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Medium-High Temperature Composite Phase Change Materials Based on Porous Ceramics

Written By

Jun Qiu and Xibo He

Submitted: 01 September 2023 Reviewed: 19 September 2023 Published: 12 January 2024

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.114185

Energy Consumption, Conversion, Storage, and Efficiency IntechOpen
Energy Consumption, Conversion, Storage, and Efficiency Edited by Jiajun Xu

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Energy Consumption, Conversion, Storage, and Efficiency [Working Title]

Prof. Jiajun Xu and Prof. Bao Yang

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Abstract

Medium-high temperature thermal energy storage usually uses composite phase change materials (CPCMs) composed of inorganic salts and porous skeletons, due to their high energy density, wide phase change temperature range, and stable physical/chemical properties. Inorganic salts provide enough heat storage capacity, and the porous skeleton is a stable packaging carrier that solves the low thermal conductivity and easy leakage of the former. Compared with alloy matrices, porous ceramics have higher corrosion resistance, economic benefits, and more stable thermal performance, which is more suitable for medium-high temperature thermal engineering applications. This chapter focuses on the medium-high temperature CPCMs based on the porous ceramic matrix, including the preparation process and thermal properties of CPCMs, the material types and selection principles of porous ceramic, and the system-level comprehensive study and application. This work aims to provide a coupling relationship between porous ceramics and inorganic salts so that the reader can obtain the ideal CPCMs in a specific application.

Keywords

  • porous skeleton
  • medium-high temperature
  • phase change materials
  • shape-stabilization
  • thermal energy storage

1. Introduction

Energy is an indispensable component of human survival and social development. The excessive exploitation and abuse of fossil energy such as coal, oil and natural gas has caused the current global energy crisis and environmental pollution [1, 2]. Therefore, the development of renewable energy (solar energy) and energy conservation are considered the main directions of future energy development. “Green energy” is limited by its constraints showing intermittency and instability [3, 4, 5]. Solving the time-space mismatch between the supply and demand of thermal energy is one of the most critical obstacles, which makes thermal energy storage (TES) technology become an important support to promote the energy revolution. Thermal storage materials are a central part of TES [6]. Real-time thermal energy distribution with thermal storage material as the medium for the demand of the energy-using side can significantly improve the energy efficiency, stability, and economic benefits of TES [7, 8].

Solar photo-thermal and industrial waste heat are the main targets in the strategy of practical thermal energy storage conversion and their temperature ranges are shown in Table 1 [11]. Medium-high temperature latent heat TES technology (>120°C) to store excess thermal energy is the most ideal choice for packed bed latent heat TES technology (PLTES). The high operating temperature range makes the available phase change materials (PCMs) mainly divided into inorganic salts and alloys [12]. For medium-high temperature PCMs, inorganic salts are the most widely accepted objects, including chlorinated salts, nitrates, carbonates, and fluorinated salts, referenced as shown in Table 2 [14, 15, 16]. Molten salts are bound to undergo a solid-liquid phase transition during charging/discharging cycling in practical applications, which makes the structural requirements of PLTES particularly high and difficult to massively promote. Therefore, there is a need to prepare inorganic salt-based PCMs into shape-stable composite phase change materials (CPCMs) with high energy density, wide operating temperature range, stable physical/chemical properties, and low prices through rational encapsulation methods.

Applied environmental objectivesOperating temperature rangeReference
Concentrated solar power700–900°C[2]
Industrial waste heat recovery100–750°C[3]
Solar energy500–700°C[9]
Regenerative combustion800–1000°C[10]

Table 1.

Temperature range of practical thermal energy storage-conversion.

Compound (wt.%)Melting point (°C)Latent heat (kJ/kg)Density (kg/m3)Thermal conductivity (W/m∙K)
NaCl [13]80049221602.0
KCl [13]77435319801.25
MgCl2 [13]71445221400.86
NaCl-MgCl2 (48:52) [14]45043022300.95
KCl-NaCl-MgCl2 (33:24:43)38040018001.15
NaNO3 [15]27018022000.53
Ca(NO3)2 [15]5611452500.32
LiNO3 [15]25436023800.58
LiNO3-NaNO3 (6:7) [15]200232.720900.84
Ca(NO3)2-NaNO3 (3:7) [15]217135.821300.58
Na2CO3 [13]854275.725332.0
K2CO3 [13]897235.822902.0
CaCO3 [9]133014223901.5
K2CO3-Na2CO3 (51:49)[14]71016324001.73
Na2SO4 [16]88416526801.26
NaF [9]99646822581.5
NaF-MgF2 (72:25) [14]65086028201.15

Table 2.

Performance parameters of common molten salts.

It should be noted that the inorganic salt-based CPCMs have the dilemma of low thermal conductivity and severe corrosion [17]. Mating inorganic salts with porous skeletons to obtain inorganic salt-based CPCMs can effectively solve these problems. Inorganic salt provides sufficient heat capacity, and the porous skeleton acts as a stable carrier and reduces overcooling, so CPCMs have excellent heat storage and release effects [18]. A skeleton matrix generally requires high porosity and a large surface area to provide more PCM loading volume. Ceramic is known to be one of the best choices for porous skeletons with high-temperature corrosion resistance, and high thermal conductivity. Preparation of CPCMs from porous ceramics and inorganic salts can enhance heat transfer and support-encapsulation, with higher corrosion resistance and economic benefits compared to alloy carriers. However, there are fewer comprehensive reviews focusing on medium-high temperature ceramic-based CPCMs, with some content bias: the preparation process is not specific; the materials selection is not comprehensive, and system-level studies and applications are not mentioned.

Our group has been focusing on the study of medium-high temperature CPCMs based porous ceramic (C-CPMs), and thus have a comprehensive understanding of that field. This chapter summarizes the recent contents of C-CPCMs in detail. Firstly, the preparation process and the influence of thermal properties of medium-high temperature CPCMs are described in detail, followed by a summary of the material types and selection principles of porous ceramic skeletons; finally, the CPCMs are described for system-level research and application.

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2. Preparation process and thermal properties of ceramic-based CPCMs

Medium-high temperature ceramic-based composite phase change materials are usually composed of inorganic salts with a porous skeleton. Inorganic salts are embedded into porous ceramic skeletons by an efficient method for the preparation of shape-stabled CPCMs. It solves the problems of poor thermal conductivity, substrate corrosion, and material encapsulation in inorganic salt-based PCMs, and its sensible-latent heat gives it a high heat capacity. At present, the preparation of medium-high temperature ceramic-based shaped CPCMs is mainly divided into three categories: mixing-impregnation method and cold pressing-sintering method.

2.1 Mixing impregnation

Mixing impregnation is based on the capillary force of the porous ceramic, which confines the solid-liquid PCM in the pores to prevent leakage and can effectively improve the overall thermal conductivity. The simple preparation process of mixing-impregnation is shown in Figure 1. It could be divided into two main steps: (1) preparation of ceramic porous skeleton as a carrier for the inorganic salt, and (2) infiltration of the PCM to provide enough heat capacity. Typically, a ceramic skeleton is prepared by rational pore-making techniques and high-temperature sintering, and the molten PCM penetrates the porous carrier by capillary forces. The basic equipment includes a high-speed mill, a high-temperature tube furnace, and a vacuum sintering furnace. Mixing impregnation consists mainly of melt impregnation and vacuum impregnation. Most of the PCMs could be adsorbed into the ceramic skeleton by melt impregnation. However, some pores may still exist inside the carrier, leading to a reduction in the total CPCMs’ thermal storage density. Therefore, vacuum impregnation under high-temperature and vacuum environments can introduce more PCM to support the matrix. In general, CPCM units are subjected to continuous thermal cycling charging/discharging tests to ensure their mechanical strength and thermal stability.

Figure 1.

Process flow for mixed impregnation [19] (Reprinted with permission from Elsevier [OR APPLICABLE SOCIETY COPYRIGHT OWNER]).

Jiang et al. [20] prepared shaped-stabilized CPCMs based on modified diatomite by loading NaNO3 into the porous ceramic skeleton using melt-impregnation. The infiltration process of the sample was carried out in a muffle furnace under atmospheric pressure, followed by sandpapering of the excess cured salt. The ss-PCM has excellent cyclic thermal stability, thermal storage density, and efficiency. Wang et al. [21] used the same method to prepare high-temperature ss-CPCMs with ternary chloride salts as the PCM, porous Si3N4 as the skeleton, and heat transfer enhancers. The pore permeability of PCM in the skeleton was 88.14%, and the thermal conductivity of ss-CPCMs was significantly improved. To develop high-performance CPCMs that can be mass-produced at low cost, our group [21, 22] used vacuum-impregnation to combine SiC ceramics with high-enthalpy ternary chloride salts as shown in Figure 2. The controlled porosity of the skeleton results in excellent thermal properties (thermal conductivity-heat capacity). PCM relies on capillary force to enter the carrier in a vacuum environment and has a high loading capacity. Other current research about mixing-impregnation is summarized in Table 3, including compositions and results.

Figure 2.

Process flow of ternary chloride/SiC CPCM [23] (Reprinted with permission from Elsevier [OR APPLICABLE SOCIETY COPYRIGHT OWNER]).

AuthorsCompositionsMain research content
Liu [24]Bamboo-derived SiC/LiOH-LiFCPCM has high solar absorptivity and high thermal conductivity;
Song [25]SiC/LiOH-LiFModulation of porosity of ceramics by starch;
Excellent thermal conductivity and stability;
Zhang [26]Solar salt/SiCExcellent wettability and corrosion resistance;
The temperature distribution is more uniform;
Miliozzi [27]Solar salt/diatomiteExperimental study of high-temperature thermal storage concrete materials;
Thermal and mechanical properties increase;
Fang [28]CaCl2∙6H2O-CO(NH2)2-SiO2SiO2 as a porous ceramic carrier for CPCM;
The CPCM exhibits excellent thermal stability;

Table 3.

Research related to the melt-impregnation method.

It needs to be clarified that the mixing impregnation requires proper regulation of the pore structure of the porous skeleton. First, the porous ceramics’ pore size should be within a certain range. Too small pore size will limit the microflow of the PCM, and too large pores will not provide sufficient capillary. In addition, the carrier’s porosity needs to be regulated. Too low porosity reduces the total heat storage capacity, and too high porosity affects the thermal cycling stability of the CPCPMs [29]. Nomura et al. [30] investigated the effect of the ceramic materials’ pore size (diatomite) in CPCMs on the melting point. Due to the nano-size effect, the smaller the pore size of diatomite, the lower the melting point of the CPCMs. Liu et al. [31] also demonstrated that increasing the porosity or decreasing the pore size could effectively increase the infiltration ratio of inorganic salt. Both the sintering temperature and impregnation temperature during the preparation process affect the CPCMs’ thermal properties [32]. The former is a key factor in regulating the pore structure of the ceramic carrier, while the latter ensures the loading.

2.2 Cold press-sintering

Cold press-sintering can usually be summarized in three steps: mixing grinding, hydrostatic forming, and high-temperature sintering, as shown in Figure 3. First, the inorganic salts were mixed and ground with ceramic materials, then the mixture was poured into molds and pressed into desired shapes, and finally, the CPCMs were prepared by high-temperature sintering. The basic equipment includes high-speed mills, tablet presses, and high-temperature sintering furnaces. It needs to be clarified that the stability of CPCMs prepared by the cold pressing-sintering method stems from mechanical locking during pressing and mounding under the external force, and bonding after the melting and solidification of PCM/ceramic particles during the high-temperature sintering. In addition, the structure of CPMs is related to the mounding process. Conventional isostatic pressing results in a more homogeneous and dense material; uniaxial pressing produces a hierarchically arranged structure.

Figure 3.

Preparation process of cold pressed-sintered [19] (Reprinted with permission from Elsevier [OR APPLICABLE SOCIETY COPYRIGHT OWNER]).

Porous ceramics are inherently capable of adsorbing molten salts to prevent leakage, making them the preferred target for the preparation of ceramic-based CPCMs by cold pressing-sintering. Ye et al. [33] used MgO to encapsulate PCMs. They successfully obtained Na2CO3/MgO composites by using cold pressing-sintering and adding carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) as additives. The CPCM’s thermal conductivity increases with the increase in the weight fraction of MWCNTs. Deng et al. [34] prepared KNO3/diatomite-shaped-stabilized CPCMs by mixing-sintering. Diatomite has high porosity, which acts as a high-strength carrier and effectively limits the leakage of PCMs. The 65% loaded CPCMs have good physical/chemical properties with latent heat of 60.52 J/g and an effective melting point of 330°C. To further enhance the thermal performance of ss-PCM, our group [35] added EG to ternary chloride (TC)/MgO ceramics-shaped CPCMs. The specific preparation process of CPCMs is shown in Figure 4. MgO carrier as the supporting skeleton could improve the mechanical strength of CPCMs, and EG as the additive could increase the thermal conductivity and improve the heat transfer process. CPCMs have a promising future in high-temperature solar applications. Some other current research about cold press-sintering is summarized in Table 4, including compositions and results.

Figure 4.

Process flow of TC/MgO/EG CPCMs [35] (Reprinted with permission from Elsevier [OR APPLICABLE SOCIETY COPYRIGHT OWNER]).

AuthorsCompositionsMain research content
Qian [36]Na2SO4/diatomiteThe maximum loading of Na2SO4 is 65%;
Improved subcooling and thermal stability;
Wang [37]K2CO3/Coal ashPrepare SSPCMs by two-step;
The melting point is about 850°C;
Ge [38]LiCO3/MgO/CGood wettability makes ceramics denser;
Carbon as the thermal conductivity enhancer;
Liu [39]NaNO3/anorthite-cordieriteThe wettability of NaNO3 on cordierite was better;
All have good chemical compatibility;
Jiang [40]Na2SO4-NaCl/Al2O3The stability of CPCM decreases with salt content;
300% increase in thermal conductivity;

Table 4.

Research related to the cold press-sintering method.

For the cold pressing-sintering process, the ratio between the materials, the amount of molding pressure, and the sintering temperature all have an important effect on the CPCMs’ mechanical and thermophysical properties [40]. Qin et al. [32, 41] investigated the Na2SO4/diatomite CPCMs ratio. It was finally determined that CPCMs containing 45% diatomite were optimal in terms of energy density, leakage prevention, and mechanical strength. The effect of sintering temperature (300–500°C) on ceramic-based CPCM was analyzed by Ji et al. [42]. The maximum mass fraction of PCM and compressive lightness decreased with increasing sintering temperature, and the thermal conductivity remained almost constant.

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3. Selection of ceramic porous skeleton

Porous ceramic skeletons are generally prepared from inorganic non-metallic powder materials by a molding process and high-temperature sintering, possessing a large number of irregular pore structures. For PCMs, especially inorganic salts, their low thermal conductivity and corrosion seriously affect industrial applications in solar thermal utilization, waste heat recovery, and other fields. Porous ceramics encapsulated PCM could effectively solve the above problems. The pore structure of porous ceramics is generally required to be open-pores, and particle stacking or precursor combustion is used to obtain a high porosity.

The selection of ceramic skeletons for medium-high temperature CPCMs generally must meet the following requirements:

  1. The basic melting point of the porous ceramics should be higher than 1250°C to ensure a stable shape of the CPCMs;

  2. The skeleton material could form a good porous structure or be porous;

  3. Required to maintain good, long-period thermal cycle stability;

  4. Good chemical compatibility between ceramic materials with PCMs;

  5. Ceramic materials with higher specific heat capacity should be selected as the carrier to realize higher sensible and latent heat.

3.1 Porous oxide and non-oxidized ceramic materials

Some porous oxide (MgO, Al2O3) and non-oxide materials (SiC, AlN) could be prepared into porous ceramic by suitable processes to provide encapsulation space for inorganic salts. The pore structure of CPCMs prepared from them tends to be uniform, and the leakage of CPCMs could be limited by capillary force and surface tension. In addition, these materials possess excellent high-temperature resistance and physical/chemical stability, making them a reliable choice for the application of medium-high-temperature CPCMs.

MgO has become a widely used carrier material in ceramic-based CPCMs due to its advantages of high thermal conductivity, high specific heat, good wettability with inorganic salts, and wide application temperature range. Li et al. [43] conducted an in-depth study on MgO-based CPCMs and analyzed the effects of particle size and density on CPCMs’ microstructure and thermal properties. The results demonstrate that light and small MgO could realize denser structures and better encapsulation. They also found that CPCMs prepared from similar-sized compositions present higher thermal conductivity and mechanical strength. Sang et al. [44] prepared shaped CPCMs using ternary chloride as PCMs and MgO as the carrier (the optimal ratio 5:5). The CPCMs were uniformly embedded in the pore structure of MgO ceramics by cold compression and mixed sintering. Similarly, Ye et al. [33] added MWCNTs as thermal conductivity enhancers to the Na2CO3/MgO CPCMs. The results showed that MgO as a porous support matrix ensured shape stabilization. Our group encapsulated ternary chlorides with MgO as a carrier and EG as a thermally conductive additive. The CPCM has good mechanical strength and thermal stability. The microstructure and the thermal properties of the composite are shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5.

(a) SEM image after sintering, (b) thermal conductivity with different proportions, and (c) variations of mass loss after 100 cycles [35] (Reprinted with permission from Elsevier [OR APPLICABLE SOCIETY COPYRIGHT OWNER]).

Porous Al2O3 is another low-cost ceramic material with excellent thermal stability and corrosion resistance and has also been applied for medium-high temperature CPCMs. Jiang et al. [45] prepared Na2SO4-NaCl high-temperature CPCMs by cold press sintering. Alumina as the encapsulation skeleton has a microporous coral mesh structure, which can effectively prevent the leakage of PCM. After 100 thermal cycles, the CPCM’s latent heat and solidification temperature only decreased by 0.4% and 0.3% without phase separation and chemical reaction. The molten PCM possessed good chemical compatibility with the alumina skeleton. Ji et al. [42] prepared NaNO3-KNO3/EG/Al2O3 shape-stable CPCMs at different sintering temperatures, with Al2O3 and EG as skeletal support materials. The results showed that the PCM loading mass fraction and compressive strength decreased with increasing sintering temperature. The thermal conductivity of CPCM is independent of the sintering temperature but increases with EG mass fraction.

Porous SiC has the advantages of high porosity, good permeability, and high thermal conductivity. The porous SiC ceramics obtained through an effective preparation process have high strength, low density, interconnected pore structure, and stable thermal properties. The porous SiC ceramics encapsulated with inorganic salt can solve the low thermal conductivity and leakage of the traditional PCM, and it is an excellent skeleton material for composite phase change materials. Luo et al. [46] encapsulated PCM through gradient SiC foam as the backbone for fast and stable thermal storage. The fabrication strategy of gradient SiC foams is shown as (a). The strong capillary force generated by the gradient pore structure effectively limits the leakage of PCM. In addition, the interconnected SiC backbone enables the thermal conductivity of CPCMs to be increased to 1.9 W/(m∙K) and realizes an efficient solar thermal storage process. Our group regulates the porosity of SiC ceramics based on starch pore-formation, which in turn optimizes the thermal conductivity and mechanical strength of CPCMs [23]. A continuous and stable fast heat transfer channel was constructed by high-temperature sintering and loaded with ternary chloride salt to ensure effective heat storage density. The cell shape, microscopic pore structure, and temperature evolution with time during charging/discharging of CPCM are shown in Figure 6. The CPCMs have a thermal conductivity of 19.72 W/(m∙K) and an effective heat storage density of 513.46 kJ/kg.

Figure 6.

(a) the cell shape, (b) the microscopic pore structure, and (c) the temperature evolution during charging/discharging of CPCM [23] (Reprinted with permission from Elsevier [OR APPLICABLE SOCIETY COPYRIGHT OWNER]).

In addition to the ceramic materials mentioned above, other materials could be used as skeleton options for medium-high-temperature ceramic-based CPCM. They are inherently porous or capable of generating porous skeletons to load inorganic salts. They also improve the thermal conductivity of the CPCM, limit PCM leakage, and have good thermal cycle stability. The studies of CPCMs based on other porous oxide and non-oxidized ceramics are summarized in Table 5, including compositions and results.

AuthorsCompositionsMain research contents
Liu [47]NaCl-LiNO3/AlNCombination of high thermal conductivity and high heat storage density
The average solar absorptance is 90%;
Wang [48]CaF2-ODE/AlNA novel thermal enhanced CPCMs with based AlN;
Excellent thermal cycling stability;
Guo [49]NaNo3/SiO2The CPCM was prepared by sol-gel process;
The latent heat was increased with the increase of the roasting temperature.
Zhao [50]Na2SO4/TiO2CPCMs prepared by a facile particle-stabilized emulsion templating method;
PTC improved the heat transfer and heat density;
Yu [51]NaNO3/Ca(OH)2The excellent mechanical property was obtained at a pressure of over 220 MPa;

Table 5.

Research related to porous oxide and non-oxidized ceramic materials.

3.2 Porous clay-like mineral materials

Clay minerals such as diatomite, and expanded perlite (EP), inherently have high-quality porous structures and large specific surface area, which can better realize the embedding of PCMs as the core material and effectively reduce the leakage. They serve as a ceramic skeleton matrix for CPCMs and are capable of long cycles and stable operation at medium-high temperatures, maintaining good chemical compatibility and stability, making them an ideal choice for commercial applications. The wide range of raw materials, low cost, and high performance make porous clay mineral skeleton materials an ideal choice for commercial applications.

Diatomite is a natural mineral material whose main component is SiO2. It has a unique porous structure with a specific surface area of 40–65 m2/g and a porosity of 80–90%. This gives diatomite excellent adsorption properties, which in turn encapsulate PCM with good thermal stability. In addition, diatomite is abundant, readily available, low-cost, and characterized by high temperature and corrosion resistance. Therefore, it has been widely used as a skeleton support material for CPCMs over the years.

Qin et al. [41] prepared high-temperature Na2SO4/diatomite-shaped CPCMs by mixing-sintering. The diatomite acts as a shape-stabilized skeleton and possesses excellent chemical-thermal stability with the PCM. They experimentally determined that 45% diatomite was the optimal formulation for CPCMs with an energy density of more than 360 KJ/kg in the range of 700–900°C. Qian et al. [52] used diatomite as matrix and loaded three different PCMs by vacuum impregnation to prepare low, medium, and high CPCMs for solar thermal utilization. They also proved that the melting point, latent heat, and subcooling of CPCMs are constant through their self-designed experimental device. However, since the main component of diatomite is the natural SiO2, it has the disadvantage of low thermal conductivity (0.2 ~ 0.4 W/(m∙K)) compared with metal encapsulation materials. Li et al. [53, 54] synthesized MnO2-modified diatomite by hydrothermal reaction and then prepared CPCMs by vacuum-impregnation. The preparation process of MnO2-modified diatomite is shown in Figure 7. After characterization, it was proved that the ceramic-based CPCMs possessed a faster heat transfer rate and better photothermal conversion capability. In addition, they also treated the diatomite with microwave acid to obtain higher porosity and added EG to improve thermal conductivity. Jiang et al. [19] used CaCO3-modified diatomite as a porous ceramic skeleton for CPCMs. Due to the dense-continuous skeleton, the CPCMs’ thermal conductivity was improved by 129% and exhibited excellent thermal stability in 500 thermal cycles.

Figure 7.

Preparation process of MnO2 modified diatomite [53] (Reprinted with permission from Elsevier [OR APPLICABLE SOCIETY COPYRIGHT OWNER]).

Expanded perlite (EP) is a traditional thermal insulation material. Its volume expands rapidly after high-temperature calcination, allowing it to acquire a foamy honeycomb structure with strong adsorption properties, which could be used to prepare high-performance CPCMs. Based on the excellent adsorption capacity of EP, Li et al. [55] prepared NaNO3/EP shaped CPCMs. The results showed that skeletons at different treatment temperatures (300–900°C) exhibited different adsorption strengths, with the highest adsorption after heat treatment at 500°C for 2 h. The CPCMs have good thermal conductivity and thermal cycling stability. Zhao et al. [56] regulate the porous structure of EP by polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) to increase the nanopore size and specific surface area. Then they proposed novel CPCMs with high excellent loading (73.1%) and heat storage capacity (174.6 J/g). After 500 thermal cycling experiments, the samples possessed good thermal stability and leakage resistance. Zuo et al. [57] optimized the EP-based CPM by adding graphite, and the basic preparation process is shown in Figure 8. Characterization results demonstrate that the addition of graphite improves the thermal stability and thermal conductivity of CPCMs. EP/P50/GP80 exhibit the highest heat transfer rates and have good chemical stability.

Figure 8.

Preparation of composite FSPCMs [57] (Reprinted with permission from Elsevier [OR APPLICABLE SOCIETY COPYRIGHT OWNER]).

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4. System-level research and applications

4.1 Numerical and experimental study of ceramic-based CPCMs

The optimized preparation process and suitable PCM make the ceramic-based inorganic salt CPCMs have excellent thermal properties, which solves the low thermal conductivity and leakage existing in traditional PCMs. However, a single heat storage unit cannot visualize the heat transfer process at the level of latent heat Thermal energy system (LTES), so system-level research has become one of the hotspots of research at this stage. Our group built a medium-high temperature packed-bed heat storage experimental platform in the laboratory to carry out system-level research [5, 58]. Through system-level simulation calculations and experiments, the thermal properties of the CPCMs within the TES are analyzed, which in turn could provide sufficient guidance for their wide-ranging applications.

Yao et al. [59] investigated the latent heat storage device of a 3D porous skeleton encapsulated PCM based on MCRT and FVM methods to systematically evaluate the heat transfer process under different design parameters. The results showed that the solar thermal efficiency and thermal storage efficiency increased by 71% and 94%, respectively. Li et al. [60] investigated a high-temperature packed-bed LTES with ceramic-based CPCMs and analyzed the heat transfer-flow behavior at the system level. The results show that the system exhibits higher charging/discharging efficiency. The heat transfer efficiency is enhanced when the radiative heat transfer influence is taken into consideration. Finally, the charging/discharging cycle decreases with the increase of the thermal conductivity enhancer.

In addition, Li et al. [61] investigated the thermal performance of MgO-based CPCMs from component to device levels, as shown in Figure 9. They analyze the cross-scale problem of CPCMs from the unit-component-device level through numerical calculations and experiments. The CPCMs have MgO as the porous skeleton, NaLiCO3 as the PCM, and graphite as the thermal conductivity enhancer. The results show that the increase in the mass loading of the TCEM in the CPCMs module, and the entrance velocity of the HTF all improve the heat transfer performance at the component level. Zhao et al. [62] investigated the heat transfer process of two types of CPCM components for shell-and-tube TES: single-tube and concentric-tube components. Through numerical calculations and experiments, they finally concluded that the concentric tube CPCM components have a better heat transfer performance, and the heat storage and release time is 10% and 15% lower than the single-tube one.

Figure 9.

Schematic diagrams of a CPCMs module [61] (Reprinted with permission from Elsevier [OR APPLICABLE SOCIETY COPYRIGHT OWNER]).

4.2 Application of ceramic-based CPCMs

Medium-high temperature ceramic-based CPCMs could charge or discharge a large amount of heat in the form of sensible and latent heat to solve the conflict between the supply and demand of renewable energy. It could be seen that ceramic-based CPCMs have high heat storage capacity, long cycle thermal life, excellent corrosion resistance, and fast heat transfer rate at medium-high temperatures. This ensures the prospect of a wide application in TES systems, mainly including solar thermal utilization, and waste heat recovery.

Solar thermal technology is severely limited by its instability and discontinuity, so it is necessary to be coupled with a PLTES system to achieve dynamic regulation of heat [63]. Ceramic-based CPCMs have excellent thermal properties and corrosion resistance and are suitable for continuous-dynamic input of high-temperature heat flow in concentrating solar heat collection systems. Xu et al. [64] prepared porous SiC with excellent thermal toughness by biomorphic loofah as a template, and its porosity could be adjusted between 64% and 87%. Then the CPCMs are further obtained by encapsulating NaCl-NaF through the SiC skeleton, which realizes broadband solar energy capture, rapid thermal transfer, and compact latent heat energy storage. 95.25% solar absorption and 20.7 W/m∙K high thermal conductivity are the composites that can quickly realize solar-heat transfer and storage. Excellent solar absorption (95.25%) and thermal conductivity (20.7 W/(m∙K)) enable CPCMs to quickly realize solar-heat transfer and storage. Zhang et al. [65] developed a novel microcapsule CPCM with Ti4O7/SiO2 as the encapsulating shell. CPCMs have a high photo-thermal storage efficiency of 85.36%, which efficiently realizes the conversion of photo-conductive heat and preserves most of the heat. Our group initially used stainless steel spheres to encapsulate ternary nitrate for system-level charging-discharging experiments [58]. A schematic diagram of the experimental platform is shown in Figure 10b But this approach suffers from the defects of low thermal conductivity and easy leakage. Therefore, we subsequently developed a simple preparation process for SiC-based CPCMs using starch as a pore-forming agent [23], which could be prepared on a large scale and operated stably for a long lifetime. The CPCMs were verified to have high heat transfer efficiency by systematic experiments.

Figure 10.

Diagram of the experimental platform, the arrangement structure, and temperature evolution of SiC-based CPCMs [23, 58] (Reprinted with permission from Elsevier [OR APPLICABLE SOCIETY COPYRIGHT OWNER]).

Traditional thermal power plants and other heavy industries directly discharge a large amount of medium-high temperature waste heat during the production process, resulting in a serious waste of energy. Based on PLTES, the collection and storage of waste heat could be realized, effectively improving the efficiency of energy utilization, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The schematic diagram of the industrial waste heat recovery system-based PLTES is shown in Figure 11. Due to the continuous fluctuations, high temperatures, and high impacts of industrial waste heat emissions, ceramic-based CPCMs are a key option for the realization of waste heat recovery. Li et al. [66] developed a dynamic optimization model based on CPCMs to solve the dynamic thermal management of industrial waste heat. CPCMs were prepared by using nitrate PCM, silica carrier material, and graphite conductive addictive, and then filled in steel tubes. They developed an intelligent algorithm to study the dynamic optimization of the waste heat recovery system and built a waste heat recovery platform for steel production to verify the reliability of the shell-and-tube heat storage model.

Figure 11.

The schematic diagram of the industrial waste heat recovery system based PLTES.

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5. Conclusions

This chapter systematically summarizes the preparation process of medium-high temperature ceramic-based CPCMs, the material types of porous ceramic skeletons and the study and application of CPCMs at the system level. So that readers can recognize the basic information of medium-high temperature ceramic-based CPCMs and screen the ideal CPCMs according to specific needs.

  1. The preparation process of ceramic-based CPCM mainly includes mixing-impregnation and cold press-sintering. The former could realize the complex shape of CPCMs with high strength and thermal cycling stability but has high requirements for the skeleton’s high porosity and pore size, and the process is complex and energy-consuming. The latter process is simple, economical, and suitable for mass production. However high-temperature sintering causes some PCM evaporation, and the skeleton structure is not uniform and easily damaged.

  2. Skeleton materials are the key to ensuring the stability of CPCM at high temperatures for a long time. The oxide, non-oxidized ceramic materials, and clay-like mineral materials could form special porous structures to encapsulate PCMs and effectively prevent leakage. In addition, the porous ceramic skeleton could effectively increase the thermal conductivity of CPCMs and improve the absorption, storage, and transportation of heat.

  3. Medium-high temperature ceramic-based CPCMs have been widely applied in the fields of solar thermal utilization, industrial waste heat recovery, etc., which makes the research of system-level CPCMs in TES an important direction in the future. The functionalization and intelligence of ceramic-based CPCMs could realize the efficient utilization/management of heat, and ensure efficient and stable energy output and targeted applications under dynamic external environmental changes.

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Acknowledgments

Jun Qiu: Supervision, Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Writing–review & editing, Funding acquisition.

Xibo He: Methodology, Investigation, Writing–original draft, Visualization, Data curation.

This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 52076062), National Key R&D Program of China (No. 2018YFA0702300), and Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (No. 2023FRFK06007).

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Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this chapter.

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Written By

Jun Qiu and Xibo He

Submitted: 01 September 2023 Reviewed: 19 September 2023 Published: 12 January 2024

© 2024 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.