Demystifying Metacognition

Abstract

Dispelling the myths about different but related definitions of metacognition is presented. The author bases the discussion on an examination of the relevant literatures. Understanding the impact of culture is a key part of social metacognition. Examining unstated beliefs about oneself may reveal insights into one’s social metacognition and sense of identity. It also clarifies the relationships between social metacognition, self-concept, and attitudes, as well as between social metacognition and prejudice and stereotyping. It focuses on studies conducted with nonhuman primates and other animals, such as chimpanzees, rhesus macaques, rats, pigeons, dogs, and dolphins. Strategies for fostering metacognition in the classroom are also covered; specifically, how this type of thinking helps students better evaluate and adjust their own methods of learning in order to gain a deeper comprehension of complex material. Teachers’ professional approaches to metacognition are characterised as a process in which students take charge of their own learning; in turn, teachers are tasked with assisting students in acquiring the knowledge, understanding, and abilities necessary to do so. Teachers are urged to design lessons giving pupils opportunities to develop their own metacognitive skills. It concludes with a summary of the discussion and values of metacognition.

1. Introduction

Concepts are defined and approached differently. Concepts are abstract ideas that underpin principles, thoughts, and beliefs. Concepts affect many areas of cognition and are explored in linguistics, psychology, and others. These fields study logic and psychology of concepts and how they are put together to form thoughts and sentences. The study of concepts has served as an important flagship of an emerging interdisciplinary approach to cognitive sciences.

As such, this chapter’s premise is the need to clarify the term “metacognition.” Understanding one’s own mental processes and their underlying patterns is one definition of metacognition. Meta means “beyond” or “on top of” in some contexts, which is how the phrase is understood by others. Meta is a form of self-reference. This signifies a greater degree of generalisation. Metadata, in the context of computer science, describes the categorised information about data stores [1, 2].

Metaphysics is the scientific study of nature itself, while metamorphoses are changes to a stable type of development; a morphing of morphing. Metalinguistics and metalanguage are, according to linguists, the words and phrases used to discuss or characterise language in general or a specific language. To build upon the work of other scholars, I will simply define metacognition as the process of being aware of one’s own cognitive processes as they relate to the acquisition of new information and insight. The team metacognitive abilities are discussed as the best ways to approach learning. It manifests itself in a variety of ways, such as when students reflect on their own thought processes or when they apply certain techniques for addressing problems [3, 4]. Metacognition consists of two main parts: knowing how one’s own mind works, and being able to control how one’s mind works. A metacognitive model is unique among scientific models, in that its inventor typically includes a comparison definition as part of the model. While scientific models frequently exclude the observer from the equation, metacognitive models aim to centre the observer at every stage.

When talking about metacognition, it’s useful to bring up similar concepts like metamemory. Understanding memory and how to memorise information which is known as metamemory is a type of metacognition.

Two books of the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 BC) contain discussions of metacognition. In 1976, American developmental psychologist John H. Flavell used the term “metacognition” to describe a more advanced form of thinking [5, 6, 7].

Metacognition is knowledge of cognition and control of cognition, according to one of the earliest researchers, Flavell. When a person realises he/she is having more problems understanding topic A than topic B, or when he/she realises he/she should verify hypothesis C before committing to it, such person is engaging in metacognition [7, 8].

Thinking about thinking is called metacognition. In this context, metacognition meant approaching or referring to one’s own thinking process, such as one’s study habits, memory, and the ability to keep track of one’s own progress in school. It then inferred that content education should be supplemented with instruction in metacognition. Understanding one’s own cognitive processes and how to control them for optimal learning and decision-making constitutes metacognitive knowledge. Knowing when you have knowledge, when you do not, and what to do in either situation is essential. In other words, it necessitates constant self-evaluation and course correction [6].

Knowing yourself as a learner is an important part of the metacognition process. It is a measure of the student’s self-awareness as a learner. A learner who can articulate his/her own abilities in terms of academic writing, testing, and other tasks demonstrates metacognitive awareness. It is important to note that metacognitive processes are used in every field and every type of learning and thinking situation. Metacognition is a crucial skill for lifelong learning and should be explicitly taught and discussed with students. Content knowledge, task knowledge, and strategic knowledge are all examples of metacognitive expertise [7, 8].

Content knowledge also called declarative knowledge means realising one’s own potential. A student might think he/she is making use of content knowledge when he/she does an in-class self-assessment of his understanding of the material. This leads us to a different perspective, which shows that not all metacognitions are correct. According to research, when asked to evaluate their own knowledge and that of their peers, students frequently confuse laziness with lack of understanding. Another correlation between overconfidence in one’s own performance and an inaccurate metacognitive evaluation of that performance is found.

Task knowledge also called procedural knowledge is one’s subjective evaluation of the content, duration, and nature of an assignment in determining its perceived difficulty. The research cited in this section is concerned with how accurately judging the difficulty of a task affects one’s overall performance on that activity. Again, the accuracy of this knowledge was skewed because students who thought their way were better, easier, and also seemed to perform poorly on evaluations, compared to students who were thoroughly and consistently examined and reported being less confident but yet doing better on initial evaluations.

Strategic knowledge also called conditional knowledge means the individual’s aptitude for employing various methods in order to acquire knowledge. In this case, it is noted that young children struggle with this strategy. Students do not start to grasp the concept of efficient methods until they reach the upper grades of primary school.

Memory monitoring and self-regulation, meta-reasoning and awareness or consciousness are all subfields of metacognition. These skills are put to use when people strive to control their own minds and increase their capacity for rational thought, education, and assessment. As an added bonus, increased awareness can cut down on the time it takes to solve problems or finish activities by allowing you to react more quickly in the first place. This suggests that it is a mental operation.

An important distinction in metacognition (proposed by T. O. Nelson and L. Narens) in Experimental Psychology is between monitoring, which means making judgements about the strength of one’s memories, and control, which means using those judgements to guide behaviour (in particular, to guide study choices). This distinction was discussed by Dunlosky, Serra, and Baker in Dunlosky and Bjork’s (2008) Overview of Metamemory Research, which focused on the transferability of findings from this field [8, 9, 10, 11]. This leads to the discussion of another approach of metacognition called social metacognition.

2. Social metacognition

An essential part of metacognition is social metacognition. As such, it is stereotypical. A group of false beliefs about a person or group of individuals is what we mean when we use the term “stereotype.” Humans are portrayed here under the headings of social metacognition and stereotypes as having a wide range of beliefs, perspectives, and cultural practises. The cultural context in which we were raised greatly shapes our own perspectives. It is believed that metacognition studies should also investigate how our own cultural backgrounds shape our assumptions about the mental processes of others. These are the points of view of the expansionist theory, which argues that we cannot have a whole picture of metacognition unless we factor in the influence of contextual and cultural factors. Social metacognition is the fusion of social psychology with self-aware learning.

The field of study known as “social metacognition” examines how we think about thinking about how other people think. It entails making value judgements about the mental processes of others, such as their thoughts, feelings, and perceptions [12]. Since evaluating oneself is analogous to evaluating others, this can be quantified [12]. People’s judgements of others tend to be more off-base when they have less information to go on, an effect known as the fundamental attribution mistake [12, 13]. Having members of a team or organisation who share similar worldviews might help mitigate this error and foster stronger bonds.

2.1 Social metacognition and the self-concept

Theoretical frameworks are developed to provide light on the connections between social metacognition and one’s sense of identity. Examining implicit beliefs about one’s own identity is an example of how social metacognition and self-concept interact with one another. While implicit theories explored many different aspects of the self’s functioning, just two—entity theory and incrementalist theory—are of interest here [1, 13]. The incrementalist perspective contends that an individual’s self-attributes and talents can be modified via effort and experience, while the entity theory maintains that these aspects of an individual are fixed and stable. As a result of believing that they have no power to alter their situation, entity theorists are more likely to succumb to learned helplessness and give up readily when faced with adversity. When faced with setbacks, incremental theorists respond in a unique manner, adopting a pattern that emphasises the pursuit of mastery. They ramp up their efforts while contemplating alternative strategies for completing the work at hand. This might also be influenced by cultural norms. For instance, if one’s culture teaches that memory loss is inevitable with age, that person may avoid mentally taxing activities as they get older, hastening their cognitive decline [14]. Furthermore, it is argued that a woman’s performance on mathematical ability tests or interest in mathematics may suffer if she is aware of the stereotype that women are not strong at mathematics [7, 15]. These cases illustrate how people’s metacognitive beliefs—their understanding of their own thinking and how it affects their behaviour—can be passed down via families and cultures.

2.2 Attitudes as a function of social metacognition

The way we think about attitude greatly affects the way we behave. Metacognitions about attitudes influence how individuals act, especially how they interact with others [16].

Attitude’s importance, certainty, and perceived knowledge are all metacognitive traits that have distinct influences on behaviour [16]. Individuals’ information-seeking habits can often be anticipated based on their attitudes. Attitude importance, rather than clarity of attitude, is a stronger predictor of behaviour [16]. It is possible for someone to place a high value on voting as a civic duty but have little confidence in the outcome. This indicates they are committed to casting a ballot, regardless of their confidence in any particular candidate. On the other hand, someone who is set on a particular candidate but does not feel strongly about the issue might not bother to cast a ballot. The same holds true for interactions with other people. Even if someone knows a lot of good things about their family, they could not prioritise their relationships with them.

Attitude metacognitive features may be crucial to unravelling the mysteries of attitude shift. According to studies, the most important component in influencing one’s attitude is the frequency with which one thinks either positively or negatively [17]. Even if one accepts the reality of climate change, one’s attitude towards the issue may be unfavourable. In contrast to someone who holds more optimistic views on the same subject, this person is unlikely to alter their behaviours.

The possibility of a change in behaviour can be increased in another way: by changing the origin of the attitude. Attitude is significantly influenced by one’s own thoughts and ideas as opposed to those of others [17]. People are more likely to adopt a healthier lifestyle when they believe the initiative came from within themselves, rather than from an outside source like a friend or family member. These ideas can be recast in a manner that highlights the value of the individual. It describes how one’s outlook affects his or her actions.

2.3 Social metacognition and stereotypes

We also have secondary thoughts regarding whether our own stereotypical ideas are reasonable, fair, or acceptable in the eyes of others [18]. We are aware that making generalisations about people is not appropriate and we work hard to avoid doing so. Even minute social cues might have an impact on one’s best intentions. For instance, when people are tricked into thinking they are good at making snap judgements about other people, they revert back to using preconceived notions about them [19]. Stereotypes and other forms of social metacognitive assumption are influenced by people’s cultural backgrounds. For instance, no age-related differences in memory performance have been found in societies where the myth that memory deteriorates with age is not widely held [15].

Implicit ideas regarding the stability versus malleability of human features predict variations in social stereotyping when it comes to making judgements about other people. When people have what is called “entity theory of traits,” they are more likely to draw conclusions about individuals within a group based on superficial similarities. People who hold entity views of traits are more likely to make harsh trait judgements about novel groups, as well as to deploy stereotypes about existing groups based on those features [20]. Assumptions and implicit notions about a group can lead to more stereotyped judgements [21]. Metastereotypes refer to an individual’s belief that others have a certain stereotype of them.

3. Animal metacognition

Animal metacognition needs to be addressed in this chapter for the sake of completeness. It will improve deduction and comparison, leading to a more complete knowledge of how animals and humans use metacognition. Chimpanzees, rhesus macaques, rats, pigeons, dogs, and dolphins are just some of the animals used in scientific studies.

Metacognition, the ability to reflect on one’s own thought processes and modify one’s conduct accordingly, has been observed in chimpanzees. Georgia State University (2015), Agnes Scott College, Wofford College, and the University at Buffalo, The State University of New York researchers [22] found that chimpanzees, like humans, have the ability to engage in metacognitive monitoring, which reflects a form of cognitive control essential to making intelligent decisions. Beran et al. found that chimpanzees demonstrated metacognitive monitoring in an information-seeking task [23], so this fits with their findings. Three chimpanzees were studied and asked to use a keyboard to name the food item in order to receive it. Either the food was in plain sight, or they had to approach the container to inspect its contents. Chimpanzees were more likely to open a container to see what was inside when the food inside was disguised, according to the research. However, when the chimpanzees could see what was in the container, they were more likely to approach the keyboard without first checking the container and report the food’s identity. Their findings imply that chimpanzees are perceptive beings capable of successful information-seeking behaviours in the face of knowledge gaps.

Rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) were tested by Rosati and Santos who investigated whether or not they engage in metacognitive inferences during a binary choice [24].

The four different circumstances that the monkeys were exposed to involved their seeing a human seem to conceal food rewards in either one or two tubes. When they saw a bailing event, the monkeys usually looked in the right place, but they did some fact-finding by peeking into the middle of the room where they could see both hiding sites. Furthermore, the study’s findings give evidence that nonhumans demonstrate information-seeking reactions in contexts with which they are unfamiliar [24]. It also demonstrates that monkeys employ information about their own knowledge levels spontaneously to solve naturalistic foraging difficulties.

Metacognition was not just something that was seen in nonhuman primates. In a perceptual discrimination challenge, Foote and Crystal showed for the first time that rats had self-aware knowledge [25]. The rodents were asked to judge whether or not certain sounds were long or short. Sometimes it was hard to tell whether a noise was brief or long because of its duration. On some trials, the rats were given the chance to skip the test, but on others, they were coerced into answering questions. They could earn a lot of money if they took the test and answered properly, but nothing if they misclassified the sounds. However, the rats would be assured a reduced prize if they opted out of doing the exam. This suggests that rats know they do not have the correct answers and choose not to take the exam in order to earn the reward as the level of noise in the environment increases. The rats also performed better when given the option to skip trials they were unsure of, suggesting that they were able to make more informed decisions when given the option.

It is possible that they are keeping tabs on their mental states, which would explain their reaction pattern. It is also possible to account for their performance in the discrimination test on the basis of external cues, such as environmental cue associations. Over time, rats may have learned to respond negatively to intermediate stimuli by selecting the decline option. Tests can be declined on the basis of discriminative cues such as longer reaction latencies or qualities inherent to the stimulus. To determine whether or if rats are capable of metacognitive reacting adaptively [26], Templer et al. used an olfactory-based delayed match-to-sample (DMTS) memory challenge [26]. After being presented with a sample odour, rats were given the option of skipping the subsequent memory test or taking it. The rewards for making the right olfactory judgements were substantial, while those for making the wrong ones were none. There was some compensation for choosing the decline alternatives.

Some “no-sample” trials, in which no odour was presented to the participants prior to the memory test, were included in the second experiment. They reasoned that if rats were able to internally judge the strength of their memories, they would be less likely to choose the option where no sample odour was offered. However, the rats would be less likely to choose to refuse the test if external environmental signals were used to drive the decline option. Supporting the idea that rats can gauge their own memory strength, the data showed that rats were more likely to decline the test in no-sample trials compared to standard sample trials.

They also controlled memory strength by presenting the sampled odour twice and by changing the retention period between the learning and the test in order to rule out alternative possibilities. Rats that had been exposed to the sample twice were less likely to refuse the test, showing that their memory for these samples was strengthened. This was discovered by Templer and colleagues. As people’s memories improved after the shorter delay, they were less likely to take the longer delayed sample test. Collectively, the results of their experiments showed that rats could tell the difference between remembering and forgetting and disproved the hypothesis that decreased use was influenced by environmental cues.

Studying whether pigeons (Columba livia) can exert behavioural control as a function of knowledge level on a 3-item sequence learning task, a reference memory task supposedly requiring fewer working memory resources [27], Iwasaki et al. conducted this research. In the study, participants were exposed to two lists with varying degrees of familiarity. The pigeons had seen the first one many times, but the second one changed with each training session. Primary reinforcement rates were reduced by 0.60 percentage points in the first test, and by 0.75 percentage points in the second test, when pigeons were given the option of selecting a trial with a hint. The study found that when given a choice between a familiar and a novel list, pigeons with cognitive abilities between 2 and 4 years old preferred the trial with a hint. In the very first sessions of both tests, one bird provided strong evidence. These findings indicate that pigeons may keep tabs on their long-term knowledge states before beginning to solve a problem, allowing them to exert some degree of influence on their surroundings. Pigeons were trained by Adams and Santi to recognise differences in lighting for a perceptual discrimination task using the DMTS method [28]. In preliminary tests, a higher retention interval did not lead to more pigeons selecting the escape option. They were able to learn how to avoid the tests altogether after extensive practise. Pigeons may have acquired a link between escape responses and a longer retention delay [29], which could explain these findings.

Pigeons have been shown to exhibit adaptive and efficient information-seeking behaviour in the same-different discriminating test [30] by Castro and Wasserman, and this is independent of the DMTS paradigm. At the same time, two sets of elements, which could be the same or different, were shown in two separate arrays. Pigeons were challenged to tell the difference between two sets of items with varying degrees of difficulty. On some trials, pigeons were given an “Information” button and a “Go” button to stimulate them to make responses by pecking the button, or to increase the amount of objects in the arrays to make the discrimination easier. Pigeons, according to the research of Castro and Wasserman, are more likely to use the “information” button to complete the discrimination job if it is more challenging. This pattern of action demonstrated that pigeons could make an internal assessment of the challenge of the assignment and go on the hunt for answers when necessary.

Dogs have demonstrated a degree of metacognition, suggesting that they can evaluate whether or not new knowledge is relevant to them. When confronted with ambiguity, Belger and Bräuer wanted to see if dogs may actively seek out more information [31, 32]. The reward was hidden beyond one of the two gates, and the dogs were either able to see it or not. The dogs were then directed to the prize by going around a single barrier. When the dogs were unable to observe the baiting process, they were more likely to perform a double-check before choosing the fence. When the delay between baiting the reward and choosing the fence was longer, dogs did not increase their checking behaviours in the same way as apes did. Their research showed that canines are capable of some information-seeking behaviours, albeit with less versatility than apes.

Smith used an auditory threshold paradigm [33] to test dolphins for metacognitive monitoring. There was success in teaching a bottle-nosed dolphin to distinguish between high- and low-frequency tones. In some trials, there was a little prize and an escape opportunity. The results of the study demonstrated that dolphins were capable of making effective use of the unclear answer during trials with low discriminability.

Nonhuman primates, particularly great apes and rhesus monkeys, are widely agreed upon to engage in metacognitive control and monitoring behaviours [34].

However, other animals, including rats and pigeons, showed less convergent evidence [35]. Low-level conditioning mechanisms were proposed as a possible explanation for these performances by some researchers who were critical of these methods [36]. Animals using simple reinforcement models learned to associate rewards with environmental cues. The reinforcement model has been used to try to explain animal behaviour, however numerous investigations have shown that this is not sufficient. Even without a direct payoff, animals have been observed to engage in adaptive metacognitive behaviour.

4. Metacognitive strategies in education

Metacognition is an essential part of any educational discussion. The ability to reflect on one’s own learning process and make adjustments to one’s strategy is an example of metacognition. The metacognition cycle clearly aids students in enhancing their learning by having them: First, evaluate the task. Second, consider both your advantages and disadvantages. Third, map out your strategy. Fourth, put plans into action. Fifth, reason.

Metacognition is a term largely used in the field of education to describe an individual’s awareness of his or her own cognitive processes. That is, the knowledge we have about our knowledge. Knowing how you learn best, the various learning strategies at your disposal, the tasks at hand, and the best way to finish them are all examples of metacognitive knowledge [37]. Metacognitive techniques aid in the organisation, control, and assessment of our academic endeavours. It boils down to the capacity to draw on prior experience and information to formulate plans for tackling challenges, implement those plans, assess their efficacy, and make necessary adjustments. It consists primarily of keeping an eye on and reining in our own internal mental processes.

However, it is vital to keep in mind that cultivating metacognition does not inevitably produce pupils who are able to govern their own learning. If you want your pupils to build their own metacognitive skills as learners, Sword says you need to have a firm grasp of how such skills are acquired and mirror them in your own practise [37].

To achieve the best possible results, it is imperative that professionals inculcate the concepts more thoroughly into their subject-specific practises and place a premium on encouraging students to become more successful independent learners who can critically evaluate their own methods and adjust their own behaviour accordingly.

The educational benefits of metacognition are substantial. According to a research published by the National Academy of Sciences in 2018, effective learning necessitates the integration of several neural networks. Self-regulation and monitoring of learning are necessary for coordinating these processes. Interventions can enhance people’s natural, maturing capacity to monitor and control their own learning as it evolves across the lifespan.

Sword lists the following as some of the possible advantages of metacognition for learning:

• Higher achievement levels for the students. Clearly metacognitive practices can also compensate for any cognitive limitations that a student might have.

• Increased ability to learn independently. Being able to monitor their own progress helps students take control of their own learning, inside and outside the classroom.

• Improved resilience. Identifying their successes and failures, and which strategies work best for them—or which have failed—increases students’ perseverance in getting better at their work.

• It aids disadvantaged students. According to this report, and researches, metacognition is beneficial for students who are at a disadvantage to their peers.

• Cost-effectiveness. This method of teaching does not require specialist equipment nor any other large purchases—it only requires teachers to be trained in the method effectively.

• Transferable knowledge. It helps students to transmit their knowledge and understanding across tasks and contexts, including reading comprehension, writing, mathematics, memorising, reasoning, and problem-solving.

• Effective for all ages of students. Research has looked at both primary and secondary students—and even those who have not yet started school—and found benefits in all cases.

• Emotional and social growth. Gaining awareness of their own mental states allows students to think about how to be happy, respected, and confident in themselves. They are also better able to understand other people’s perspectives.

5. Teachers’ professional approaches to metacognition

Despite the fact that metacognition primarily involves pupils assuming responsibility for their own learning, a teacher’s assistance is still necessary. Instead of having separate “learning to learn” or “thinking skills” sessions, it is advised that teachers teach metacognition with topic content. Students have a hard time making the connection between the generalised advice presented in these sessions and the material being covered in class.

As a teacher, it is your responsibility to design lessons that give students opportunities to use metacognitive skills. Lessons should generally be broken down into four phases: you, planning, doing, and reflecting [37].

In the “You” phase, students are presented with a lesson beginning that prompts them to reflect on what they already know about the material and how they have approached learning it in the past.

In the “Plan” phase, students are assigned a project (as well as a specific objective to achieve along the course of the learning process). Clarity and specificity in the learning objective are essential. The best way for students to ensure they put in the appropriate amount of time and effort is to anticipate obstacles and plan accordingly. Metacognition can also benefit from the ability to predict future performance.

In the “Do” phase, the students actually do the work while keeping tabs on their development. The teacher could pause students in the middle of the process and provide sentence scaffolding to help them think about what they have accomplished so far and what they need to do next (such as “I am doing the task successfully because...”, “this strategy is working because...”, “I am confused by...”, “I might have to change my strategy because...”, and “my next steps are...”). In order to demonstrate to students that misunderstandings are normal and expected during the learning process, it is crucial to emphasise any topics that give them confusion. Better metacognition is also a byproduct of learning to admit ignorance.

Finally, in the “Review” phase (often at the end of the course), the teacher should provide students time to review what they have learned—how successful was their method in helping them achieve their learning goal? What worked, and what did not, and why? Is there anything they might have done differently next time, and what other problems this method might be applicable to?

The activities students are given need to be challenging (but not impossible) so that they can practise new metacognitive methods, learning from their own mistakes as educators, and reflect thoughtfully on their own learning. Students are more likely to retain knowledge from an engaging, complex assignment than they would be from a superficial one. Work should be demanding, but not beyond their capacities; otherwise, they risk experiencing cognitive overload and having their reasoning break down under the strain of trying to keep too much knowledge in working memory. You must evaluate your pupils’ metacognitive skills so that you can assign appropriate tasks.

According to Sword [37], David Perkins’s (1992) four-level approach for characterising metacognitive learners—tacit learners, conscious learners, strategic learners, and reflective learners—is widely used.

Tacit learners refer to learners or students who are unaware of their metacognitive knowledge. They do not think about any particular strategies for learning, and merely accept if they know something or not.

Aware learners refer to those who know about some of the kinds of thinking that they do, such as generating ideas, finding evidence, etc. However, thinking is not necessarily deliberate or planned.

Strategic learners refer to those who organise their thinking by using problem-solving, grouping and classifying, evidence-seeking, decision-making, etc. They know and apply the strategies that help them learn.

Reflective learners refer to those who are not only strategic about their thinking, but also reflect upon their learning while it is happening. They consider the success or failure of any strategies they are using, and revise them as appropriate.

Teachers can better assist their students in their learning if they have an idea of where their pupils now stand. Teachers of tacit students, for instance, need to pay close attention to all facets of metacognition as they lead their students through the learning process. When teaching more advanced students, you might gradually reduce your involvement [37].

Provide the kids with methods to improve their learning. Students need exposure to a variety of learning tactics before they can evaluate their effectiveness. The instructor must provide students with opportunity for self-assessment and reflection on their learning. One strategy for doing so is to demonstrate your own metacognitive strategies by walking them through the steps you would use to complete a certain assignment. The instructor should also act in ways that demonstrate resilience. This is incredibly helpful because it reveals the inner workings of success, the challenges that everyone must overcome to master a new skill. It highlights the need of a growth mindset, the belief that one’s cognitive abilities may be honed via repeated efforts rather than being fixed at birth.

6. Conclusion

The purpose of this chapter is to introduce the idea of metacognition to any reader interested in learning more about it. The chapter opens with a broad explanation of the topic at hand. The ability to reflect on and analyse one’s own cognitive functioning is known as metacognition. Content knowledge, task knowledge, and strategic knowledge are only a few examples of metacognitive expertise. Concepts and assumptions about social cognition are the focus of social metacognition. Social metacognition and the self-concept, social metacognition and stereotypes, and social metacognition and attitude were all discussed. Chimpanzees, rhesus macaques, rats, pigeons, dogs, and dolphins are only few of the nonhuman primates studied in the field of animal metacognition at this time. Researchers agree that apes and rhesus monkeys engage in metacognitive control and monitoring behaviour [28], based on a survey of the literature on the topic. It suggests that animals may have the same capacity to reflect on, monitor, or exert control of their mental states as humans do (i.e., conscious metacognition). Students’ capacity to reflect on and modify their own learning tactics—known as “metacognitive strategies in education”—is described. Students can enhance their learning with the help of the metacognitive cycle, which consists of five steps: (i) gaining access to the task, (ii) assessing strengths and weaknesses, (iii) developing a strategy, (iv) putting the approach into practise, and (v) reflecting on the process. The focus of this chapter’s subtitle, “Teachers’ Professional Approaches to Metacognition,” is on metacognition as a process that empowers students to direct their own education, with the caveat that teachers are responsible for fostering in their students the skills and strategies necessary to do so. It suggests that, instead of having dedicated learning to learn or thinking skills sessions, teachers should teach metacognition alongside topic content. Students have a hard time making the connection between these sessions and the subject matter being covered, hence they are useless. As a teacher, you should design your session so that pupils have ample opportunity to use metacognitive skills. The teacher should generally divide the lesson into four stages: the you stage, the planning stage, the doing stage, and the reviewing stage. Sword [37] elaborated by noting that David Perkin’s description of the four levels of learners—tacit learners, conscious learners, strategic learners, and reflective learners—serves as a popular foundation for justifying the degrees of metacognitive learners. After determining where their pupils stand, educators can tailor their instructions to meet their pupils’ needs. It has long been known that metacognition as a teaching concept is crucial for students to understand and use effectively.