The Role of NGOs in Bangladesh during the COVID-19 Pandemic Followed by the Floods in the Northern Districts

Abstract

The COVID-19 pandemic in Bangladesh during 2020−2022 caused a severe health crisis and unprecedented economic disruptions, with millions of job losses. These issues were exacerbated by the two unprecedented flash floods in mid-2022 in the northeastern districts of Sylhet and Sunamgonj, making the country recovering from the pandemic more vulnerable. The situation required an effective collective response from governmental and civil society organizations, including local and international nongovernmental organizations (NGOs and INGOs), to provide millions of affected people with affordable healthcare and offer shelter to the seven million-plus displaced flood victims. This chapter provides an in-depth discussion on the role and performance of some NGOs and INGOs and a few selected corporate and civil society organizations, frequently organized as foundations, in providing medical supplies, food, and finance, as well as material and emotional support to the victims. As will be shown, small NGOs were, in some cases, instrumental in saving the lives of hundreds of people during these turbulent times. While this does not undermine the key role of large national and international NGOs, we recommend providing more international aid to bigger and smaller grassroots NGOs. These entities should also be given greater governmental support to ensure that such initiatives fully benefit the communities in need.

1. Introduction

This chapter provides a snapshot of the role and performance of international and national NGOs during recent turbulent times in Bangladesh caused by the COVID-19 pandemic from March 2020 to July 2022 (hereafter denoted as “pandemic”) and the devastating floods in Sylhet and Sunamgonj districts (in the northeastern region of Bangladesh) during mid-2022.¹ Owing to their ubiquitous presence in Bangladesh since independence in 1971, NGOs in Bangladesh played a substantial role in the preparedness response and impact mitigation to lessen the consequences of these crises. For a comprehensive analysis of the origin, growth, and development of NGOs in Bangladesh, see Baser and Hasnath [1].

2. Literature review

While the role of NGOs as critical change agents in promoting socioeconomic development during peacetime is recognized and documented in the extant literature [2], their role in the turbulent period, including the COVID-19 pandemic, is also acknowledged in society and by the government. Several scholarly publications have analyzed the NGOs’ role during the pandemic, including (a) testing and treating infection, (b) giving food and cash to vulnerable families, (c) educating the public about the impacts of COVID-19, and (d) obtaining resources to respond to the pandemic [3].

In their extensive research on the impacts of pandemics in fourteen Central and East European countries, Nemeanu Sefora and Dan Dabija have discerned from the first image that NGOs have proven their essential role in supporting vulnerable groups within communities. The other findings in their illustrative study [4]:

• The pandemic pushed the boundaries of the healthcare system and the availability of necessary resources to secure a livelihood.

• NGO’s role in providing social and humanitarian aid is important in areas where the government or the market has failed.

• The best practice of NGOs has been redefining their relationship with public institutions; they have become more cooperative, informal, and reciprocal.

• NGOs depend on public funding, without which they cannot achieve their goal. They actively collaborate with sponsors and community organizations for fundraising campaigns aimed at obtaining resources to assist socially vulnerable groups—older people and people with preexisting medical conditions.

Sayarifard et al. conducted a study in Iran to identify the activities of NGOs in response to the challenges confronted by the nation due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The authors’ first impression was—and that lasted well over the end—that the spread and severity of the COVID-19 pandemic were of such magnitude that to shape an effective, collective response, the government required the participation of and cooperation of civil society organizations and institutions, including NGOs. The study identified NGOs’ role in effectively providing services to the target group in the COVID-19 crisis and interacting with governmental and nongovernmental agencies [5].

Zohra Shamim’s book chapter on the role of two NGOs—Bangladesh Rural Development Committee (BRAC) and the French Medical NGO Medicins du Monde (MdM)—analyzes the structures and activities of those two NGOs during the COVID-19 era. The NGOs worked in Bangladesh and other countries, including Afghanistan, Malaysia, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Philippines, Nepal, and Myanmar. Zohra firmly concludes, “NGOs play a vital role, especially during global challenges such as a pandemic when national governments cannot fulfill the population’s needs alone” [6].

We concur with all the above conclusions, including Zohra’s emphasis on the role of NGOs. We have critically analyzed the role of NGOs, INGOs, CSR faith-based organizations, and youth volunteer groups, and we have reached the same conclusion that they substantially augment the role of the government in meeting the enormous challenges of the pandemic and floods in Bangladesh.

In another study on the impact of COVID-19 in Nigeria, Ikenna Elias Asogwa et al. found a decline in health-seeking behaviors and low program implementation while increasing efficiency through virtual innovations and network development. In the case of Bangladesh, we did not observe any such decline but found evidence of an increase in efficiency and prompt adaptation to the crisis [7].

India went one step ahead of other countries in celebrating the role of Indian NGOs and INGOs in combating the COVID-19 pandemic. The NITI Aayog (National Institution for Transforming India (former Planning Commission of India) reached out to 90,000 NGOs and civil society organizations from the beginning of the pandemic to seek assistance in delivering services to the poor and sick people, as well as health and community workers [8].

3. The context of the turbulent period

We begin this discussion by briefly reviewing the context of the turbulent period in the focus of this analysis, commencing with the impact of the pandemic on life (morbidity and death) and living (income loss due to lockdown effects), followed by the consequences of flash floods.

Although the chapter’s central focus is the role and performance of NGOs as valuable intermediaries between the three main sectors of the economy—the public, private, and civil society, we consider the contributions of some select corporations, religious organizations (or faith-based organizations), and youth groups (or clubs), as well as the government’s response to these crises to ensure people’s safety and wellness. These analyses are based on a qualitative study involving field observations by the authors and evaluation of newspaper stories and editorials, journal articles, reports, blogs, and videos that provided acceptable evidence on how people viewed the two turbulent situations and enabled us to determine who contributed and how much.

3.1 COVID-19 pandemic

The novel coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic was first detected in late December 2019 in Wuhan, China. In the following months, the pandemic spread all over the world. The first three cases in Bangladesh were identified in Dhaka on March 8, 2020. Soon after, the pandemic spread all over the country. The capital region, Dhaka, and the second city region, Chittagong, bore the brunt of severe infections, many of which had fatal outcomes (see Figure 1: regional distribution of COVID-19 cases and Table 1: cases of COVID-19 infection in top 10 districts in Bangladesh)

Figure 1.

Geographical distribution of COVID-19 confirmed cases in Bangladesh.

Sl. no.	District name	No. of confirmed cases
1.	Dhaka	713,085
2.	Chittagong	127,925
3.	Comilla	469,92
4.	Sylhet	37,697
5.	Narayanganj	36419
6.	Gazipur	35,001
7.	Coxs Bazar	33,834
8.	Faridpur	30,471
9.	Rajshahi	28,938

Table 1.

Number of confirmed COVID-19 cases in the top 10 districts in Bangladesh from March 2020 to July 2022.

Source: https://dashboard.dghs.gov.bd/pages/covid19.php

The majority (72%) of the deceased were male, likely because they were still going out to work to earn a living, while most women remained at home and were thus less exposed to the virus. Among the age groups, the most significant mortality rate (70%+), as expected, was recorded among those aged 50 and above, and rural areas (60%) were more severely affected than urban areas (40%). A higher mortality rate was expected in rural areas with limited access to healthcare facilities compared to urban areas.

3.2 The devastating floods in Sylhet and Sunamgonj

While Sylhet and Sunamgong ranked fourth among the districts in Bangladesh regarding the number of registered COVID-19 cases, the devastating floods—the worst in 122 years—exacerbated this crisis (see Figure 2 and Table 1)

Figure 2.

Flood-affected areas of Bangladesh 2022.

According to the government-issued data (the actual number may be greater), at least 141 people were killed in floods, and nearly 7.5 million people were left homeless, and thus in desperate need of shelter and aid. These extreme weather events were attributed to climate change as the Jamuna and Brahmaputra rivers swelled and India opened Teesta river (Gajoldoba) barrage gates.

The floods caused substantial damage to physical infrastructure as 528 km of roads, eight bridges, many culverts, and parts of a railway track were either destroyed or required considerable reparation. Osmani International Airport in Sylhet was submerged under water, while 60% of houses, water supply, and sanitation were fully or partially damaged. About half a million displaced people took shelter in 1605 government shelter centers, and others were placed in vacant school buildings, mosques, and disaster relief tents. Flood victims lost their household assets and part of their livestock, poultry, and fisheries. Some also contracted water-borne diseases, including diarrhea and fever, or exhibited other health problems.

While providing the much-needed temporary accommodation, flood shelters also made women vulnerable, as many were pregnant, and some gave birth without adequate privacy or access to primary and maternity healthcare. The safety of (young) women and adolescent girls was also in jeopardy, as did the incidences of early marriage.

4. Theoretical background and analytical framework

This section commences with a brief introduction to the origin, growth, and development of NGOs from international and national (Bangladeshi) perspectives, including their role in relief operations and sustainable development. In seeking to interpret the idea of NGOs, we draw upon the government’s political philosophy dedicated to reducing income inequality and increasing access to public goods with the help of NGOs and civil society organizations.²

The appeal of NGO theory in this context stems from three primary sources: First, not all people are “poor, nasty, and brutish” in the Hobbesonian state and are not always driven by personal gain. There are rich in developed countries and wealthy people in less developed countries willing to share part of their wealth for the greater good of humanity, irrespective of differences in geography and religion. Second, since absolute economic equality is not possible—though it may be desirable for an ideally just state of John Rawls—society will be better off if the efforts focus on realizing equitable income distribution and thereby minimizing inequality following Sen’s Idea of Justice [9].

Third, some people arguably possess altruistic traits and can help others in distress. They may have expectations of material or emotional (or both) rewards in return. The government can provide those organizations with funding and access to fundamental services (infrastructure), scale their operations, and increase their reach, particularly the guidance they need during turbulent times in the country. The role of NGOs corporate social responsibility (CSR), philanthropic civil society organizations, and aid from international donor agencies can help reduce inequality.

These theoretical principles are realized in practice in Bangladesh, where there are 26,000+ registered and many unregistered NGOs. We present some prominent INGOs and NGOs that have, over the years, contributed funds, food, and medical supplies to meet the critical needs of Bangladeshi people affected by adversities while increasing public awareness of the importance of healthcare. We focus on the most representative case studies about Gonosasthaya Kendra (GK), Dhaka Community Hospital Trust (DCHT), Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC), Association for Social Advancement (ASA), Shakti Foundation (SF), and Association of Development Agencies in Bangladesh (ADAB), an apex NGO body. The case studies on INGOs include CARE, UNICEF, Oxfam, and Red Crescent. These analyses are complemented by an evaluation of the work of the Basundharaa group (conglomerate) during the pandemic and floods. Lastly, we include three selected civil society organizations:

• Samaj Kliyan Sangstha (SKS) in Gaibandha is a healthcare NGO (nonprofit organization for healthcare equity) located in the northern region (Figure 3).

• Khalifa Patti Mosque is a faith-based organization in Bhola (southern region) dedicated to welfare activities.

• Local Youth Organizations in Feni, Sylhet, and Sunamgonj are volunteer clubs that operated during the pandemic and floods (see asterisk (*) mark in Figure 1).

Figure 3.

SKS Hospital in Gaibandha, Bangladesh. Source https://www.sks-bd.org/index.php/about-det.

When examining these cases, we used the analytical guidelines suggested by the Editorial Board of the Encyclopedia on Natural Hazards and Disasters. We discussed the role of NGOs from the perspective of their founding, development, fundamental principles, and source(s) of funding [10, 11].

Ahmed, Mussarat, and Zarina developed another set of criteria in their framework for analyzing the role of NGOs during turbulent periods, which appears to be a novel and more contextual approach to our discussion. The elements of the framework are briefly outlined below [12].

Compassion. The ability of the NGO staff to empathize with the poor and needy enables NGOs to deliver aid to those in need. Empathy also empowers NGO leaders with a positive image and goodwill.

Resource pooling. NGOs must have the resources—funding, materials, information, and sharing facilities such as joint transport, office space, and relationships with the government—that can be utilized when required.

Collaboration and coordination. NGOs’ actions are often hindered by a lack of coordination and cooperation, resulting in multiple parallel projects and duplication of services, decreasing the effectiveness of the available resources.

Communication. Effective communication with donors, beneficiaries, the government, and the wider public is the key to the success of NGOs.

These components complement each other, ensuring the successful operation of NGOs and INGOs.

In this chapter, we also consider the charitable giving by some large corporations, as well as initiatives championed by young students by volunteering time, money, transport, and whatever resources they had to help the victims of pandemics and floods.

In the following section, we briefly outline the role of the government before turning our focus to some selected NGOs. Then, we examine corporate social responsibility (CSR) and civil society organizations’ roles during turbulent times.

5. Role of the government

The government of Bangladesh received funds from the USA and USA-based international agencies to respond to the pandemic. The World Bank approved emergency financing of $100 million, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) disbursed $732 million, and the USA donated $132.4 million, in addition to 10 million doses of Pfizer’s Covid-19 vaccine. Combined with the government’s resources and NGOs cooperation, this gift from the American people ensured that the frontline health workers could access critical supplies such as ventilators, oxygen concentrators, hospital beds, and personal protective equipment (PPE). Still, despite all these efforts, the facilities were inadequate for meeting the extensive needs of COVID-19 patients in large numbers, due to which many critically ill individuals were denied entry to the hospital, let alone testing and treatment.

Some may argue that facilities were inadequate due to imprudent government spending as a significant portion of available finances was designated for business enterprises to keep the economy going.

However, as shown in Table 2, the number of deaths from COVID-19 in Bangladesh was much lower than in most countries. Likewise, while most national economies faced a recession in 2020, the GDP growth in Bangladesh experienced an initial setback but recovered in the following years. Business leaders credit the private sector for the economy’s resilience, while critics say that the government was overgenerous in supporting the private sector with public funds. Both views can be actual.

Country	Person per ‘000	Country	Person per ‘000
Peru	9.4	Sri Lanka	0.73
USA	3.6	Nepal	0.40
UK	3.5	India	0.38
Italy	3.3	Bangladesh	0.16
Mexico	2.6	Pakistan	0.13

Table 2.

Death due to COVID-19 per 1000 population.

Source: compiled by authors from various published materials.

Immediately after the flash floods, the government (as duty-bound) deployed the army and navy for rescue operations and relief distribution (Figure 4). The Prime Minister immediately allocated Tk. 1.2 crores for Sylhet-Sunamgonj and further Tk. 6.5 million for the surrounding subdivisions in the Haor (bowl-shaped back swamp) region. Following the Prime Minister’s visit to the flood site on June 19, 2022, additional funding (Tk. 2.5 crores) and packages with rice, pulses, dry food, clean water, water purification tablets, and emergency medicines were delivered to the devastated communities. The government arranged shelter centers for the flood victims and moved over 472,000 individuals to 1,605 shelter centers. The Palli Karma-Sahayak (Rural Employment Help) Foundation (PKSF) also stepped in with Tk. 2 crore to help flood victims. PKSF is a national public sector direct access entity based in Bangladesh working on a sustainable platform for collaboration between government and nongovernment organizations.³

Figure 4.

Bangladesh air force distributes relief in flood-affected areas of Sylhet. Source: https://www.tbsnews.net/bangladesh/bangladesh-air-force-distributes-relief-flood-affected-areas-sylhet-44356.

Following the war of independence in 1971, Bangladesh became a popular site for NGOs. Since independence, three prominent—and highly respected—NGOs have become valuable partners in the government’s journey to rebuild and develop the country—the Grameen Bank (internationally known for microcredit), Gonosasthya Kendra (for low-cost health services), and BRAC (for microcredit, informal primary education for social empowerment of rural women). The government of Bangladesh took over the Grameen Bank in 2012. Below is a concise introduction to Gonosasthya Kendra and BRAC and their role in fighting the COVID-19 pandemic and the ravages of floods.

5.1 Role of NGOs case studies

5.1.1 Gonosasthaya Kendra (GK)

See Figure 5.

Figure 5.

Dr. Zafrullah Chowdhury. A patriot and the founder of Gonosasthaya Kendra, a comprehensive primary healthcare NGO (December 27, 1941−April 11, 2023).

The GK was founded as Bangladesh Field Hospital with 480 beds during the liberation war (between March 1971 and December 1971) against the occupation army of Pakistan. Dr. Chowdhury and the hospital received a land grant from the government of Bangladesh, generous support from foreign governments, including France and the Netherlands, and donor agencies, such as the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and Global Giving. He and GK also received many prestigious international awards, including the Philippines Magsaysay Award and the Swsweden Right Livelihood Award. In his acceptance speech for the Award, Dr. Chowdhury briefly outlined GK as follows:

Gonoshasthaya Kendra was established in Savar in 1972 to deliver integrated health care in rural areas. The mainstay of GK’s healthcare delivery system is a team of paramedics (barefoot doctors), primarily young rural women. Health services have reached rural homes through them, and poor people have gained access to medical services, health education, and essential drugs. Each paramedic is responsible for 3,000 people for whom they provide a wide range of basic health services. They register births and deaths, identify high-risk pregnancies, provide ante-natal and post-natal care, immunize, treat common ailments like diarrhea, scabies, and acute respiratory infections, provide health and nutrition education, and teach the preparation of oral rehydration saline. They also perform minor surgery and take care of normal births. They have referral links to secondary care clinics and GK’s hospital [13].

Gonoshasthaya Kendra was registered as a Public Charitable Trust in 1972. Since then, it has been the top health-related NGO in Bangladesh, with 2500 employees, including doctors, nurses, pharmacists, and administrative staff. With that strength and capacity, GK has tried its best to respond to the needs of both the pandemic and the floods. True to its ideology, GK worked from the start of the pandemic.

Its first task was to prepare and supply a rapid coronavirus test kit, for which they needed experts from abroad. They took other measures, including emergency blood management services, community-based hand washing, sanitizer supplies, and leaflets and posters for awareness. GK’s other services include providing cooked food for 100,000+ low-income families, which has continued throughout the pandemic.

Yet, when the unprecedented floods occurred, one of the members of Bangladesh’s National Disaster Management Council, GK, responded immediately and reached the flood-affected area of Sylhet and Sunamgonj within 48 h. Its staff joined the rescue operations while providing 100 metric tons of food, clean water, and water purification tablets to the stranded people. Two GK medical teams were deployed—one in Sylhet, another in Sunamgonj—and worked day and night, backed by truckloads of relief materials. GK also closely coordinated with the government administration, other NGOs, the UN, and other humanitarian donors, such as the European Union (EU) and the United Kingdom (UK). A brief review of GK’s sources of income is provided below:

Although fees are minimal, GK earns revenues from two leading and five secondary hospitals in Dhaka city and its suburbs at Savar—and nearly 40 health centers spread all over the country. GK’s Savar Kidney Dialysis is the largest in the country, and an open heart surgery unit has been completed. In addition, the organization maintains a certain level of self-reliance by engaging in more commercial activities—such as the People’s Pharmaceutical Industry, Gonosasthya Textile Mill, Gonosasthya Printing Press, and the Gonosasthya University to become less dependent on donors [1].

5.1.2 Bangladesh Rural Development Committee (BRAC)

BRAC is a highly esteemed NGO—defined by others as an international development organization—based in Bangladesh but works in several other countries. Sir Fazle Hasan Abed (1936−2019) founded the organization in 1972 to provide equal access to basic needs to underprivileged people in Bangladesh and elsewhere. In other words, BRAC’s mission is to make provision for people and communities affected by poverty, disease, illiteracy, and social injustice. Specifically, BRAC’s objective is to improve the rural poor’s living conditions and support women’s empowerment by using tools such as microfinance, nonformal education, healthcare knowledge, and raising societal awareness of the democratic rights and obligations of all individuals.

From the outset of the pandemic, 35,000 BRAC community workers were deployed to the frontline to respond to the challenge by distributing masks. Amid the high demand for face masks, BRAC trained women in the Rohingya refugee settlement camp to make face masks, allowing them to supply 30,000 covers per week. Through this initiative, BRAC administered millions of masks during the pandemic, and the Rohingya women got temporary employment to earn a living.⁴

Through its Community Fort for Resisting COVID-19 (CFRC) project, BRAC health workers reached 81 million people in 35 districts of Bangladesh—from Rajshahi in the north to Barisal in the south. The health workers went directly to homes in their communities and educated the household members on how to stay safe by using face masks, washing hands, and observing social distancing. The $1.5 million donation from Canada helped boost the morale of the CFRC program while aiding the provision of free telemedicine services and other resilience-building activities.

BRAC’s flood response in Sylhet and Sunamgong was prompt, extensive, and practical—it launched an immediate relief operation by boat in the worst affected areas with lifesaving assistance to 52,000 families. BRAC allocated more than Tk. 30 million from its fund and distributed money and materials it received from overseas governments and donor agencies. The money was used to organize rescue services and provide emergency food relief, safe drinking water, saline solution, matches, candles, essential medicines, and other services to people affected by floods.

BRAC’s relief work was very systematic. First, one of the team members assessed the situation to determine the number of affected people and their immediate needs. Then, relief goods and services were delivered in close cooperation with the army, District Administration, and other NGOs to avoid duplication and chaos. However, BRAC’s Upzila (an administrative sub-unit of district administration) was directly responsible for the relief and rehabilitation operations and field office monitoring.

All this was possible because BRAC is a wealthy organization. In addition to a dozen social enterprises, BRAC has four (for-profit) business organizations—BRAC Bank, BRAC IT Service Company, 26% share in EDOTCO (a telecommunication infrastructure network with 15,000 towers), and BRAC University. Although it focuses on building resources across the local communities, BRAC receives most of its donations abroad. Thus, the European Union, the Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA), the United States (through USAID), the Australian and Canadian Governments, and the World Bank all came forward with generous donations supporting BRAC’s efforts.

5.1.3 A brief look at the other notable NGOs in Bangladesh

At least a dozen other NGOs have worked in Bangladesh for over four decades but—except the Association for Social Advancement (ASA), Shakti Foundation (for Women Empowerment), and the Bangladesh Red Crescent Society—were almost absent during the pandemic or the Sylhet-Sunamgonj floods. Thus, this section focuses on these three noble organizations.

ASA handed over 4000 bags of food, including rice, lentils, potatoes, salt, and edible oil, to Dr. Benjir Ahmed, the Inspector General of Police, for distribution to the flood victims. During the pandemic, the organization provided 160 tons of food and Tk. 10 crores in financial assistance to low-income families.

Shakti Foundation faced economic distress during the pandemic but responded to the crisis by raising funds from the private sector, including commercial banks (e.g., Pubali Bank donated Tk. 2.5 million), allowing the Foundation to support 2000+ families in six districts—including three metropolitan areas of Bangladesh—with essential food items—and carried out the awareness rising program named My Mask My Protection [14].

Bangladesh Red Crescent Society (BRCDS), an auxiliary of the Government of Bangladesh, contributed substantially to minimizing the spread of the pandemic and the recovery of infected people. The BRCDS prepared and distributed nationwide information, education, and communication (I.E.C.) materials (posters, leaflets, and public health information). This initiative allowed thousands of volunteers to reach millions with I.E.C. messages. The BRCDS also opened blood donation and regular blood transfusion centers countrywide and was actively involved in PPE distribution, helping protect medical staff and patients. Sadly, despite these efforts, over 180 doctors and at least 360 nurses and other medical staff died on duty during the pandemic.

Many other less-known NGOs such as An Organization for Social Development (AOSED), Bangladesh Environment and Development Society (BEDS), and Sajida (prostrate in prayers) Foundation, to name a few, also worked tirelessly during this turbulent period for Bangladesh. They disseminated health information and provided food, medicine, hygiene kits, and sometimes cash support to vulnerable communities. A few of these cases are discussed below.

Dhaka Community Medical College (DCMC), an establishment of Dhaka Community Hospital Trust (DCHT), deserves special mention for three reasons:

• DCMC’s working areas were slums in Dhaka, the highest-risk area and the most vulnerable community living in high-density small shelters (900+ persons per acre) with minimal access to municipal services.

• DCMC prepared a feature film on COVID-19 exhibited in slum areas to educate the residents on the nature of the disease and the measures they can take to protect themselves from infection. In addition, the college had set up a separate COVID-19 testing center in the corner of the hospital for treating infected patients.

• The founders of DCHT—two highly qualified medical doctors, Professor Kazi Qamruzzaman and Professor Mahmudur Rahman—exemplified the valuable role health NGOs can play in Bangladesh. Under a public-private partnership, they founded a 250-bed specialized community hospital in Pabna for the advanced treatment of cardiothoracic patients. During the pandemic, they handed the hospital to the government and resumed its normal operations once the infection rates abated [15].

SKS Foundation (Samaj Kallyan Sanstha or Social Welfare Foundation) is a renowned NGO in Gaibandha in northern Bangladesh, covering service areas in 20 other districts. It was founded in 1987 with the challenging goals of social empowerment, economic development of the poor, environmental justice for all, and social enterprises. With an annual budget of Tk. Fifteen billion and above, its income sources include a four-star hotel and resort, microcredit for agriculture and livestock rearing, and SKS Hospital as a social business enterprise.

The first author’s close friend—a retired civil servant and Gaibandha’s son—spoke to the authors about the role of SKS during the razes of pandemics, stating:

S.K.S. did an excellent job during the pandemic, which could hardly be found in the private sector. It opened an Isolation Center with 100+ beds for corona patients who were locally poor and helpless—and had nowhere to go. S.K.S. gave them free treatment and supplied hundreds of patients with food and clothes when they left the hospital. The hospital was fully equipped with medical supplies for coronavirus treatment, including oxygen cylinders and trained medical personnel. SKS shares resources with 18 other NGOs, including CARE Bangladesh, Oxfam, PKSF, and Water Aid Bangladesh, and shares information with the Government [16].

5.2 Case studies of INGOs

Before discussing the role of INGOs in Bangladesh, we should first recognize the enormous contribution of the western democracies, including the United States and the European Union (EU), followed by the World Bank, during the turbulent period for Bangladesh caused by the pandemic and the floods. The U.S. government gave $56.5 million, including $38 million from USAID, in humanitarian assistance to Bangladesh. Bangladesh was also the largest recipient of US-donated 61 million (Pfizer) doses of COVID-19 vaccines that saved millions of lives from infection and death. The EU provided EUR 100,000 (equivalent to about 10 million Bangladeshi Taka) through the Bangladesh Red Crescent Society (BDRCS) to mitigate the negative impact of the pandemic and floods. In addition, the World Bank approved a $500 million credit to help the nation combat the pandemic and the damage caused by floods.

There are 250+ INGOs registered with the government of Bangladesh. However, only a few are well-known for their ubiquitous presence in the country, some of which have been working with reputation even before the independence. A good example is UNICEF; its humanitarian actions during the Liberation War (1971) are below.

UNICEF had worked with other United Nations agencies in West Bengal to provide food, clean water, sanitation supplies, and utensils to refugees from Bangladesh living in camps during the liberation war of 1971. The organization was equally active during the pandemic and floods. In cooperation with the WHO, UNICEF established a 200-bed hospital for COVID-19 patients at Cox’s Bazar for patients from surrounding areas and particularly for Rohingya communities (Figure 6). UNICEF also addressed the issue of acute malnutrition, infant and young child feeding, and iron and folic acid deficiency among the camp children. Its staff also engaged 1146 Islamic centers across the Cox’s Bazar district to educate the local communities about the pandemic and the protective measures they need to take to prevent infection. To minimize the impact of the floods, UNICEF allocated $2.7 million in cash and provided food, safe water, and medical supplies. It also provided counseling services for infants and young children, while 50,000+ pregnant and lactating mothers received iron and folic acid supplements. On May 31, 2022, UNICEF delivered 190 million COVID-19 vaccines to Bangladesh through COVAX—a worldwide initiative aimed at equitable access to COVID-19 vaccines. UNICEF was present during the floods to protect children and to meet their urgent needs and worked closely with other local and international organizations to provide flood relief.

Figure 6.

A view of the Rohingya Camp in Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh. Source: https://www.npr.org/2021/03/22/979962565/fire-sweeps-through-rohingya-refugee-camp-in-southern-bangladesh.

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). During the pandemic, 40 million children in Bangladesh experienced significant disruptions in education. Following Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina’s advice, UNESCO introduced remote learning and online teaching, declared a global public good. Thus, INGOs assisted with child welfare and other humanitarian services, including data generation and analysis aid in preparing comprehensive reports on pandemics and floods.

Oxfam. In partnership with UNICEF, Oxfam implemented a WASH (water, sanitation, and hygiene) program in Rohingya camps in Cox’s Bazar. They trained about 400 camp-based volunteers—more than 50% female—to monitor health status in their communities. Female volunteers were vital in reaching women and girls. Oxfam also donated food and medical equipment to treat Rohingya camps.

CARE. Since its inception in 1945, Cooperation for Assistance and Relief Everywhere (CARE) has been known for its commitment to delivering emergency relief for disaster victims. In response to the pandemic and floods in Bangladesh, CARE extended food support to its 600 affected members, created awareness of personal hygiene and social distancing in the community, and helped district administration manage isolation. However, its more significant contribution is summarized in the following excerpt:

CARE Bangladesh opened a 40-bed isolation center in Rohingya Camp Extention at Cox’s Bazar to treat and support the Rohingya community with mild to severe COVID-19 symptoms. The center is well-equipped with separate dormitories, washrooms, and bathing spaces for male and female patients, where doctors, ambulances, medicine, oxygen support, and COVID-19 sample collection are available around the clock. The center, which runs on solar power, also plans to provide all patients with three mills daily [17].

Water Aid Bangladesh (WAB). It is an international development organization committed to providing clean water, decent toilets, and good hygiene. WAB is renowned for relying on young volunteers to support the slum population and squatters—it also assisted the Government of Bangladesh—in association with the WHO and the UNDP—in developing an innovative digital solution designed to address the needs of slum dwellers. Its programmatic activities included the installation of context-specific handwashing devices and social awareness of the disease in their proximity. The youth volunteers contributed to this endeavor by educating people on hand washing and other measures to keep themselves safe during the pandemic [18].

5.3 Special Mention of Contributions of Corporations (CSR), Faith-based Organizations, Youth Groups (Clubs), and Altruistic Individuals

Although many notable organizations deserve mention, due to the limited space, we chose one case for each group—Basundhara Group (the leading conglomerate in Bangladesh) in Dhaka, Khalifa Potti Mosque in Bhola, and Youth Clubs of Feni, both in the south.

CSR of Basundhara Group and Its Welfare Unit Shuv Songh. Basundhara Group established the Medical College and Hospital (Ad-Din Medical College, Dhaka) and Nursing Institute in Keranigonj, Dhaka.

On May 17, 2020, The Daily Sun from Dhaka made the following cover page headline: Basundhara Group makes history. The news item reads:

Bashundhara Group’s historical act of patriotism will remain in the annals of medical science for times to come as the world’s second-largest COVID-19 5,000-bed hospital, which it gifted for the welfare of the people, was launched on Sunday (May 17, 2020). It’s the second-largest hospital in the world dedicated to treating coronavirus patients. … The hospital has 2,013 isolation beds. Among them, oxygen cylinders are attached to 71 beds. It also has at least 400 more portable oxygen cylinders [19].

Basundhara Group distributed 2500 sacks of relief materials to the local police H.Q. at Sylhet and Sunamgonj for distribution to the flood victims. Further, 20,000 relief items were given to the Jamia Islamia Darul Ulum Hadith Kanaighat Madrsa faith-based group for the same purpose. The group also donated significant (undisclosed) financial sums to the Prime Minister’s Relief fund for the Sylhet-Sunamgonj floods.

Its other human development works include a free clinic on Friday at Basundhara Eye Hospital in Dhaka and Basudhara Medical College Hospital in Manikgonj, built-in 2024. The group provides financial assistance for underprivileged children and has established schools in the Rangpur Division, a relatively underdeveloped region. Basundhara Group’s contributions to humanitarian services, including national health and education development, are appreciated at home and abroad.

Faith-based Organization—Khalifa Patti Mosque in Bhola. While CSR is a modern western invention with hundreds of foundations, there is evidence from developing countries that the three concepts—CSR, philanthropy, and charity—draw strongly on deep-rooted cultural traditions that grew out of religious beliefs and moral values in Hinduism, Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam.

Faced with the COVID-19 pandemic, many Islamic groups (faith-based organizations of local mosque committees) responded with the same resolve and commitment as the most widely known NGOs. Still, they were not registered or members of the Association of Development Agencies (ADAB), an NGO umbrella organization in Bangladesh. Khalifa Patti Mosque group offers funeral services to the community in Bhola Town (at the southern tip of Bangladesh). During the pandemic, a large number of local youth joined the mosque group and performed works like sacredly collecting and burying dead bodies and observing religious rituals. This was a vital service, as many family members of the diseased feared the infection and were unwilling to perform these rites, often abandoning their dead bodies on the street.

Local Youth Support in Feni. Like volunteers in Bhola, some youths in Feni town volunteered services to their vulnerable neighbors during the pandemic. They went door to door, focusing on those on low income and individuals who had lost their jobs during the pandemic. They distributed food collected from their neighbors, cash from wealthy community leaders, face masks, and handwashing soap. The Feni Youth Group also performed funeral roles and responsibilities, including handling dead bodies within 2/3 days of the date of death. They also used mobile phones or the internet to allow people without access to a mobile phone to register for the online COVID-19 vaccination platform. The youth group’s contribution may not be substantial, but their dedication to this highly humane and sensitive cause was praiseworthy.

Barrister Syed Saidul Haque Sumon, a Supreme Court lawyer, is also worthy of recognition for his voluntary work. He organized a team of 600+ volunteers from his constituency (Habigonj 4 in Sylhet) and collected many donations from private foundations and individual charities. During the floods, Sumon and his team rescued thousands of flood victims, distributed relief items, and donated food packages, cooked food, and essential medicines for flood-related ailments.

Many other foundations and individuals contributed substantially to the fight against COVID-19 and the flood relief efforts. For example, the Summit Group Chairman Muhammed Aziz Khan donated $1 million to the International Center for Diarrheal Disease Research (ICDDR) Hospital Endowment Fund. Dr. Kamol Krishna Kundu, a physicist in a market town, Chatmohar, in Pbana to Chatmohar Upzila Sasth Complex (Chatmohar Government Hospital) provided $100,000 monetary contribution, as well as food assistance to thousands of poor local families. This true spirit of giving was unprecedented. Many diasporas living in North America and Europe also sent money for pandemic help and flood relief.⁵

6. Summary and concluding remarks

This chapter focused on the roles of some selected NGOs and INGOs during the COVID-19 pandemic in Bangladesh and the subsequent devastating floods in Sylhet and Sunamgong districts. We also reviewed the contributions of civil society organizations, including CSR, faith-based organizations, volunteer services from youth groups, and individual philanthropists. The discussion was guided by an analytical framework emphasizing the importance of NGOs work, motivation, and ability to develop partnerships with other relief agencies, the government, and donor agencies and their positive image in society.

As was shown in the previous sections, there was no shortage of motivation on the part of NGOs to minimize the impacts of the pandemic and floods in Bangladesh. They also invested significant effort into obtaining money and relief materials from every possible source and maintained close cooperation with other INGOs and philanthropic groups. The enthusiasm of youth groups and some individual institutions (such as SKS and DCHT) to do good for the people was praiseworthy. While the government of Bangladesh did its best, the INGOs’ contribution to the Rohingya Camp was remarkable.

Yet, despite all the compassion and public spiritedness, during the pandemic, we observed chaos, death, and grief during the pandemic, and the helplessness of the flood victims was very much on display. As such, greater efforts must be made to offer these organizations—particularly those of smaller size and informal volunteer groups—the support needed to ensure their sustainability and enable them to provide the much-needed services wherever they are required.

In sum, the experiences of the pandemic and flash floods have made it clear that the government of Bangladesh cannot meet such challenges alone—it needs the help of NGOs, CSR, and civil society organizations. Besides providing material help with microcredit and relief goods, NGOs can assist with the non-material aspects of development, particularly empowerment, participation, and democratization processes. If those activities are expanded, they can help develop a stronger civil society and facilitate relief operations by NGOs during the post-COVID era. It can be more effective if local sociopolitical authorities provide proper infrastructure for relief distribution. However, if such systems are prone to corruption, they can hinder the operations of NGOs and governmental organizations. NGOs can also play a crucial role in preventing such scenarios. In addition to providing material and emotional support, NGOs can raise local awareness regarding democracy and accountability. Such educative efforts will enable the locals to hold their sociopolitical leaders accountable in times of need and stability.