measured on the specimens made from alkali-activated and portland cement concretes 24 months after immersion in hydrocarbon media (kerosene, diesel, mineral oil, petroleum) and water as reference medium (Kr24) (Table 8). A conclusion was drawn that corrosion resistance of the alkali-activated cement concretes was higher than that of portland cement concretes. This is explained by formation of the concrete structure with the lower capillary porosity and continuation of hydration processes in the alkali-activated cement in organic environments [19].
\nAggressive environment | \nVariations of Kr24 after storage in the conditions of full immersion of concrete specimens made from | \n|||
---|---|---|---|---|
Name | \npH | \nAcidity measured by titration (mol/l) | \nAlkali-activated cement | \nPortland cement | \n
Gasoline | \n– | \n0.0005 | \n0.98…0.99 | \n0.98…0.99 | \n
Benzene (benzole) | \n– | \n0.0007 | \n0.96…1.00 | \n0.70…0.90 | \n
Kerosene | \n– | \n0.0008 | \n0.92…0.99 | \n0.60…0.78 | \n
Mineral oil | \n– | \n0.0011 | \n0.64…0.96 | \n0.50…0.70 | \n
Diesel | \n– | \n0.0009 | \n0.72…0.94 | \n0.50…0.67 | \n
Sulphur-bearing crude | \n– | \n0.0013 | \n0.5…0.97 | \n0.56…0.40 | \n
Animal fat | \n– | \n0.0500 | \n0.56…0.97 | \nDestroyed | \n
Solution of sugar 30% concentration | \n– | \n0.0100 | \n0.68…1.18 | \n0.30…0.64 | \n
Pickle (saline) solution of meat processing factory | \n– | \n– | \n0.68…1.18 | \n0.30…0.64 | \n
Acetic acid of 10% concentration | \n2.80 | \n– | \n0.25…0.45 | \n0.15…0.24 | \n
Milk acid of 10% concentration | \n3.45 | \n– | \n0.3…0.79 | \n0.20…0.35 | \n
Resistance of fine aggregate alkali-activated cement and portland cement concretes in various organic environments after 24 months.
Depending upon the alkaline activator used, resistance of the alkali-activated cement concretes in aggressive petroleum environments increases in the following sequence: NaOH > soda-alkali melt (by-product of chemical industry) > Na2CO3 > Na2SiO3 > Na2O2SiO2.
\nHigh-molecular organic environments are less aggressive for the alkali-activated cement concretes. After 24 months of storage of the specimens in pickle (saline) solution, animal fat and 30% concentration solution of sugar, the resistance was more than by three times higher compared to that of portland cement concrete.
\nResistance of the alkali-activated cement concrete in low-molecular compounds (glycerine, acetic and milk acids) is comparable to that of portland cement concrete and somewhat exceeds it. This may be attributed to the lower solubility of hydration products of the alkali-activated cements and lack of Ca(OH)2, high-basic calcium silicate and aluminate hydrates in the hydration products.
\nThus, on the contrary to conventional cements, the alkali-activated cements exhibit the higher physico-mechanical properties such as strength, water permeability, corrosion resistance. The alkali-activated cements possess a complex of the above properties and can be classified as cements with polyfunctional properties.
\nCapability with regard to biodegradability and bio-fouling was tested according to the following: the specimens were stored in solution of sulphuric acid (pH = 3–4) [20].
\nAfter exposure to aggressive environment, the concrete specimens were tested to determine compressive and flexural strength characteristics.
\nWhen a ratio of strength after testing to that before testing is higher than 0.8, the cements are classified as corrosive resistant cements. Test results are given in Table 9.
\nConcrete class | \nCompressive/flexural strength (MPa) after | \n|||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
3 months | \n6 months | \n9 months | \n||||
Normal curing | \nIn sulphuric acid | \nNormal curing | \nIn acid solution | \nNormal curing | \nIn sulphuric acid | \n|
C45/50 | \n53.4/11.4 | \n50.5/10.7 | \n54.7/9.6 | \n60.6/11.1 | \n60.7/10.6 | \n55.6/10.5 | \n
C100/115 | \n122.6/12.1 | \n105.4/11.0 | \n113.1/10.3 | \n93.2/12.1 | \n115.8/12.0 | \n105.8/12.0 | \n
Strength variations after exposure of aggressive environment.
From given results, both concretes under study showed stability of strength properties even after storage in aggressive environment for 9 months. So, it is clear that the alkali-activated slag concretes are resistant to biodegradability and bio-fouling.
\nReplacement of portland cement with blast-furnace slag suppresses chloride diffusion in the hardened cement pastes, mortars and concretes [20]. Other study [5] has indicated that the addition of alkalis to blended portland slag cement not only increased cement strength but also decreased chloride diffusion in the cement paste significantly (Figure 2). The other clear trend is that diffusion rate of chloride decreases with increase in slag substitution.
\nThe developed diffusion cell test is often used to measure the apparent diffusivity of Cl− through hardened cement pastes and concrete. Chloride diffusion test on both the F-cement (a variety of alkali-activated cement) and portland cement pastes indicated that the diffusion rate of Cl− through F-cement pastes is about 30–40 times slower than that through portland cement pastes for a given water-to-cement or water-to-slag ratio (Table 10). It was also noticed that cracks of 10–50 microns wide, induced by drying below 50% relative humidity, did not show any influence on the Cl− diffusion rate of the specimens. However, the specimens with cracks wider than 50 microns running through the specimens had much higher Cl− diffusion rate [20].
\nEffect of alkaline activation on chloride diffusion in portland slag cement.
Nos | \nCement paste | \nWater to cement (slag) ratio | \nDiffusion coefficient (cm2/s) | \n
---|---|---|---|
1 | \nPortland cement | \n0.23 | \n321 × 10−12 | \n
2 | \nAlkali-activated slag cement | \n0.23 | \n75 × 10−12 | \n
3 | \nPortland cement | \n0.35 | \n6390 × 10−12 | \n
4 | \nAlkali-activated slag cement | \n0.35 | \n240 × 10−12 | \n
Chloride permeability test results of various cements [20].
Age | \nVoltage—30 V; time—24 h | \n||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
No | \nI0/mA | \nT0/ | \nIf/mA | \nTf/ | \nL/cm | \nDfucc/×10−12 | \n|
3 days | \nCH1 | \n21.9 | \n23.8 | \n17.8 | \n22.5 | \n1.33 | \n2.91 | \n
CH2 | \n29.1 | \n23.7 | \n28.0 | \n21.4 | \n1.53 | \n3.37 | \n|
CH3 | \n29.5 | \n23.5 | \n19.2 | \n22.2 | \n1.55 | \n3.42 | \n|
Mean | \n\n | 3.23 | \n|||||
7 days | \nCH1 | \n22.8 | \n25.9 | \n16.4 | \n23.7 | \n1.27 | \n2.78 | \n
CH2 | \n18.6 | \n25.8 | \n15.8 | \n23.6 | \n1.22 | \n2.67 | \n|
CH3 | \n23.6 | \n25.5 | \n21.7 | \n23.8 | \n1.37 | \n3.01 | \n|
Mean | \n\n | 2.82 | \n|||||
28 days | \nCH1 | \n16.8 | \n24.2 | \n20.3 | \n22.8 | \n0.81 | \n1.71 | \n
CH2 | \n19.4 | \n24.1 | \n16.4 | \n22.8 | \n0.79 | \n1.66 | \n|
CH3 | \n21.7 | \n23.9 | \n20.8 | \n22.7 | \n1.04 | \n2.53 | \n|
Mean | \n\n | 1.71 | \n
Chlorine ions diffusion parameters [20].
Notes: I0, T0, initial current (T); If, Tf—final current (T); L—diffuse depth; Dfucc—diffusion coefficient.
Analysis of the obtained results showed that all concretes had good resistance to chloride ions penetration. According to ASTM standard, such properties are characteristic of exclusively for polymer concretes. Thus, it is possible to predict high durability of all tested concretes.
\nDependences between chloride diffusion and age of concrete are shown in Table 11.
\nA key factor affecting durability of a cement stone is its pore structure which determines, in particular, its freeze-thaw resistance. For example, frost destruction of water-saturated portland cement stone takes place, chiefly, during spasmodic freezing of microcapillary water during a period starting from ice formation and until T = 253 K.
\nFrost destruction of the water-saturated alkali-activated cement stone occurs when the remaining portions of microcapillary moisture get frozen at temperatures below T = 223 K.
\nAt temperatures of 243 K, the alkali-activated cement stone is subjected to residual deformations; after cooling to T = 233 K, the residual deformations were 0.01 mm/m, after cooling to T = 213 K—0.15 mm/m (Figure 3) or of about 10% of residual deformations after freezing to 173 K and thawing [21].
\nDeformations of alkali-activated slag cement concrete (water-to-slag ratio = 0.3) under attacks of freezing-thawing: a—T = 243 K; b—T = 234 K; c—T = 219 K; d—T = 212 K.
Differences in mechanism of temperature-induced deformations of the water-saturated portland cement and alkali-activated cement stones are attributed to the presence in the capillaries of the latter of true solutions of strong electrolytes, the lowering of the freezing temperature and promoting step-by-step removal of water due to freezing. Mechanism of water removal from a pore space of the alkali-activated cement stone is different from that in portland cement stone, thus determining a difference in the rate of their deformations in the process of cooling and heating. Pore liquid in portland cement stone capillaries gets frozen spasmodically with elimination of meniscus and in the capillaries of the alkali-activated cement stone step-by-step, with maintaining the meniscus in a frozen state, resulted in the lowering of temperature of precipitation (settling-out) of eutectic mixtures.
\nA freezing temperature of pore liquid is largely determined by a type of alkaline activator. For example, in case of potash a freezing temperature of the eutectic mixture is 237 K, in case of soda only 270.9 K. The other reason causing different behaviour of the frozen water-saturated specimens from portland cement and alkali-activated slag cement concretes is attributed to specific features of their pore structure; in particular, the alkali-activated cement stone is characteristic of the increased microcapillary porosity.
\nA temperature of ice formation in the alkali-activated cement concretes is shifted to the region of the lower temperatures, since contents of fine pores (3–8 nm) in the alkali-activated cement stone are somewhat higher than those in portland cement concrete.
\nThe alkali-activated cement concretes made with soluble sodium silicates have the highest freeze-thaw resistance, high density and strength. Their freeze-thaw resistance, depending upon production technology and other factors affecting strength characteristics, is 300–1300 cycles [22].
\nAlternate (cyclic) wetting-drying, carbon dioxide and temperature variations are among factors associated with weather exposure.
\nLong-term cyclic wetting-drying will increase irreversible shrinkage deformations and deterioration of the concrete structure and may cause in the future loss of its load carrying ability.
\nAlternate wetting-drying of the alkali-activated cement concretes has no effect on its compressive strength: after 50 cycles of wetting-drying, a compressive strength of the alkali-activated cement concrete made with sodium carbonate of technical grade (commercial product) in solution has lowered by 4%, with sodium metasilicate—by 1.5% [13].
\nStrength properties of the alkali-activated cement concrete exposed to alternating atmospheric conditions can be improved through regulation of rate of crystallization of a gel phase, adjustment of the hydration product phase composition and directed synthesis of the materials with a required pore structure The influence of these factors on durability of the artificial stone is evident and may be taken in account in choosing the appropriate process parameters for manufacture of the alkali-activated cement concrete with desired physico-mechanical characteristics.
\nWeather resistance was tested according to the prescribed testing procedure [23]. The specimens were immersed in water for 4 h and then dried at temperatures of 378–383 K for 15 h.
\nThree characteristics were studied: compressive and flexural strength and mass changes after testing. Test results are given in Tables 12 and 13.
\nSample No | \nDrying-wetting | \nNormal curing | \n||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
C70/85 | \nC100/115 | \nC70/85 | \nC100/115 | \n|||||
Flex. | \nComp. | \nFlex. | \nComp. | \nFlex. | \nComp. | \nFlex. | \nComp. | \n|
After 75 cycles (MPa) | \n||||||||
Sample no 1 | \n8.2 | \n76.9 | \n11.0 | \n116.3 | \n9.9 | \n50.9 | \n10.8 | \n103.0 | \n
Sample no 2 | \n7.1 | \n75.6 | \n9.9 | \n113.8 | \n9.8 | \n46.4 | \n11.7 | \n110.1 | \n
Sample no 3 | \n6.4 | \n74.5 | \n10.0 | \n116.3 | \n9.0 | \n48.1 | \n11.2 | \n105.3 | \n
Mean strength | \n7.2 | \n75.7 | \n10.3 | \n115.5 | \n9.6 | \n48.5 | \n11.2 | \n106.1 | \n
After 100 cycles (MPa) | \n||||||||
Sample no 1 | \n8.7 | \n88.1 | \n11.4 | \n115.1 | \n9.5 | \n51.3 | \n11.6 | \n113.1 | \n
Sample no 2 | \n8.5 | \n87.1 | \n12.1 | \n117.8 | \n9.1 | \n52.3 | \n11.8 | \n108.5 | \n
Sample no 3 | \n7.6 | \n88.2 | \n12.1 | \n115.6 | \n9.7 | \n58.0 | \n11.8 | \n110.2 | \n
Mean strength | \n8.3 | \n87.8 | \n11.9 | \n116.1 | \n9.4 | \n53.9 | \n11.7 | \n110.6 | \n
After 150 cycles (MPa) | \n||||||||
Sample no 1 | \n7.4 | \n83.3 | \n11.1 | \n119.1 | \n8.2 | \n48.9 | \n11.9 | \n112.9 | \n
Sample no 2 | \n7.8 | \n79.3 | \n10.4 | \n120.9 | \n10.1 | \n44.2 | \n11.9 | \n113.6 | \n
Sample no 3 | \n8.5 | \n83.3 | \n11.5 | \n117.3 | \n8.5 | \n46.7 | \n11.6 | \n110.7 | \n
Mean strength | \n7.9 | \n82.0 | \n11.0 | \n119.1 | \n8.9 | \n46.6 | \n11.8 | \n112.4 | \n
After 200 cycles (MPa) | \n||||||||
Sample no 1 | \n9.2 | \n86.7 | \n11.0 | \n110.1 | \n\n | \n | \n | \n |
Sample no 2 | \n8.2 | \n92.2 | \n11.5 | \n125.1 | \n\n | \n | \n | \n |
Sample no 3 | \n8.1 | \n85.1 | \n9.0 | \n112.4 | \n\n | \n | \n | \n |
Mean strength | \n8.5 | \n88.0 | \n11.3 | \n113.9 | \n\n | \n | \n | \n |
Residual strength characteristics of alkali-activated slag cements concretes vs. curing conditions.
Test results showed that both concretes passed 200 cycles without any sign of deterioration.
\nWearing can be classified into three categories: abrasion, erosion and cavitation [20].
\nSpecific features of wear in abrasion of the alkali-activated cement stone are attributed to its mineralogical and phase compositions, size of crystals and specific surface of a solid phase. Due to intensive processes of structure formation, a time-based approach to assessment of this characteristic was applied.
\nTests were carried out according to a standard procedure on cube specimens (70 × 70 × 70 mm). A standard river sand was used as an abrasive material. Wear in abrasion was expressed as changes of mass and linear dimensions of the specimens subjected to wear. The results of wear in abrasion of the alkali-activated slag cement concrete are reported in (Table 14) [24].
\n\n | C70/85 | \nC100/115 | \n||
---|---|---|---|---|
Before | \nAfter | \nBefore | \nAfter | \n|
After 75 cycles (g) | \n||||
Sample no 1 | \n559.0 | \n558.0 | \n562.0 | \n560.0 | \n
Sample no 2 | \n561.0 | \n560.0 | \n562.0 | \n556.0 | \n
Sample no 3 | \n563.0 | \n563.0 | \n570.0 | \n564.0 | \n
Mean mass | \n561.0 | \n560.3 | \n564.7 | \n560.0 | \n
Mass change (%) | \n0.125 | \n0.832 | \n||
After 100 cycles (g) | \n||||
Sample no 1 | \n553.0 | \n555.0 | \n562.0 | \n559.0 | \n
Sample no 2 | \n564.0 | \n567.0 | \n578.0 | \n571.0 | \n
Sample no 3 | \n558.0 | \n561.0 | \n573.0 | \n573.0 | \n
Mean mass | \n558.3 | \n561.0 | \n571.0 | \n567.7 | \n
Mass change (%) | \n−0.484 | \n0.578 | \n||
After 150 cycles (g) | \n||||
Sample no 1 | \n554.0 | \n555.0 | \n578.0 | \n572.0 | \n
Sample no 2 | \n553.0 | \n554.0 | \n563.0 | \n555.0 | \n
Sample no 3 | \n555.0 | \n558.0 | \n571.0 | \n561.0 | \n
Mean mass | \n554.0 | \n555.7 | \n570.7 | \n562.7 | \n
Mass change (%) | \n−0.307 | \n1.402 | \n||
After 200 cycles (g) | \n||||
Sample no 1 | \n567.0 | \n562.0 | \n573.0 | \n568.0 | \n
Sample no 2 | \n564.0 | \n559.0 | \n566.0 | \n561.0 | \n
Sample no 3 | \n562.0 | \n556.0 | \n562.0 | \n560.0 | \n
Mean mass | \n564.3 | \n559.0 | \n567.0 | \n563.0 | \n
Mass change (%) | \n0.939 | \n0.705 | \n
Mass changes of alkali-activated slag cement concretes.
Wear resistance of the alkali-activated slag cement concrete decreases with its compressive strength increase. This dependence can be approximated to a linear one and described by the following expression [25]:
where W is the wear of concrete in abrasion, g/cm2; C, K is the dimensionless coefficients; Rm is the compressive strength of concrete measured on cubes (MPa).
\nSodium carbonate | \nSodium silicate | \n||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Normal conditions | \nSteam curing | \nNormal conditions | \nSteam curing | \n||||
Compressive strength (MPa) | \nWear in abrasion (g/cm2) | \nCompressive strength (MPa) | \nWear in abrasion (g/cm2) | \nCompressive strength (MPa) | \nWear in abrasion (g/cm2) | \nCompressive strength (MPa) | \nWear in abrasion (g/cm2) | \n
35.0 | \n0.470 | \n33.0 | \n0.550 | \n37.5 | \n0.462 | \n40.0 | \n0.497 | \n
37.0 | \n0.437 | \n34.0 | \n0.547 | \n44.5 | \n0.441 | \n42.0 | \n0.484 | \n
47.5 | \n0.450 | \n41.0 | \n0.540 | \n59.5 | \n0.465 | \n61.5 | \n0.455 | \n
52.5 | \n0.394 | \n48.5 | \n0.490 | \n65.0 | \n0.420 | \n64.0 | \n0.418 | \n
54.5 | \n0.420 | \n51.0 | \n0.470 | \n66.5 | \n0.377 | \n67.5 | \n0.423 | \n
62.0 | \n0.358 | \n59.0 | \n0.453 | \n80.0 | \n0.379 | \n83.5 | \n0.362 | \n
67.5 | \n0.330 | \n60.5 | \n0.430 | \n88.5 | \n0.368 | \n89.5 | \n0.375 | \n
Wear in abrasion of alkali-activated slag cement concretes vs. compressive and curing conditions.
Wear in abrasion of the alkali-activated cement concrete tends to reduce with time, especially until the age of 180 days, that is, during a period of intensive structure formation. Analyzing the results of measurements of wear of the alkali-activated cement concrete specimens for a period of 24 months suggested to reveal a correlation between age of the alkali-activated cement concrete and express it mathematically [24]:
where W is the wear of concrete in abrasion, g/cm2; W 28 is the same, at age of 28 days; and T is the age of concrete, days.
\nCorrelation between the rate of cavitation-induced degradation of various concretes vs. compressive (a) and tensile strength (b): 1—fine aggregate alkali-activated cement concrete; 2—fine aggregate portland cement concrete; 3—coarse aggregate portland cement concrete.
The alkali-activated cement concretes exhibit not only high wear resistance in normal service conditions, but are resistant to cavitation damage (Figure 4). Cavitation resistance of the alkali-activated cement concrete, expressed as specific mass change of the concrete per unit of time (measured rate of deterioration, cm3/h), correlates well with strength characteristics and is described by a hyperbolic-type equation.
\nCavitation-induced wear (cavitation damage) on concrete surface is most common in case of spillway in dams. This leads to cracks on the concrete surface which further increases the risk of damage to concrete due to sulphate attack, freeze-thaw, alkali-silica reaction and other means. Cavitation damage occurs on concrete surface when discontinuity or irregularities is encountered in the path of high velocity water flow.
\nAccording to Ref. [16], cavitation resistance of the alkali-activated cement concrete structures working in the zones of wave-cut/break is higher than that of portland cement concretes. In high humidity service conditions, the alkalis that are present in the alkali-activated cement stone allow for self-healing of the zones of stress concentrations and strengthening of the alkali-activated cement concrete due to “renewal” (re-start) of the processes of hydration and hardening resulting in densification of the concrete structure and filling of its defects (pores, etc.) with hydration products (Table 15).
\nCuring/exposure conditions | \nAlkali activated slag cement concrete | \nPortland cement concrete | \n||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Strength (MPa) | \nWear (cm3/h) | \nStrength (MPa) | \nWear (cm3/h) | \n|||
Compressive | \nTensile bending | \nCompressive | \nTensile bending | \n|||
28 days in normal conditions (after steam curing) | \n50.00 | \n4.00 | \n8.27 | \n40.50 | \n4.40 | \n6.36 | \n
39.00 | \n4.00 | \n9.11 | \n30.00 | \n2.80 | \n12.25 | \n|
180 days in sweet water | \n53.50 | \n6.14 | \n6.21 | \n43.00 | \n5.20 | \n6.21 | \n
41.50 | \n5.40 | \n7.38 | \n32.40 | \n3.30 | \n10.36 | \n|
180 days in sea water | \n55.60 | \n8.24 | \n5.42 | \n41.50 | \n4.13 | \n6.43 | \n
45.00 | \n7.23 | \n5.96 | \n28.60 | \n3.18 | \n11.34 | \n
Wear caused by cavitation (cavitation resistance) of alkali-activated cement and portland cement concretes vs. curing/exposure conditions.
Note: Fine aggregate alkali-activated slag cement concrete (soluble sodium carbonate as alkaline activator).
Thus, durability of the alkali-activated cement concretes, assessed in terms of endurance and wear resistance, is comparable and even exceeds that of portland cement concretes, especially in unfavourable (extremely severe) service conditions.
\nOne of the reasons associated with concrete durability is an alkali-aggregate reaction (AAR), which is a reaction between alkali of cement and alkali-susceptible aggregate. Rate of this reaction is determined by a type and quantity of alkalis, and type and content of reactive silica. In case of the alkali-activated cements, which contain alkalis in much higher contents compared to that of portland cements, this problem is important. For this, a number of research projects have been performed [26–28], which showed a possibility to keep the AAR under control with a so called “positive” effect. The results of study showed that it could be possible due to introduction into the cement or concrete composition of aluminate-containing additives, in the presence of which a destructive (“negative”) process of corrosion converts into a constructive (“positive”) one. This is attributed to binding of the corrosion products with the formation of the alkali-activated aluminosilicate hydrates according to the following scheme:
\nThe resulted compound forms a dense and strong cage (shell) around the aggregate thus preventing corrosion processes.
\nThis conclusion coincides well with the results of the following experiment: the metakaolin additive in a quantity of 15% was introduced into the cement composition to minimize influence of the destructive processes in the interfacial transition zone.
\nThe influence of additive type on expansion deformations is shown in Figure 5. As follows from Figure 5a, non-admissible high expansion deformations were observed in the concretes made from portland cement with the increased content of Na2O (1.3%) and from the alkali-activated portland cement with the Na2O content of 2.5% in which andesite rock was used as coarse aggregate.
\nInfluence of aggregate type (olivine, basalt, andesite) and metakaolin additive on deformations of the concrete specimens: (a) without additive; (b) with the metakaolin additive (15%); curing conditions—28 days of continuous steam curing at T = 343 K and relative humidity = 100%.
Corrosion products in the interfacial transition zone and microcracks occurring in the aggregates of the concretes made using portland cement with the increased contents of Na2O and the alkali-activated slag portland cement are clearly seen in the electron microscope images. On the contrary, the use of the alkali-activated cements is not at any risk, and the interfacial transition zone “cement stone—alkali-susceptible aggregate” remained clear.
\nThe introduction of the additive will allow to shift all concrete compositions not only from the zone of not allowable critical expansion and deterioration, but also from the zone of risk, not depending upon a cement type and aggregate type. The interfacial transition zone in this case is clear and without sign of corrosion. This may be attributed to the fact that conditions required for synthesis of alkaline zeolite-like aluminosilicate hydrates of the general formula Na2O⋅Al2O3⋅mSiO2⋅nH2O are created in the interfacial transition zone in the presence of reactive Al2O3 in a strongly alkaline medium, that is, the alkali starts to bind very quickly.
\nThe alkali-activated cement stone has low deformation expansions even without the metakaolin additive. This may be attributed to high contents of reactive Al2O3 in the glass phase of the slag.
\nTheoretical data in combination with those obtained experimentally that have been collected by a scientific school headed by Professor Viktor Glukhovsky (currently is headed by Professor Pavel Krivenko) allowed as early as in 1958 to launch first pilot scale production of the alkali-activated cement concrete products and to continue in 1962 with industrial-scale production of a number of concrete small-size building elements and structures.
\nThe majority of alkali-activated slag cement concrete structures manufactured in 1960s was intended for hydro-engineering, in particular, marine engineering application that work in extreme service conditions (corrosive exposure of running waters, alternate freezing-thawing in winter, wetting and drying in summer, etc).
\nRegular continuous observations over the alkali-activated cement concrete small-size building elements and structures showed their higher performance properties compared to those of portland cement concretes as reference (Tables 16–18).
\nFrom these tables, performance properties of these concretes tended to increase during the whole period under review. This may be attributed to permanent deepening of the hydration processes, resulted in the formation of low basic calcium silicate hydrates and zeolite-like water-resistant final products of the alkaline as well as mixed (alkaline- alkali earth) composition. Low water permeability and high resistance of the alkali-activated cement concretes in aggressive environments can be explained by nature of their hydration products [17, 29].
\nThe results of chemical analysis showed that quantities of free (unbound) alkalis in the alkali-activated cement concretes varied from 0.3 to 0.5%. A pH-index inside the alkali-activated slag cement concretes was 12.7–12.9. This is an evidence of presence in these concretes of an alkaline medium which is required for the further flow of processes of hardening in the alkali-activated cements as well as for passivation of reinforcement steel. The alkalis are released in very small quantities. This is attributed to the increased density of the alkali-activated slag cement concrete, closed porosity and nature of hydration products.
\nStructure (small-size building element) | \nMnfg year | \nAggregate | \nAlkaline activator | \nInitial strength (MPa) | \nTest results (1973) | \n|
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Freeze/thaw resistance (cycles) | \nStrength (MPa) | \n|||||
Cast-in-situ facing concrete covering of main irrigation channel (under water level) | \n1962 | \nHeavy sandy loam | \nNa2CO3 | \n15 | \n900 | \n42.60 | \n
The same, above water | \n1962 | \nThe same | \nNa2CO3 | \n15 | \n900 | \n40.00 | \n
Pre-stressed precast concrete elements of irrigation system | \n1964 | \nSea sand (fineness modulus = 0.9…1.1) | \nNa2CO3 | \n25 | \n700 | \n59.50 | \n
Precast concrete piles | \n1964 | \nThe same | \nNa2CO3 | \n30 | \n600 | \n71.80 | \n
Cast-in-situ road pavement | \n1965 | \nThe same | \nNa2CO3 | \n10 | \n250 | \n47.60 | \n
Cast-in-situ breakwater massive elements | \n1965 | \nThe same | \nNa2CO3 | \n30 | \n570 | \n62.00 | \n
Prefabricated pavement slabs | \n1965 | \nThe same | \nNa2CO3 | \n25 | \n437 | \n67.00 | \n
Centrifuged pipes (d = 100 mm) | \n1966 | \nRiver sand (fineness modulus = 1.65) | \nNa2CO3 | \n30 | \n– | \n83.00 | \n
Large-size wall blocks | \n1967 | \nWaste of shell rock | \nNa2CO3 | \n10 | \n300 | \n31.30 | \n
Performance properties of alkali-activated cement concretes after long-term service in various exposure conditions.
Type of concrete | \nDesign compressive strength (MPa) | \nCompressive strength (MPa) after exposure in sea water during | \n|||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 year | \n3 years | \n5 years | \n7 years | \n||
Slabs of embankment | \n|||||
Alkali activated slag cement (alkaline activator—sodium carbonate) | \n40.0 | \n40.0 | \n47.8 | \n53.8 | \n57.0 | \n
Portland cement | \n39.0 | \n39.0 | \n38.5 | \nDestroyed | \n|
Slabs immersed in sea water (under layer of biomass) | \n|||||
Alkali activated slag cement (alkaline activator—sodium carbonate) | \n40.0 | \n40.0 | \n59.6 | \n60.1 | \n61.4 | \n
Portland cement | \n39.0 | \n39.0 | \n47.6 | \n51.6 | \n50.0 | \n
Performance properties of alkali-activated cement slag concretes after service in sea water (Black Sea, Odessa, Ukraine).
Large-scale production of the alkali-activated cement concretes in the USSR showed their high efficiency. Cost savings (30–40%) were achieved due to the use of by-products and waste materials, as well as longer span of service life, especially in extreme conditions. These alkali-activated materials are in line with principles of global sustainable development: near-zero carbon dioxide emissions, low-energy consumption (no high temperature processes), preservation of natural resources, etc.
\nStructure (small-size building element) | \nAge of concrete (years) | \nWater permeability (MPa) | \n|
---|---|---|---|
Initial (1 month after placing) | \nAfter service | \n||
Cast-in-situ concrete facing of main irrigation channel (under water level) | \n12 | \n0.6 | \n1.8 | \n
Chutes, pre-stressed, precast Pre-stressed precast concrete elements of irrigation system | \n9 | \n1.0 | \n2.0 | \n
Massive (large-size) water breaks, precast blocks Cast-in-situ breakwater massive elements | \n8 | \n0.8 | \n2.0 | \n
Slabs in service under layer of biomass | \n8 | \n0.8 | \n2.0 | \n
The same, isolated from biomass | \n8 | \n0.8 | \n2.0 | \n
Water permeability of alkali-activated slag cement concretes after long-term service.
Numerous studies held on alkali-activated cement concretes supported by test results showed that they could work successfully with high efficiency in various structures withstanding extreme service conditions (alternate freezing-thawing, aggressive environments, dynamic and static loads, etc.). In their performance properties (freeze-thaw resistance, water permeability, corrosion resistance, etc.), the alkali-activated cement concretes are superior to portland cement ones and can be recommended for marine engineering applications, especially for so called “responsible use” structures that are in service in extreme weather conditions and under exposure of alternating loads and aggressive environments.
\nCachexia is a common occurrence in the advanced stages of cancer and contributes to reduce the quality of life and life expectancy of patients [1, 2]. Cancer-related cachexia (CC) is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality, affecting more than 80% of individuals with advanced cancer and accounting for more than 20% of deaths [3, 4, 5]. Notably, the severity of cachexia does not correlate with tumor size [6]. Although there are descriptions of cachectic individuals dating back to more than 2000 years ago, increased attention has been focused on this syndrome in the recent decades. Nevertheless, its etiology remains unknown, and there is no treatment that is able to revert this condition [7, 8].
\nCachexia is understood as a complex metabolic syndrome associated with underlying diseases and is characterized by a reduction of muscle mass and a depletion of fat stores [9, 10, 11]. Thus, the main clinical symptoms of CC are body weight loss in adults (corrected for water retention) and impaired (substandard) growth in children (after exclusion of endocrine disorders) [12]. Anorexia, inflammation, insulin resistance, and increased degradation of muscle proteins are frequently associated with cachexia [1, 2]. Although anorexia exhibits different characteristics when compared with starvation, muscle mass loss due to aging (sarcopenia), primary depression, malnutrition, and hyperthyroidism is correlated with increased morbidity associated with asthenia and metabolic disorders [3, 13].
\nWeight loss is the foremost independent predictor of mortality in cancer patients [8, 12, 14], beginning with the loss of both a fat mass (adipose tissue—AT) and the lean body mass (skeletal muscle tissue). Over the last few years, the former has often been proposed to proceed more rapidly in the patient than the latter [11, 15, 16]. By the late 1980s and early 1990s, cachexia was being approached from a different perspective, leading to a new conception according to which it is considered a chronic inflammatory syndrome. It is currently believed that factors produced by both the tumor and the host cause anorexia and the metabolic abnormalities that result in cachexia [3, 17, 18]. Based on the knowledge obtained regarding cachexia and its complexity, the latest international consensus defined standard diagnostic criteria for the disease [1]. According to this consensus, the condition is categorized as pre-cachexia (early stage), cachexia, or refractory cachexia (late stage) based on the severity of the following parameters: (1) the reduction of total body mass; (2) the presence of metabolic disorders; (3) anorexia; and (4) systemic inflammation, as illustrated in Figure 1A.
\nModel of cachexia development from a translational point of view. (A) Morphofunctional changes in adipose tissue described in cancer cachexia patients. These alterations are associated with the stages of syndrome development, according to [1]. (B) Compilation of main metabolic and inflammatory changes described in the experimental model of cachexia induced by Walker 256 tumor.
An accurate understanding of the fundamental mechanisms that underlie CC is essential for the development of new pharmacological and nutritional therapies. In this way, several studies [19, 20, 21, 22, 23] have suggested that AT is the target of local and systemic factors derived from the host and by the tumor, including pro-cachectic factors [tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α); interleukin (IL) 6; IL-1ß; IL-8; interferon-γ (INF-γ); ciliary neurotrophic factor; and leukemia inhibitory factor], anti-cachectic factors [soluble TNF-α receptor (sTNFR); soluble IL-6 receptor (sIL-6R); IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1RA); IL-4; IL-10; and IL-15], and tumor products [proteolysis-inducing factor (PIF); lipid-mobilizing factor (LMF); zinc-α 2-glycoprotein (ZAG); toxohormone-L; and anemia-inducing substance (AIS)]. Such factors are involved in the etiology and progression of cachexia [8, 14, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29]. Upon positing the inflammatory model as the hypothesis to be tested, some studies have recently demonstrated the relevance of subcutaneous adipose tissue (scAT) as both an important source of inflammatory mediators (particularly IL-6 and adiponectin) and an important source of biomarkers for cachexia (clinical progression), as adiponectin expression exhibits a correlation with the magnitude of the total body mass reduction [20]. More recently, a consistent modification consisting of inflammatory cell presence and fibrosis in scAT induced by cachexia was demonstrated in gastrointestinal cancer patients [30, 31]. The fibrosis was characterized by the presence of “crown-like structures” composed of CD68 positive AT macrophages (ATMϕs) surrounding adipocytes, and increased CD3 Ly, both of which were more evident in the fibrotic areas. In addition, some of these changes were already present in the cancer group, suggesting that AT inflammation may occur at an early stage of cachexia, even before the detection of pre-cachexic clinical features. Thus, alterations in AT inflammation seem to play a crucial role in the changes resulting in fat mass reduction, in addition to other morphofunctional alterations related to this tissue [19, 21]. Moreover, these changes appear to start quite early, long before any local tissue and/or systemic (circulatory system) changes can be detected.
\nNevertheless, most studies on this topic have been restricted to assessing inflammation from the systemic point of view, only investigating plasma parameters, while neglecting tissue inflammation and, particularly, the events that precede the appearance of these alterations, although they may significantly contribute to disorders that result in AT remodeling, such as impairment of lipid metabolism, tissue cells turnover and inflammation, fibrosis, and subsequent systemic inflammation [2, 28]. Additionally, considering the important relationship among infiltrating cells (inflammatory mediators), the regulation of adipocyte metabolism, and the consequent remodeling of the AT, few or no studies have investigated this relationship and its role in the various stages of cachexia to our knowledge.
\nIn general, AT remodeling in CC comprises a set of morphostructural modifications characterized by adipocyte atrophy, a result of an unbalance of lipids turnover, main due to increased lipolysis [10, 32]; impairment of adipocyte cellular turnover (adipogenesis) [18, 19]; enhanced inflammatory signaling [21, 30, 32]; modification of extracellular matrix (ECM) component generally resulting in fibrosis [30, 31]; and browning phenotype related to increase thermogenic effect [16, 33, 34, 35].
\nThe basic structure of the various types of AT includes mature adipocytes, stromal vascular cells (mesenchymal precursor cells, preadipocytes, fibroblasts, and immune system cells), blood vessels, lymph nodes, and nerves [36]. Fat cells (adipocytes) are the main cell type in AT, while the presence of other cell types varies as a function of the tissue location [mesenteric (meAT), epididymal (epiAT), retroperitoneal (rpAT), or scAT], animal species, and disease (e.g., obesity and cachexia) [37]. Additionally, the importance of AT in the control of adiposity is well established, as is the role of the adipokines (leptin, adiponectin, and resistin, among others) released by the adipose tissue [38]. While alterations in the development and metabolism of adipocytes have been implicated in the pathogenesis of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-related lipodystrophy [39], very little is known about the molecular mechanisms involved in the occurrence of lipodystrophy associated with other conditions, such as cachexia.
\nAs mentioned above, in the course of cachexia, the observed body weight loss predominantly results from a reduction in the fat (AT) and lean (skeletal muscle) mass [10, 40]. More recently, AT loss was found to precede the reduction of the lean body mass [11, 15], and thus, a more accurate understanding of this process began to emerge. Several factors have been suggested as the cause of the changes that lead to a reduction of AT mass, including (1)increased lipid mobilization due to increased lipolysis in adipocytes [9, 10]; (2) reduced lipogenesis, resulting from decreased lipoprotein lipase (LPL) activity [17]; and (3) impaired adipocyte turnover, most likely as a function of an adipogenesis-apoptosis imbalance in AT [41].
\nTaking the factors that are most likely to be involved in the observed fat mass loss and the relevance of AT in cachexia into consideration, the recent studies have utilized an experimental animal model that allows temporal assessment of the main variables that are potentially involved in cachexia-induced AT disorders, with an emphasis on the parameters related to adipogenesis, metabolism, and inflammation [18, 23, 27, 32], as shown in Figure 1A. These data demonstrate that these alterations start early, at 4 days after cachexia induction by inoculation of Walker 256 tumor cells in Wistar rats [19, 32]. It is worth noting that this is the period that precedes the appearance of the classic symptoms of cachexia, such as dyslipidemia, and a reduction of the total body weight, as well as inflammatory alterations in the AT in these animals, which begin to predominate starting on Day 7. In Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC) tumor-bearing mice, upregulation of genes related to lipid turnover and adipose browning is evident even before the detection of the body weight loss of the animals [16, 33]. Similarly, using several experimental models of cachexia (syngeneic and genetic), K5-SOS mice showed reduction in fat mass and spleen enlargement in the pre-cachexic period, that is, before the detection of body weight loss and the development of cachexia [33]. Taking the aforementioned findings into consideration, the temporal characterization of some of the alterations that occur in different AT depots in the course of cachexia has effectively pointed to actual pathways and mediators that might be involved in the earliest changes, in addition to serving as biomarkers for the clinical progression of cachexia.
\nAs mentioned above, accentuated reduction of fat mass is a significant clinical sign of CC. Although it has not yet been well established, these alterations depend on the location of the adipose tissue involved (e.g., visceral or subcutaneous). Taking this into account, it was recently shown that, considering results found in the experimental animal model of cachexia (Walker 256 tumors cells-induced), visceral fat depots were affected in different ways. Thus, epiAT and meAT [25] exhibited higher reductions in relative weight (percentage of total body mass), respectively, while rpAT did not show any change [42]. Furthermore, in cachectic patients, assessment of the adipose tissue area by means of computed tomography in humans showed that visceral AT was reduced in cachectic individuals with gastrointestinal carcinosarcoma when compared with controls [43]. On the other hand, in individuals with gastrointestinal cancer, scAT seems to be more affected when compared with visceral AT (epiAT and meAT), at least considering tissue inflammation parameters [44].
\nIn fact, as described above, AT atrophy is a well-characterized clinical variable in cachexia syndrome. In addition, this tissue is affected early before the appearance of classic signs of cachexia. In this sense, the main morphological alteration observed as a result of AT atrophy is the alterations in the area and perimeter of adipocytes in both animal models [18, 42] and CC patients [20, 30]. Still in this context, depot-specific changes in adipocyte ultrastructure [42] were also described.
\nThe body weight loss in CC has been thought to be a result of profound changes in metabolic pathways of tissues and organs, which cannot be solely explained by enhanced energy expenditure or malnutrition [45]. In this regard, the role of early AT dysfunction seems to have gained importance in the onset and progression of many alterations induced by the syndrome. Different mechanistic possibilities have been proposed to explain the changes in AT in cachexia, such as increased lipolytic activity, decreased the activity of LPL, reduced de novo lipogenesis, and, consequently, decreased lipid triacylglycerol (TG) deposition [32, 45, 46, 47]. Adipocyte lipid turnover [i.e., the balance between incorporation and removal of TG into adipocytes, in which lipolysis (hydrolysis of intracellular TGs)] and is the most important factor for lipid removal [48]. In CC, human and animal models [11] have shown an increased rate of lipid mobilization, and longitudinal studies have shown that patients with CC lose AT mass before wasting of the muscle mass can be detected [15]. In addition, an accelerated rate of AT loss is believed to be associated with shorter survival time during cancer progression [49].
\nMost of the volume (>90%) of a white adipocyte is represented by a single fat droplet, which is mainly composed of TG. During periods of stress and/or nutrient deprivation, such as in metabolic disorders, the adipocytes activate mechanisms that lead to lipolysis, with a consequent release of non-esterified fatty acids (NEFAs) and glycerol originating in the TG stored in these cells. NEFAs are immediately released into the bloodstream and subsequently serve as a substrate for energy production of muscle tissues, or alternatively, they are taken up into the liver, where they are oxidized, esterified, or transformed into ketone bodies [50]. The reactions that result in NEFA release are mainly catalyzed by two enzymes: adipocyte triglyceride lipase (ATGL), which catalyzes the first step of the pathway, resulting in the formation of diacylglycerol, and hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL), which is responsible for additional hydrolysis and catalyzes the reactions that culminate in NEFA and glycerol release [10].
\nAmong the mechanisms that may be involved in the metabolic disorders that cause fat mass reduction in cachexia, increased lipolysis appears to be the most evident and is being described as an increasing frequency [9, 11]. Das and colleagues found that in ATGL and HSL knockout mice, there was a greater resistance to the development of tumor-induced cachexia, which was more evident in ATGL-deficient animals. These authors also observed a positive correlation between ATGL activity and the severity of cachexia. Even more interestingly, they only detected a reduction of lean body mass in animals that exhibited severe cachexia. This phenomenon followed the events that led to a reduction of fat body mass, most noticeably involving an increase of TG hydrolysis in AT. The results of this study corroborate findings previously reported in individuals with cancer-related cachexia [15], thus increasing the consistency of the evidence demonstrating the role of AT as a target tissue in cachexia. Nevertheless, neither the exact time when these changes occur in the course of cachexia nor the various affected depots have yet been adequately described.
\nTo elucidate these aspects, a study was conducted in which the lipolytic capacity of isolated adipocytes was assessed at 4 and 14 days after the inoculation of tumor cells. Two particular visceral fat stores were selected (meAT and rpAT) based on the results of previous studies that demonstrated their relevance for the development of cachexia. Day 4 was selected to perform the analysis, also based on previous results [19], which demonstrated downregulation of the genes involved in adipocyte metabolism, while no changes were found in the assessed morphological and inflammatory parameters. Interestingly, the tumor-bearing animals exhibited a reduction in basal lipolysis 4 days after inoculation, while on Day 14, the cachectic animals exhibited a considerable increase in the basal lipolysis rate (Figure 1B). These findings corroborate with the results of other studies showing increased lipolysis in the subcutaneous AT of cachectic patients [9, 51].
\nIn this regard, another important aspect was a deregulation of lipolysis (in vitro) revealed a distinct profile, depending on the degree of disease progression. In the first, the basal rate of lipolysis was reduced and was accompanied by increased p-HSL (Ser565) expression, which is regulated by AMPK activation and, consequently, inhibits HSL activity. Patients with CC show reduced spontaneous basal lipolysis with elevated ex vivo responses to catecholamine and natriuretic peptides [40, 52]. In this aspect, an elegant study showed that the lack of AMPK activity is a common feature of adipose tissue dysfunction in cachectic mice and is triggered, at least partially, through the aberrant induction of Cidea and the subsequent degradation of AMPK in this tissue [53]. The authors suggest that treatment of cachectic animals with a peptide specifically targeting the white adipose tissue AMPK-CIDEA interaction prevents AT loss under CC conditions.
\nAdipogenesis may be defined as the process of the differentiation of precursor cells (preadipocytes) into new adipose cells (adipocytes) that are able to store TG and synthesize and secrete various proteins called adipokines [54]. In fact, impaired adipogenesis might contribute to the development of obesity-related metabolic disorders, such as peripheral insulin resistance, hyperlipidemia, and type 2 diabetes [55, 56]. The process of adipocyte differentiation involves the activation of a cascade of transcription factors that coordinate the expression of genes that are responsible for adipocyte function [55, 57]. The initial events include transient increases in CCAAT/enhancer-binding proteins beta and delta (C/EBPβ and δ), which allow preadipocytes to be distinguished from non-adipogenic precursor cells and subsequently activate the expression of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma-2 (Pparγ-2), which in turn stimulates the expression of C/ebpα, which exerts a synergic effect with PPARγ-2 on the control of terminal differentiation [54, 57]. Local and endocrine factors might regulate adipogenesis through the modulation of these transcriptional events [58].
\nAdipocyte maturation is accompanied by intracellular lipid accumulation, which is mainly mediated by sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1C (SREBP-1C). In addition to activating the expression of Pparγ-2, SREBP-1C also activates the lipogenic pathway by stimulating the expression of the genes that encode the main enzymes of that pathway, such as ATP-citrate lyase (Acly), acetyl-CoA carboxylase (Acaca), fatty acid synthase (Fasn), and stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1 (Scd-1) [18, 57]. In addition to its direct participation in adipocyte differentiation, PPARγ-2 also plays an important role in the transcriptional regulation of genes associated with the lipogenic pathway by inducing the transcription of genes that encode adipocyte fatty acid-binding protein (aP2), LPL, fatty acid transport proteins (FATPs), and fatty acid-binding proteins (FABPs), among others. Activation of genes associated with glucose transport, such as Glut4, and thermogenesis, such as the mitochondrial uncoupling proteins (Ucp2 and Ucp3), has also been described [18].
\nIn AT, a balance between the growth/differentiation (adipogenesis) and death of its cells (generally by apoptosis) regulates the cellular turnover [41, 59]. In this aspect, the impairment of adipogenesis in the course of cachexia has been recently addressed. Some studies have elucidated the adipogenic marker profile during the development of cachexia syndrome [19, 25]. However, few studies have addressed the apoptotic processes and/or AT turnover during cachexia [43]. It has been known that adipogenic genes are downregulated in CC in epiAT [18] and rpAT [19]. On the other hand, scAT apoptosis did not change in cancer patients [43]. Therefore, considering that AT depots respond heterogeneously to CC and several metabolic and inflammatory pathways are involved in AT remodeling, there is no consensus if such effects induced by cachexia would be a result of secreted products directly by the tumor and tumor-host relationship. Thus, a recent study has analyzed in vitro adipogenesis in a co-culture system to mimic the effects of CC on adipocytes [60]. Co-culture of LLC cells promoted a decreased volume of the lipid droplets in 3 T3-L1 cells, compromising its maturation process (adipogenesis) in vitro. This result was followed by the downregulation of adipogenic and lipolytic gene expression, increased in apoptosis markers and proinflammatory cytokines secretion by both tumor cells and adipocytes. In this sense, these data suggest that the presence of the tumor cells was able to inhibit the adipocytes’ maturation, which was associated with the increased levels of inflammatory cytokines.
\nIn this way, the findings generated in the experimental model have demonstrated to be adequate for investigating cachexia-induced alterations of adipogenesis and point to the need to widen the scope of the assessed genes as well as the pathways and regulatory factors involved. Besides, modifications in adipogenesis appear to precede the appearance of the classic signs of cachexia as well as the signs of tissue inflammation in AT, such as increases in infiltrated macrophages and the production of inflammatory cytokines [21]. Thus, the factors that “silence” the genes involved in the differentiation of preadipocytes, and, consequently, in the maintenance of adipose cells turnover in AT might play a central role in the genesis of the damaging changes (metabolism and function) that occur in the adipose tissue of individuals with cachexia.
\nAccording to the abovementioned findings from animal models and cancer cachexia patients, a metabolic and morphological dysfunction that results in the AT remodeling occurs during the development of CC [2]. More recently, another relevant aspect of cachexia-induced AT remodeling is the establishment of AT inflammation, which is characterized by increased recruitment of ATMϕs, including activated M1 (pro-inflammatory) and M2 (anti-inflammatory) macrophages [32]. In this way, an inflammatory profile predominates the end-stage of cachexia, particularly in visceral AT, as most of the characteristic changes of this syndrome are already established at this time [19, 27]. More recently, the immune cell infiltration profile was analyzed in greater detail, which was found to be characterized by an increase in M1-polarized macrophages [20]. In that study, the profile of chemokines specific to polymorphonuclear cells was also investigated, in addition to the presence of neutrophils in the various AT depots. The results revealed an increase in the chemokines CCL3 and CXCL2 at 7 days after tumor cell inoculation. The presence of CD11b-positive cells, which were tested to detect the presence of neutrophils, was observed in the same period. Taking the temporal changes identified in the cachexia model into consideration, as a function of the assessed parameters, the results indicate that inflammation starts on Day 7 and is established by Day 14, a period during which a series of disorders characteristic of cachexia become evident (e.g., a reduction of the total body and fat mass, dyslipidemia, and hypoglycemia). In this regard, even more recently, these findings were presented in greater detail in cachexia induced by LLC cells, showing ATMϕs polarization tends to be directed to M1 phenotype [61, 62].
\nDespite the increasing perception of the importance of the relationship between inflammation and CC, and systemic inflammation in particular, there is still no consensus regarding its source and also the role of inflammation of TA in the establishment and development of cachexia, among cancer patients in particular [9, 43]. Limitations in experimental designs, the selection of control groups, and the techniques used to analyze markers of inflammation have most likely been responsible for preventing a more precise investigation of the presence of inflammation in AT. Addressing this question, a study has recently demonstrated increased gene expression of phenotypic markers of ATMϕs and inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-6 and TNF-α, in cachectic patients with gastrointestinal cancer [20]. Interestingly, increased gene levels of IL-6 were positively correlated to increase plasmatic levels of this cytokine, indicating that in cachectic patients, scAT may be an important source of inflammatory mediators. Even more recently, the same group revealed an increase in ATMϕs forming crown-like structures in the same AT depot from cachectic patients [44], which is a characteristic finding in fat tissue in experimental animal models of obesity and in obese patients [63]. In addition, an increase in chemoattractant for ATMϕs gene expression in scAT, such as Ccl2, was detected only in cancer patients without cachexia, showing no changes in cachectic ones. However, despite the relevance of local inflammation, in AT in particular, the mechanisms responsible for both cachexia and inflammation remain to be elucidated. The characterization and understanding of the process of inflammation in cachexia are also relevant to establish whether it is secondary to or the “trigger” for the development of cachexia syndrome.
\nExtracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling is the result of the processes of matrix synthesis and degradation during which specific proteins are deposited, such as tenascin and fibrin, and occurs under both physiological (e.g., tissue repair) and pathological conditions (e.g., inflammation) [64]. The ECM consists of a complex network of multifunctional and structural molecules, including various collagen isoforms, adhesive glycoproteins, and proteoglycans. This network provides support to cells and to the signaling pathways that control their migration, proliferation, and differentiation. Also, the ECM might serve as a reservoir of cytokines and other growth factors, which are released into the system in variable amounts depending on the pathological condition.
\nECM remodeling plays a central role in the differentiation of adipocytes. Although the corresponding molecular mechanisms are only partially understood, ECM remodeling occurs concomitantly with the activation and/or repression of a transcriptional “network” involved in adipogenesis, which may be activated or repressed due to extracellular stimuli [65]. In the 3 T3-L1 mouse cell line, the differentiation of adipocytes is associated with a reduction in the fibronectin-rich matrix and basal lamina formation [66, 67]. Silencing of the pericellular collagen membrane type-1 matrix metalloproteinase (Mt1-Mmp) gene in the course of the mouse development results in the formation of a rigid collagen fibril chain and changes in vivo adipogenesis [68]. This condition is an example of the relationship between structural changes in ECM and adipocyte differentiation.
\nECM remodeling plays a central role in the differentiation of adipocytes. Although the similar molecular mechanisms are only partially understood, ECM remodeling occurs concomitantly with the activation and/or repression of a transcriptional “network” involved in adipogenesis, which may be activated or repressed due to extracellular stimuli [69]. While some such alterations, such as changes in collagen content deposition, an increase in the number of infiltrated cells and insulin resistance, are also present in cancer-related cachexia, very little is known regarding the possible relationship between these cell types (e.g. fibroblasts, pre-adipocytes, immune cells, and others) and the processes that lead to ECM remodeling.
\nIn MAC16 tumor-bearing mice, a cancer cachexia animal model, shrunken adipocytes and increased collagen-fibril content in AT were reported [18]. In CC patients, our group recently showed that the total type I collagen content of the scAT is rearranged in cachectic individuals with gastrointestinal cancer, which is associated with an increase in macrophage and lymphocyte contents. Interestingly, the total collagen content exhibited discrete changes in cancer patients without cachexia, but the expression of the Ccl2 gene was found to be increased [20]. Another exciting finding demonstrates that ECM remodeling of AT in cancer cachexia results in augmented collagen fiber content. Excessive synthesis of mature elastic fibers accompanies such morphological scenery, besides strong labeling for collagen type I (COL1) and III (COL3) in the AT from cachectic patients [30, 31]. Besides, the presence of fibrosis was also associated with an increased number of myofibroblasts and an activated TGFβ/SMAD pathway in the subcutaneous AT of gastrointestinal cancer cachectic patients [31, 70].
\nThese findings indicate that the morphological changes that lead to AT remodeling in CC patients are evident, albeit discretely, before the onset of the earliest characteristic symptoms of cachexia (Figure 1). However, to the best of our knowledge, no study has yet investigated the causes and repercussions of fat remodeling in the course of cachexia in full detail.
\nWithin the set of morphofunctional changes that result in the AT remodeling, it has recently been shown that cachexia induces browning of AT in addition to changes in immune-modulatory activity. In this scenario, chronic inflammation and β-adrenergic activation of thermogenesis functionally cooperate in the pathogenesis of cachexia [16, 33, 62, 71]. In general, browning of AT has been described as responsible for the increase in total caloric expenditure [72], and the induction of browning has therapeutic potential in promoting the reduction of body fat [16, 33, 34, 73]. However, this fact refers to conditions of diseases characterized by the presence of metabolic disorders, usually associated with high caloric intake, overweight, and/or obesity [74].
\nIn this sense, in CC, the presence of the browning phenotype has shown to be detected very early [16] in different experimental models [33, 34, 35]. Also, it has demonstrated a significant role in altering the metabolism of this tissue because this process is related to the increase in energy expenditure and mobilization of fatty acids [17] by adipocytes. Another interesting new fact was that, in this same study, AT from cachectic mice showed upregulation of particular genes for brown adipocytes when compared to samples of brown adipose tissue. This fact is not usual because the one would expect an increase in genes specific to beige adipocytes. Also, regarding thermogenesis, the rectal temperature was reduced when the main clinical signs of the diseases were already established (refractory cachexia). Interestingly, this hypothermic phenotype has previously been described in the Walker 256 tumor-induced cachexia model, in the final stage of cachexia [75]. On the other hand, additional studies are needed to clarify the immuno-metabolic changes resulting in thermogenic adjustments induced by the syndrome, as well as the particular clinical consequences.
\nIn this same study [33], the browning phenotype has also been described in samples of visceral adipose tissue from cancer cachexia patients. However, there is a need for analysis in a larger cohort and additional characterizations about the possible physiological repercussions for these patients. Also, there is still a need to characterize the real contribution of AT browning to overall energy expenditure during cancer cachexia. In this sense, an elegant study has evaluated, in several experimental models, that although the studies above detected mild induction of Ucp1 mRNA levels in tumor-exposed AT, such changes appear to be discrete in thermogenic terms [53]. In this scenario, the overall effect of AT UCP1-dependent thermogenesis on systemic energy homeostasis may not be the principal actor during cancer cachexia.
\nIn summary, several studies have shown that AT is significantly affected during the development of cachexia. The main alterations related to metabolic disorders, particularly those involving early adipocyte lipid turnover dysfunction of AT, increases in immune cell infiltration followed by increased local production of inflammatory mediators and remodeling of ECM components. More recently, some studies have shown that cachexia-induced browning of AT is a characteristic phenotype that arises from alterations that result in the AT remodeling, although its function is still not well characterized. Nevertheless, studies using those experimental models have consistently indicated that the modifications in the adipocyte metabolism begin quite early, and the metabolites derived from this process may be the initial (sterile) trigger of the sequence of events that result in the remodeling and consequent dysfunction of AT in cachexia. Finally, a deeper understanding of the initial stimulus that triggers AT dysfunction, in particular, inflammation and remodeling, needs to be further studied because evidence indicates that AT dysfunction plays a significant role in cachexia and may be a potential modulator of the process that could be explored therapeutically.
\nWe would like to thank all the members of Laboratory of Adipose Tissue Biology for helpful discussions and critical reading of the chapter. We would also like to thank Alexander H. Bedard for the revision of the chapter as a native of the English language. This study was supported by São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP) Grants: 2010/51078-1, 2015/19259-0, and CNPq 311966/2015-2 to MLB Jr. The contents of this chapter are solely the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official views of FAPESP and CNPq.
\nThe authors declare no conflicts of interest.
ECM | extracellular matrix |
ATGL | adipose triglycerides lipase |
HSL | hormone-sensitive lipase |
CC | cancer-related cachexia |
AT | adipose tissue |
sTNFR | soluble tumor necrosis factor-α receptor |
sIL-6R | soluble IL-6 receptor |
IL-1RA | IL-1 receptor antagonist |
IL | interleukin |
PIF | proteolysis-inducing factor |
LMF | lipid-mobilizing factor |
ZAG | zinc-α2-glycoprotein |
AIS | anemia-inducing substance |
scAT | subcutaneous adipose tissue |
CD | cluster of differentiation |
ATMϕs | adipose tissue macrophage |
CD3 | cluster of differentiation 3 |
Ly | lymphocytes |
HIV | human immunodeficiency virus |
LPL | lipoprotein lipase |
LLC | Lewis lung carcinoma |
K5-SOS-F | keratinocyte-specific expression of an HA tagged dominant form of the human SOS1 |
TG | triacylglycerol |
NEFAs | non-esterified fatty acids AMPK |
AMPK | 5′ adenosine monophosphate-activated protein |
CIDEA | cell death-inducing DFFA-like effector a |
C/EBP | CCAAT/enhancer-binding proteins |
PPARγ | peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma |
SREBP-1C | sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1C |
ACC | acetyl-CoA carboxylase |
FAS | fatty acid synthase |
SCD-1 | stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1 |
GPAT | glycerol-3-phosphate acetyltransferase |
aP2 | adipocyte fatty acid-binding protein |
FATPs | fatty acid transport proteins |
FABPs | fatty acid-binding proteins |
GLUT-4 | glucose transport 4 |
UCP | mitochondrial uncoupling proteins |
3 T3-L1 | embryo fibroblast cells with a continuous substrain (L1) of 3T3 (Swiss albino) developed through clonal isolation |
M1 | polarized macrophages 1 |
M2 | polarized macrophages 2 |
CCL | chemokine (C-C motif) ligand |
CXCL | chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand |
MT1-MMP | collagen membrane type-1 matrix metalloproteinase |
MAC16 | murine adenocarcinoma 16 |
CCR2 (MCP-1) | C-C chemokine receptor type 2 |
COL1 | collagen type I |
COL3 | collagen type III |
TGFβ | transforming growth factor beta |
SMAD | small worm phenotype mothers against decapentaplegic |
IntechOpen will act in accordance with its Refund Policy if requests for refunds are made.
",metaTitle:"Refund Policy",metaDescription:"IntechOpen will act in accordance with its Refund Policy if requests for refunds are made.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/refund-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Refunds are possible exclusively in the following cases:
\\n\\n1. Double payment – full refund
\\n\\n2. Justified withdrawal of the accepted Work by the Author during/after production prior to publication – 50% refund (IntechOpen will act entirely in its own discretion to determine if withdrawal is justified and refund will be issued accordingly.)
\\n\\n3. In rare instances where IntechOpen will not publish the book – full refunds will be made to the same account (credit card, bank transfer, or other) from which the Author has made the original payment.
\\n\\nRefunded amounts will not always be exactly the same as original payment amounts due to bank transaction fees and expenses. Any discrepancies in amounts will be split between IntechOpen and the Author.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"Refunds are possible exclusively in the following cases:
\n\n1. Double payment – full refund
\n\n2. Justified withdrawal of the accepted Work by the Author during/after production prior to publication – 50% refund (IntechOpen will act entirely in its own discretion to determine if withdrawal is justified and refund will be issued accordingly.)
\n\n3. In rare instances where IntechOpen will not publish the book – full refunds will be made to the same account (credit card, bank transfer, or other) from which the Author has made the original payment.
\n\nRefunded amounts will not always be exactly the same as original payment amounts due to bank transaction fees and expenses. Any discrepancies in amounts will be split between IntechOpen and the Author.
\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Vienna University of Technology",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:"Assist. Prof.",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:"Postdoctoral researcher",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University Joseph Fourier (Grenoble I)",country:null}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:null}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:451},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:604},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:199},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:1080},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:75},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:1470}],offset:12,limit:12,total:103407},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"16"},books:[{type:"book",id:"6916",title:"Fabry Disease - Overview and Perspectives",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"b10f37a93e56d6b0bd21e113c2748d32",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Ane Claudia Fernandes Nunes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6916.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55270",title:"Prof.",name:"Ane",surname:"Nunes",slug:"ane-nunes",fullName:"Ane Nunes"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7003",title:"Herbs and Spices - Health Benefits",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"6f7ef877075c3ce0d014a200ffb38fcb",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7003.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7058",title:"Pulmonary Hypertension",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"5475e23e172ea6b07344dee708c755ac",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Theodoros Aslanidis and Dr. Evangelos V",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7058.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"200252",title:"Dr.",name:"Theodoros",surname:"Aslanidis",slug:"theodoros-aslanidis",fullName:"Theodoros Aslanidis"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7061",title:"Hypoglycemia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"71d38173067c610b03c51dec97dd031d",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Leszek Szablewski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7061.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7081",title:"Surgical Treatment of Benign Neoplasms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f42fe8f15121c4097dfa8d179cce0a97",slug:null,bookSignature:"Associate Prof. Selim Sozen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7081.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"90616",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Selim",surname:"Sozen",slug:"selim-sozen",fullName:"Selim Sozen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7092",title:"Menopausal Hormone Therapy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9a994bb38d6ba5f015a9a7d3db41b635",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7092.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7102",title:"Management of Bacterial Pneumonia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"99c408d20813ec62ec65467c3597d63f",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7102.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"61c627da05b2ace83056d11357bdf361",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Alfonso J. . Rodriguez-Morales",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfonso J.",surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7127",title:"Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"cdd6b5d1c49fb07491f282d244b28309",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Ali Erdal Gunes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7127.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"217379",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali Erdal",surname:"Gunes",slug:"ali-erdal-gunes",fullName:"Ali Erdal Gunes"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7134",title:"Management of Syphilis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"fff77c1e77772f2f9affe655a80cdf52",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7134.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7136",title:"Sickle Cell Anaemia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"e79ebfd49858d774a86c3ea377e35683",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7136.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7151",title:"Calcification of Soft Tissues",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"fdb586132b6fa0a9e7b97e318e46bb62",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7151.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:30},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:32},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:32},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:22},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:93},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:12},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:22},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:107},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:18},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:292},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7452",title:"Microbiology of Urinary Tract Infections",subtitle:"Microbial Agents and Predisposing Factors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e99363f3cb1fe89c406f4934a23033d0",slug:"microbiology-of-urinary-tract-infections-microbial-agents-and-predisposing-factors",bookSignature:"Payam Behzadi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7452.jpg",editors:[{id:"45803",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Payam",middleName:null,surname:"Behzadi",slug:"payam-behzadi",fullName:"Payam Behzadi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7519",title:"Sol-Gel Method",subtitle:"Design and Synthesis of New Materials with Interesting Physical, Chemical and Biological Properties",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cf094d22ebcb3083749e5f96e47f7769",slug:"sol-gel-method-design-and-synthesis-of-new-materials-with-interesting-physical-chemical-and-biological-properties",bookSignature:"Guadalupe Valverde Aguilar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7519.jpg",editors:[{id:"186652",title:"Dr.",name:"Guadalupe",middleName:null,surname:"Valverde Aguilar",slug:"guadalupe-valverde-aguilar",fullName:"Guadalupe Valverde Aguilar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7437",title:"Nanomedicines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e1f5f6258f074c533976c4f4d248568",slug:"nanomedicines",bookSignature:"Muhammad Akhyar Farrukh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7437.jpg",editors:[{id:"63182",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Akhyar",middleName:null,surname:"Farrukh",slug:"muhammad-akhyar-farrukh",fullName:"Muhammad Akhyar Farrukh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"6679",title:"Serotonin",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9c833c86546ec9d3c38fb24a1072dbd0",slug:"serotonin",bookSignature:"Ying Qu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6679.jpg",editors:[{id:"94028",title:"Dr.",name:"Ying",middleName:null,surname:"Qu",slug:"ying-qu",fullName:"Ying Qu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"6856",title:"Gold Nanoparticles",subtitle:"Reaching New Heights",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"23e172496e46e18712a901308d074cfb",slug:"gold-nanoparticles-reaching-new-heights",bookSignature:"Mohammed Rahman and Abdullah Mohammed Asiri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6856.jpg",editors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:"Muzibur",surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Rahman"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"2160",title:"MATLAB",subtitle:"A Fundamental Tool for Scientific Computing and Engineering Applications - Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd9c658341fbd264ed4f8d9e6aa8ca29",slug:"matlab-a-fundamental-tool-for-scientific-computing-and-engineering-applications-volume-1",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Katsikis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2160.jpg",editors:[{id:"12289",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasilios",middleName:"N.",surname:"Katsikis",slug:"vasilios-katsikis",fullName:"Vasilios Katsikis"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"3568",title:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"830bbb601742c85a3fb0eeafe1454c43",slug:"recent-advances-in-plant-in-vitro-culture",bookSignature:"Annarita Leva and Laura M. R. Rinaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3568.jpg",editors:[{id:"142145",title:"Dr.",name:"Annarita",middleName:null,surname:"Leva",slug:"annarita-leva",fullName:"Annarita Leva"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"1770",title:"Gel Electrophoresis",subtitle:"Principles and Basics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"279701f6c802cf02deef45103e0611ff",slug:"gel-electrophoresis-principles-and-basics",bookSignature:"Sameh Magdeldin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1770.jpg",editors:[{id:"123648",title:"Dr.",name:"Sameh",middleName:null,surname:"Magdeldin",slug:"sameh-magdeldin",fullName:"Sameh Magdeldin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"632",title:"Wide Spectra of Quality Control",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9f7ce64f86daee44a8c5604e8924de1c",slug:"wide-spectra-of-quality-control",bookSignature:"Isin Akyar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/632.jpg",editors:[{id:"36323",title:"Dr.",name:"Isin",middleName:null,surname:"Akyar",slug:"isin-akyar",fullName:"Isin Akyar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"3037",title:"MATLAB",subtitle:"A Fundamental Tool for Scientific Computing and Engineering Applications - Volume 3",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1de63ac4f2c398a1304a7c08ee883655",slug:"matlab-a-fundamental-tool-for-scientific-computing-and-engineering-applications-volume-3",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Katsikis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3037.jpg",editors:[{id:"12289",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasilios",middleName:"N.",surname:"Katsikis",slug:"vasilios-katsikis",fullName:"Vasilios Katsikis"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"2175",title:"Risk Management",subtitle:"Current Issues and Challenges",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c6406ba890ef4569efd8298e1121685d",slug:"risk-management-current-issues-and-challenges",bookSignature:"Nerija Banaitiene",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2175.jpg",editors:[{id:"139414",title:"Dr.",name:"Nerija",middleName:null,surname:"Banaitiene",slug:"nerija-banaitiene",fullName:"Nerija Banaitiene"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"1667",title:"A Bird's-Eye View of Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7be827d70aa0311258d658f729670887",slug:"a-bird-s-eye-view-of-veterinary-medicine",bookSignature:"Carlos C. Perez-Marin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1667.jpg",editors:[{id:"25632",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos C.",middleName:null,surname:"Perez-Marin",slug:"carlos-c.-perez-marin",fullName:"Carlos C. Perez-Marin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:1806},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7452",title:"Microbiology of Urinary Tract Infections",subtitle:"Microbial Agents and Predisposing Factors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e99363f3cb1fe89c406f4934a23033d0",slug:"microbiology-of-urinary-tract-infections-microbial-agents-and-predisposing-factors",bookSignature:"Payam Behzadi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7452.jpg",editors:[{id:"45803",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Payam",middleName:null,surname:"Behzadi",slug:"payam-behzadi",fullName:"Payam Behzadi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7519",title:"Sol-Gel Method",subtitle:"Design and Synthesis of New Materials with Interesting Physical, Chemical and Biological Properties",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cf094d22ebcb3083749e5f96e47f7769",slug:"sol-gel-method-design-and-synthesis-of-new-materials-with-interesting-physical-chemical-and-biological-properties",bookSignature:"Guadalupe Valverde Aguilar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7519.jpg",editors:[{id:"186652",title:"Dr.",name:"Guadalupe",middleName:null,surname:"Valverde Aguilar",slug:"guadalupe-valverde-aguilar",fullName:"Guadalupe Valverde Aguilar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7437",title:"Nanomedicines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e1f5f6258f074c533976c4f4d248568",slug:"nanomedicines",bookSignature:"Muhammad Akhyar Farrukh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7437.jpg",editors:[{id:"63182",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Akhyar",middleName:null,surname:"Farrukh",slug:"muhammad-akhyar-farrukh",fullName:"Muhammad Akhyar Farrukh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"6679",title:"Serotonin",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9c833c86546ec9d3c38fb24a1072dbd0",slug:"serotonin",bookSignature:"Ying Qu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6679.jpg",editors:[{id:"94028",title:"Dr.",name:"Ying",middleName:null,surname:"Qu",slug:"ying-qu",fullName:"Ying Qu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"6856",title:"Gold Nanoparticles",subtitle:"Reaching New Heights",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"23e172496e46e18712a901308d074cfb",slug:"gold-nanoparticles-reaching-new-heights",bookSignature:"Mohammed Rahman and Abdullah Mohammed Asiri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6856.jpg",editors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:"Muzibur",surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Rahman"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"2160",title:"MATLAB",subtitle:"A Fundamental Tool for Scientific Computing and Engineering Applications - Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd9c658341fbd264ed4f8d9e6aa8ca29",slug:"matlab-a-fundamental-tool-for-scientific-computing-and-engineering-applications-volume-1",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Katsikis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2160.jpg",editors:[{id:"12289",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasilios",middleName:"N.",surname:"Katsikis",slug:"vasilios-katsikis",fullName:"Vasilios Katsikis"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"3568",title:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"830bbb601742c85a3fb0eeafe1454c43",slug:"recent-advances-in-plant-in-vitro-culture",bookSignature:"Annarita Leva and Laura M. R. Rinaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3568.jpg",editors:[{id:"142145",title:"Dr.",name:"Annarita",middleName:null,surname:"Leva",slug:"annarita-leva",fullName:"Annarita Leva"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"1770",title:"Gel Electrophoresis",subtitle:"Principles and Basics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"279701f6c802cf02deef45103e0611ff",slug:"gel-electrophoresis-principles-and-basics",bookSignature:"Sameh Magdeldin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1770.jpg",editors:[{id:"123648",title:"Dr.",name:"Sameh",middleName:null,surname:"Magdeldin",slug:"sameh-magdeldin",fullName:"Sameh Magdeldin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"632",title:"Wide Spectra of Quality Control",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9f7ce64f86daee44a8c5604e8924de1c",slug:"wide-spectra-of-quality-control",bookSignature:"Isin Akyar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/632.jpg",editors:[{id:"36323",title:"Dr.",name:"Isin",middleName:null,surname:"Akyar",slug:"isin-akyar",fullName:"Isin Akyar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"3037",title:"MATLAB",subtitle:"A Fundamental Tool for Scientific Computing and Engineering Applications - Volume 3",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1de63ac4f2c398a1304a7c08ee883655",slug:"matlab-a-fundamental-tool-for-scientific-computing-and-engineering-applications-volume-3",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Katsikis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3037.jpg",editors:[{id:"12289",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasilios",middleName:"N.",surname:"Katsikis",slug:"vasilios-katsikis",fullName:"Vasilios Katsikis"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6151",title:"Noninvasive Ventilation in Medicine",subtitle:"Recent Updates",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"77e2fc8d909ac2458e0087490ea02a6d",slug:"noninvasive-ventilation-in-medicine-recent-updates",bookSignature:"Mayank Vats",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6151.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"148941",title:"Dr.",name:"Mayank",middleName:"Gyan",surname:"Vats",slug:"mayank-vats",fullName:"Mayank Vats"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7437",title:"Nanomedicines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e1f5f6258f074c533976c4f4d248568",slug:"nanomedicines",bookSignature:"Muhammad Akhyar Farrukh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7437.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"63182",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Akhyar",middleName:null,surname:"Farrukh",slug:"muhammad-akhyar-farrukh",fullName:"Muhammad Akhyar Farrukh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6679",title:"Serotonin",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9c833c86546ec9d3c38fb24a1072dbd0",slug:"serotonin",bookSignature:"Ying Qu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6679.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"94028",title:"Dr.",name:"Ying",middleName:null,surname:"Qu",slug:"ying-qu",fullName:"Ying Qu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7452",title:"Microbiology of Urinary Tract Infections",subtitle:"Microbial Agents and Predisposing Factors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e99363f3cb1fe89c406f4934a23033d0",slug:"microbiology-of-urinary-tract-infections-microbial-agents-and-predisposing-factors",bookSignature:"Payam Behzadi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7452.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"45803",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Payam",middleName:null,surname:"Behzadi",slug:"payam-behzadi",fullName:"Payam Behzadi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7215",title:"Recent Developments in Photovoltaic Materials and Devices",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2f824828c2212e79b75fa65b194c5007",slug:"recent-developments-in-photovoltaic-materials-and-devices",bookSignature:"Natarajan Prabaharan, Marc A. Rosen and Pietro Elia Campana",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7215.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"199317",title:"Dr.",name:"Natarajan",middleName:null,surname:"Prabaharan",slug:"natarajan-prabaharan",fullName:"Natarajan Prabaharan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7485",title:"Applied Modern Control",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c7a7be73f7232e08867ed81bdf9850c6",slug:"applied-modern-control",bookSignature:"Le Anh Tuan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7485.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"180550",title:"Dr.",name:"Le",middleName:null,surname:"Anh Tuan",slug:"le-anh-tuan",fullName:"Le Anh Tuan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7488",title:"Analytical Pyrolysis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30a667792c3a70b53d30fb6e9e1e7b4d",slug:"analytical-pyrolysis",bookSignature:"Peter Kusch",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7488.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"254714",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kusch",slug:"peter-kusch",fullName:"Peter Kusch"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7242",title:"Engineered Fabrics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"757cc326df7bcca72c8c850d9f4f71d1",slug:"engineered-fabrics",bookSignature:"Mukesh Kumar Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7242.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36895",title:"Dr.",name:"Mukesh Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"mukesh-kumar-singh",fullName:"Mukesh Kumar Singh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7245",title:"Challenging Issues on Paranasal Sinuses",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"67a331ebb2dd2b8f73228fa4daa7382f",slug:"challenging-issues-on-paranasal-sinuses",bookSignature:"Tang-Chuan Wang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7245.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201262",title:"Dr.",name:"Tang-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"tang-chuan-wang",fullName:"Tang-Chuan Wang"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7519",title:"Sol-Gel Method",subtitle:"Design and Synthesis of New Materials with Interesting Physical, Chemical and Biological Properties",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cf094d22ebcb3083749e5f96e47f7769",slug:"sol-gel-method-design-and-synthesis-of-new-materials-with-interesting-physical-chemical-and-biological-properties",bookSignature:"Guadalupe Valverde Aguilar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7519.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"186652",title:"Dr.",name:"Guadalupe",middleName:null,surname:"Valverde Aguilar",slug:"guadalupe-valverde-aguilar",fullName:"Guadalupe Valverde Aguilar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"705",title:"Construction Engineering",slug:"construction-engineering",parent:{title:"Civil Engineering",slug:"engineering-civil-engineering"},numberOfBooks:6,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:76,numberOfWosCitations:16,numberOfCrossrefCitations:12,numberOfDimensionsCitations:36},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"construction-engineering",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"7205",title:"Housing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"efb431be41bf8bf41facd7b4a183225e",slug:"housing",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed and Asaad Almssad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7205.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5422",title:"Risk Management Treatise for Engineering Practitioners",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4d70d3197f1b4dea5285a83550a79ade",slug:"risk-management-treatise-for-engineering-practitioners",bookSignature:"Chike F Oduoza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5422.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"5932",title:"Dr.",name:"Chike",middleName:null,surname:"Oduoza",slug:"chike-oduoza",fullName:"Chike Oduoza"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6378",title:"Sustainable Buildings",subtitle:"Interaction Between a Holistic Conceptual Act and Materials Properties",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1bc977aee58593c6aeecb1941cae1a0e",slug:"sustainable-buildings-interaction-between-a-holistic-conceptual-act-and-materials-properties",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed and Asaad Almssad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6378.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6395",title:"Bridge Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1d5fcf0ef5708024ef95eb8b3d7310be",slug:"bridge-engineering",bookSignature:"Hamid Yaghoubi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6395.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"103965",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamid",middleName:null,surname:"Yaghoubi",slug:"hamid-yaghoubi",fullName:"Hamid Yaghoubi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2005",title:"Effective Thermal Insulation",subtitle:"The Operative Factor of a Passive Building Model",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c7c6c5a9dfad00a32efaa72b9f163e71",slug:"effective-thermal-insulation-the-operative-factor-of-a-passive-building-model",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2005.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3631",title:"Smart Home Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"smart-home-systems",bookSignature:"Mahmoud A. Al-Qutayri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3631.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7571",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmoud",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Qutayri",slug:"mahmoud-al-qutayri",fullName:"Mahmoud Al-Qutayri"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:6,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"9628",doi:"10.5772/8411",title:"Smart Home with Healthcare Technologies for Community-Dwelling Older Adults",slug:"smart-home-with-healthcare-technologies-for-community-dwelling-older-adults",totalDownloads:7252,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:11,book:{slug:"smart-home-systems",title:"Smart Home Systems",fullTitle:"Smart Home Systems"},signatures:"Machiko R. Tomita, Linda S. Russ, Ramalingam Sridhar, Bruce J. Naughton M.",authors:null},{id:"9629",doi:"10.5772/8412",title:"Integrated Wireless Technologies for Smart Homes Applications",slug:"integrated-wireless-technologies-for-smart-homes-applications",totalDownloads:12651,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"smart-home-systems",title:"Smart Home Systems",fullTitle:"Smart Home Systems"},signatures:"Mahmoud A. Al-Qutayri and Jeedella S. Jeedella",authors:null},{id:"9631",doi:"10.5772/8414",title:"Telemonitoring of the Elderly at Home: Real-Time Pervasive Follow-up of Daily Routine, Automatic Detection of Outliers and Drifts",slug:"telemonitoring-of-the-elderly-at-home-real-time-pervasive-follow-up-of-daily-routine-automatic-detec",totalDownloads:1991,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"smart-home-systems",title:"Smart Home Systems",fullTitle:"Smart Home Systems"},signatures:"Yannick Fouquet, Celine Franco, Jacques Demongeot, Christophe Villemazet and Nicolas Vuillerme",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"64296",title:"Collaborative Public Participatory Web Geographic Information System: A Groupware-Based Online Synchronous Collaboration to Support Municipal Planning",slug:"collaborative-public-participatory-web-geographic-information-system-a-groupware-based-online-synchr",totalDownloads:108,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"housing",title:"Housing",fullTitle:"Housing"},signatures:"Muhammad Atif Butt, Syed Amer Mahmood, Javed Sami, Jahanzeb\nQureshi, Muhammad Kashif Nazir and Amer Masood",authors:[{id:"3899",title:"Mr.",name:"Syed Amer",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmood",slug:"syed-amer-mahmood",fullName:"Syed Amer Mahmood"},{id:"242037",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Atif",middleName:null,surname:"Butt",slug:"m.-atif-butt",fullName:"M. Atif Butt"},{id:"269239",title:"Mr.",name:"Javed",middleName:null,surname:"Sami",slug:"javed-sami",fullName:"Javed Sami"},{id:"269240",title:"Mr.",name:"Jahanzeb",middleName:null,surname:"Qureshi",slug:"jahanzeb-qureshi",fullName:"Jahanzeb Qureshi"},{id:"269241",title:"Mr.",name:"Amer",middleName:null,surname:"Masood",slug:"amer-masood",fullName:"Amer Masood"}]},{id:"60689",title:"Risk Management in Construction",slug:"risk-management-in-construction",totalDownloads:131,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"sustainable-buildings-interaction-between-a-holistic-conceptual-act-and-materials-properties",title:"Sustainable Buildings",fullTitle:"Sustainable Buildings - Interaction Between a Holistic Conceptual Act and Materials Properties"},signatures:"Esin Kasapoğlu",authors:[{id:"189772",title:"Dr.",name:"Esin",middleName:null,surname:"Kasapoglu",slug:"esin-kasapoglu",fullName:"Esin Kasapoglu"}]},{id:"61896",title:"Children’s Playgrounds in Slovak Mass Housing Estates: History and Current Trends",slug:"children-s-playgrounds-in-slovak-mass-housing-estates-history-and-current-trends",totalDownloads:94,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"housing",title:"Housing",fullTitle:"Housing"},signatures:"Katarína Kristiánová",authors:[{id:"224853",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarina",middleName:null,surname:"Kristianova",slug:"katarina-kristianova",fullName:"Katarina Kristianova"}]},{id:"59672",title:"Critical Success Factors for Effective Risk Management",slug:"critical-success-factors-for-effective-risk-management",totalDownloads:127,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"risk-management-treatise-for-engineering-practitioners",title:"Risk Management Treatise for Engineering Practitioners",fullTitle:"Risk Management Treatise for Engineering Practitioners"},signatures:"Geraldine J. Kikwasi",authors:[{id:"222345",title:"Dr.",name:"Geraldine",middleName:null,surname:"Kikwasi",slug:"geraldine-kikwasi",fullName:"Geraldine Kikwasi"}]},{id:"65137",title:"Sound Quality inside Mosques: A Case Study on the Impact of Mihrab Geometry",slug:"sound-quality-inside-mosques-a-case-study-on-the-impact-of-mihrab-geometry",totalDownloads:58,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:null,title:"Indoor Environmental Quality",fullTitle:"Indoor Environmental Quality"},signatures:"Hany Hossameldien and Abdulrahman Abdullah Alshawan",authors:null},{id:"62977",title:"Big Data as a Project Risk Management Tool",slug:"big-data-as-a-project-risk-management-tool",totalDownloads:151,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"risk-management-treatise-for-engineering-practitioners",title:"Risk Management Treatise for Engineering Practitioners",fullTitle:"Risk Management Treatise for Engineering Practitioners"},signatures:"Jarosław Górecki",authors:[{id:"221770",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Jarosław",middleName:null,surname:"Górecki",slug:"jaroslaw-gorecki",fullName:"Jarosław Górecki"}]},{id:"62294",title:"Understanding Adaptive Mainstream Users’ Values in Housing Transformation towards Sustainable Housing Development",slug:"understanding-adaptive-mainstream-users-values-in-housing-transformation-towards-sustainable-housing",totalDownloads:82,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"housing",title:"Housing",fullTitle:"Housing"},signatures:"Abubakar Danladi Isah",authors:[{id:"242883",title:"Dr.",name:"Isah",middleName:null,surname:"Abubakar Danladi",slug:"isah-abubakar-danladi",fullName:"Isah Abubakar Danladi"}]},{id:"61634",title:"Introductory Chapter: Overview of a Competent Sustainable Building",slug:"introductory-chapter-overview-of-a-competent-sustainable-building",totalDownloads:114,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"sustainable-buildings-interaction-between-a-holistic-conceptual-act-and-materials-properties",title:"Sustainable Buildings",fullTitle:"Sustainable Buildings - Interaction Between a Holistic Conceptual Act and Materials Properties"},signatures:"Amjad Almusaed and Asaad Almssad",authors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}]},{id:"62518",title:"An Insight into the Process, Tools and Techniques for Construction Risk Management",slug:"an-insight-into-the-process-tools-and-techniques-for-construction-risk-management",totalDownloads:143,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"risk-management-treatise-for-engineering-practitioners",title:"Risk Management Treatise for Engineering Practitioners",fullTitle:"Risk Management Treatise for Engineering Practitioners"},signatures:"Onengiyeofori O. Odimabo, Chike F. Oduoza and Subashini Suresh",authors:[{id:"5932",title:"Dr.",name:"Chike",middleName:null,surname:"Oduoza",slug:"chike-oduoza",fullName:"Chike Oduoza"},{id:"195039",title:"Dr.",name:"Nengi",middleName:null,surname:"Odimabo",slug:"nengi-odimabo",fullName:"Nengi Odimabo"}]},{id:"58437",title:"Optimization of Building Facade Voids Design, Facade Voids Position and Ratios - Wind Condition Relation",slug:"optimization-of-building-facade-voids-design-facade-voids-position-and-ratios-wind-condition-relatio",totalDownloads:117,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"sustainable-buildings-interaction-between-a-holistic-conceptual-act-and-materials-properties",title:"Sustainable Buildings",fullTitle:"Sustainable Buildings - Interaction Between a Holistic Conceptual Act and Materials Properties"},signatures:"Enes Yasa",authors:[{id:"185967",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Enes",middleName:null,surname:"Yasa",slug:"enes-yasa",fullName:"Enes Yasa"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"construction-engineering",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"65137",title:"Sound Quality inside Mosques: A Case Study on the Impact of Mihrab Geometry",slug:"sound-quality-inside-mosques-a-case-study-on-the-impact-of-mihrab-geometry",totalDownloads:58,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83486",book:{title:"Indoor Environmental Quality"},signatures:"Hany Hossameldien and Abdulrahman Abdullah Alshawan"},{id:"65121",title:"Introductory Chapter: Indoor Environmental Quality",slug:"introductory-chapter-indoor-environmental-quality",totalDownloads:39,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83612",book:{title:"Indoor Environmental Quality"},signatures:"Muhammad Abdul Mujeebu"},{id:"63645",title:"Spatial Distribution of the Nature of Indoor Environmental Quality in Hospital Ward Buildings in Nigeria",slug:"spatial-distribution-of-the-nature-of-indoor-environmental-quality-in-hospital-ward-buildings-in-nig",totalDownloads:44,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78327",book:{title:"Indoor Environmental Quality"},signatures:"Pontip Stephen Nimlyat, John James Anumah, Michael Chijioke Odoala\nand Gideon Koyan Benjamin"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:6},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},privacyPolicy:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8841",title:"Deterministic Artificial Intelligence",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"bd65f564ea0b77f91dea36cfcbaa1da7",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Timothy Sands",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8841.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"258189",title:"Prof.",name:"Timothy",middleName:null,surname:"Sands",slug:"timothy-sands",fullName:"Timothy Sands"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8922",title:"Modelling of Artificial Intelligence Controller for Microgrid Application",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f5a9f1298be5472f9e429f3ab47cd404",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. M Venkateshkumar, Dr. Umashankar Subramaniam and Dr. Cheng Siong Chin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8922.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"108910",title:"Prof.",name:"M",middleName:null,surname:"Venkateshkumar",slug:"m-venkateshkumar",fullName:"M Venkateshkumar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8915",title:"Advances in Membrane Technologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"19febde893f705494f2334d02977fd83",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Amira Abdelrasoul",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8915.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"151521",title:"Dr.",name:"Amira",middleName:null,surname:"Abdelrasoul",slug:"amira-abdelrasoul",fullName:"Amira Abdelrasoul"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8851",title:"Advances in Neural Signal Processing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"a44ac118b233b29a3d5b57d61680ec38",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Ramana Vinjamuri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8851.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",slug:"ramana-vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8899",title:"Modelling and Control of Switched Reluctance Machines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"e19068f7f6c92b5643a3f8fbf2f895e0",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Rui Esteves Esteves Araújo and Dr. José Roberto Camacho",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8899.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"31663",title:"Prof.",name:"Rui Esteves",middleName:"Esteves",surname:"Araújo",slug:"rui-esteves-araujo",fullName:"Rui Esteves Araújo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8919",title:"Environmental Impacts of Solar Panels",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"84b4f2c95c817552f02813474b074576",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Abdülkerim Gok",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8919.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"266161",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdülkerim",middleName:null,surname:"Gok",slug:"abdulkerim-gok",fullName:"Abdülkerim Gok"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8839",title:"Advanced Communication and Control Methods for Future Smartgrids",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"272b87662ec87f859b72930758bce663",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8839.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"272760",title:"Dr.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8842",title:"Innovation in Energy Systems - New Technologies for Changing Paradigms in Operation, Protection, Business and Development",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"75fdfb0206f7d487c3ac8dbe21dcef16",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8842.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"272760",title:"Dr.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:22},route:{name:"book.detail",path:"/books/advances-in-measurement-systems",hash:"",query:{},params:{book:"advances-in-measurement-systems"},fullPath:"/books/advances-in-measurement-systems",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()