Perspective Chapter: Storytelling in Developing Countries – Changing the Narrative from the Perspectives of Learners in the Digital Spaces

Abstract

Much of the African continent was known as a jungle. In its own transformation phases, the continent has changed. The continent is known for two major civilizations developed in African antiquity: one around the Nile River in the northeast and the other, somewhat younger, around the Niger River in the West. Ancient Egypt and Nubia are also prominent in history textbooks and other West African civilization. The folktales, narratives and myths assisted the African community build their story telling sessions in different contexts. With the advent of technology and other current emerging and mobile devices, storytelling that served the purpose of educating, motivating, warnings, behavior control, genealogy awareness and bothers keeper, preparation for adult youth and adulthood, understanding your role in the society and any other purposes changed. For the listeners and story tellers who are the focus of this study, there has been a generation gap coupled with globalization, digital divide and other global changes that has given new impetus to the story telling. This study explores new channels of communication characterized by use of print media, enhanced use of technology and diverse audience and plot of the story in different spaces.

1. Introduction

Africa, considered as the origin of modern humans and Homo sapiens is one the continents with diverse geographical settings. Its population is currently increasing drastically and is projected to be at 1.4 billion people making it the second-largest and second most populous continent on earth [1]. UNICEF Report [2] noted that;

“By the middle of this century, Africa will be home to a billion children and adolescents under 18 years of age. This will make up almost 40 per cent of all children and adolescents, worldwide UNICEF Report [2]” p. 8.

With three out of five people under the age of 25, and half of its population between 3 and 24 years old, Africa has the youngest population of any continent. In 2020, the population under the age of 25 was nearly 800 million, and 677 million were between 3 and 24 years old (see Figure 1). Africa’s population is not only young but also growing fast. Compared to 2000, the 3- to 24-year-old population has increased by 58 percent, and it is estimated to further increase by 22% over the next decade (A Report by UNICEF and the African Union Commission [2].

The benefits of these youthful generation are both social, political and economic. The continent needs to leverage on this young generation to achieve the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), assist in creating a better future, and ensure this demographic growth is not a burden to them. This will only be possible if opportunities and clear pathways are available and opened up for the young and adolescents growing population to operate on.

This paper is an overview of the changing narrative of storytelling in Africa with a focus in Kenya and Nigeria. The purpose of the paper is to establish how storytelling in developing countries is changing in the face of digital spaces that the leaners are exposed to as opposed to the old story telling habits that thrived in various historical epochs. Theoretical, digital devices have changed the way people work, think and operationalize their activities. In education, it has changed the major facets of education hence storytelling and other components of school and family or social fabrics has changed for the children and other learners. Social learning theory notes that through thinking and conceptualizing, new ideas and behavior are recognized ([3]:22). In essence, from the current listener’s perspective, narratives and stories are entangled in the new media and one needs to understand the new media first then enjoy the story telling. Also ownership of the technology is a factor in engaging and enjoying the stories and narratives in the current ecosystem.

The significance of this study is that it will generate new knowledge in this field of digital story telling from the learner’s perspective as the world moves more towards digital spaces and enable them to resonate with the circumstances and opportunities of digital evolution. The study will also help in understanding the benefits related to immersion in new digital spaces and environment that connects and relates listeners to the contemporary society through knowledge construction and assimilation. Digital platforms are useful and quite accepted by the new generation of students in schools [4]. Digital storytelling can help reduce adult’s loneliness and isolation hence improves on their health and social wellbeing. For the young ones in school and out of school, storytelling provides unique online and offline engagement that counteracts old methods of community discourse [5].

This study is grounded on the premise that, narratives from different sources and societies are recreated, through processes using various digital devices to serve their purposes. This study applied qualitative methodology which combined both in-depth interviews combined with discourse analysis, and observations which generated adequate data among the targeted respondents who were basically the leaners and the community of practice around Study telling phenomena.

2. Story telling complexities and diversity

Falchetti et al. [6] indicated in their study the MEMEX project (Memories and Experiences for inclusive digital storytelling; https://memexproject.eu/) that all the storytellers narrate their stories with an engaging, strong and evocative, charming tone of voice that determines also the involving pace of narration; no uncertainty or hesitation emerges from their voices. They further found out that, they appear pleased to have this opportunity to express themselves without limits and constraints; probably, this opportunity promotes their self-esteem, their imagination and creativity and reinforces social bonds by the sharing of experiences and feelings and the awareness of the interest shown by the project partners.

Africa needs a characterized knowledge economy that can serve its people and relies on utilization of generated ideas to oversee its diverse functions. For Africa to be on the same footing with other continents, upgrading of skills and digital transformation is quite critical to the continents diverse population for continuity (The World Bank [7].

Just as lifelong learning takes an induvial life from a holist perspectives meant to storytelling also serves the same purpose. Stories are meant to educate, entertain, act as social activity, wrap up knowledge and a good story in narrated in the best ways will connect both the explicit and tacit knowledge [8]; Ruggles R. [9]. UNESCO [10] indicated that;

“The power of education lies in its capacities to connect us with the world and others, to move us beyond the spaces we already inhabit, and to expose us to new possibilities. It helps to unite us around collective endeavors; it provides the science, knowledge and innovation we need to address common challenges. Education nurtures understandings and builds capabilities that can help to ensure that our futures are more socially inclusive, economically just, and environmentally sustainable”. p. 10.

As a continent, Africa has had success in story telling either through traditional ancient writing or in modern digital forms and spaces [11, 12]. Traditional oral stories of African people are part and parcel of life in the continent [13]. Though riled with several challenges like poverty, war, corruption, banditry, terrorism in social circles, this paper is more focused on story telling in the digital as perceived by current learners. Colonialism and imperialism led to various changes in the African social fabrics. This led to adjustment, adaption and adoption by individuals at various levels in the society [14, 15]. Another challenge in Africa which has affected its ecosystem is the rapid diffusion of technology. Technology has made possible such sweeping advances in communication, which in turn have created opportunities for potential radical changes in all sectors of the economy education included. The proliferation of electronic mobile devices in the continent has brought in both the good and the bad. The continent is currently well connected through various service providers and with the fastest-growing mobile telecom market. Africa can leverage on this to improve on its knowledge acquisition and utilization [16].

Nigeria is considered the most populated country in Africa with diverse languages spoken throughout the country, including Yoruba, Igbo, Hausa, English, Nigerian pidgin and other over 300 languages. This is a good source for story telling as the many societies form a basis for diversity in knowledge acquisition and dissemination. While for Kenya, the population is estimated about 53, 527,936 people in 2020 with diverse ethnic groups. They are 43 recognized dialects in Kenya with English and Kiswahili as the official languages while for Nigeria the dominant languages are Hausa, Igbo, Yoruba and Nigerian pidgin.

3. African culture and education

The story telling sessions in traditional African societies acted a links between the old and the new and away of catching up with the society’s happenings in narrative form. Traditional societies congregated together in story telling sessions [17]. African education is noted to have existed in different forms even during the pre-colonial period but kept improving with time. The type of education during this time could be closer to rote learning which memorization of information based on repetition is.

In the colonial period the education system took another turn with several changes in the education and structures both at community and school level. Mart [18] noted that;

“The colonizer’s educational goal was to expose African’s to a superior culture. Colonizers thought they were developed and well educated. Colonization which started with the goal of colonizers‟ providing modernization for colonized people turned into a means of service for white people” p. 190.

In Kenya, the colonial education was infiltrated by the influx of white settlers who were not only educationists and explorers but were also geared towards trade and development [19]. The British, who colonized both Kenya and Nigeria believed that, to maintain social control, the British Empire misused education. Colonial education was used for several purposes one being to civilize African, enable them acquire white color jobs and also to remove them from their traditional practices [18].

Modern Education after colonialism in Kenya, Nigeria and other African countries is now operating in different structured system as per various countries policies and strategies. The root cause of Education was that it reduced poverty and created a sense of hope since it was able to make people survive and thrive. Just like the African stories enabled people to thrive and survive, education was seen as enabling people to be civilized, enlightened and to reason beyond societal settings. Education is also associated with understanding in communities, peaceful existence, enhanced civic participation and existence of stronger democracies [16]. Anthony Lake, Executive Director, UNICEF had this to say about education.

“Education is the key to a better life for every child and the foundation of every strong society-but far too many children are still being left behind. To realize all our development goals need every child in school and learning”.

4. Storytelling in the digital age

The rapid growth and integration of ICT and related digital services in Africa over the past decade has increased peoples opportunities to access and utilization of information and other related services. Digital technologies change the nature of work, including by facilitating the automation of certain tasks and creating jobs requiring new skills [20]. Change has also been realized in other sectors like in planning of cities and urbanization which to some extent has changed the socialization and interaction of children and youths in Africa and the place of storytelling [21]. Scholars have also noted that, Africa has as many stories as the continents diverse population. Chapman, [22] noted that digital storytelling connects learners to the content they require for use. Students can effectively watch, reconnect and share all on their devices, snippets of videos from television, radio and movies. The digital savvy students make their own videos, stories and share them immediately to a larger audience. With the advent of social apps like WhatsApp, YouTube, the digital story telling landscape is now changed as more emerging new concepts of storytelling takes place. This concept has been given further mention by Mendoza [23] in his article the evolution of storytelling.

“Media platforms such as blogs, Twitter, Facebook and Instagram have grown in popularity in the 21st century. All of these platforms allow users to express their thoughts in a public manner with everyone on the Internet or to choose with whom to share their information. Twitter and Facebook allow users to post statuses, photos and videos of memories and personal stories. Instagram, a photographic-based platform, enables users to share only photos or videos” [23]. p. 2.

Different learning spaces and environment have also provided opportunities for storytelling and other narratives to thrive and benefit the learners. The education landscape is diverse and leaners are available for the children, youngsters and older generation. In these spaces, education, though facing challenges in continents like Africa, still plays a role in knowledge management and acquisition. One of these approaches of ensuring learning through various channels and in engaging different persons is through Lifelong learning. This is a method of organizing and delivering leaning in a manner that is intended to be leaner, vs. institutionally, driven. Lifelong learning encompasses learning over the entire life cycle (from early childhood to retirement) and all learning systems (formal, non-formal, and informal). Lifelong learning is increasingly important in the global changing economy. Lifelong learning is not a new learning system [24].

5. Research methodology

This study was carried out among 300 school going children of ages 6–15 in Nairobi Kenya and in Nigeria during the COVD 199 pandemic. This is because learners were more at home during this period hence technology was more used for learning and other purposes. Other participants were teachers and other story tellers outside the school system. Questionnaires and interview schedules were prepared to understand storytelling from the current digital era. Observation of what goes on in story telling was also used to create an experiential experience and deep understanding of the digital storytelling ecosystem in these two countries. Questionnaire had open ended and closed questions.

6. Study findings

Storytelling is still quite popular in Africa and most leaners connect with the practice. It gives leaners a sense of practice of the speaking, listening, coding and decoding information in various spaces assisted with various devices. Since creation, man has also used the mouth to pass information from one point to the other but there were also some symbols of traditional communication like smoke, sound and others.

African diversity in terms of cultures, languages and other uniqueness was noted to be on the strengths and pillars of the various societies in Kenya and Nigeria involved in this study. With digital storytelling, the participants still identified with stories and narratives from their region and tribes. Nsamenang and Tchombe [25] noted that Africa has a diversity in culture that needs recognition. This richness in philosophical ideas and thinking, forms the basis of the children and the young understanding and resonating with their societies through the lenses of storytelling and other African folklores that combine to strengthen and create clear understanding of the scenario. With technology and available digital devices, learners can now create, co-create and recreate their story telling sessions. Digitalization has led to ease of use and access to learner’s use of story books and other audio, video, kindle or eBooks. In various technology driven formats, story books and videos can reach a wider population of the young and the youths in Africa. The shared social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter, WhatsApp, Instagram and others has also made sharing, creating and co-creating of stories quite easy and enjoyable.

Digitalized story telling was found to be popular and used by children and youths in various spaces and at different times. Story telling is among the 43 tribes in Kenya is still there in traditional format models but mostly being taken over by digital technologies devices. Among the over 270 tribes in Nigeria, storytelling is quite popular in traditional languages but digital story telling is also picking up though with difficulties because of access to devices, electricity and illiteracy level among some communities in the Country. An evaluation of African stories and other folklore presents several instances and play a critical role in the society and the upbringing of young generation in the society. Within the concept of African togetherness, belonging to a community of people constituted the most vital aspects of one’s life experience [26]. Stories and other folklores and tales served many functions to Africa traditional set up which they all connected with an acceptable manner [21, 27, 28].

Africa societies have been complex and continue being more complex with global changes. Stories can enable the young generation relate and understand their society despite the form in which it is relayed to the audience. This can be compared to the current use of the term community of practice which is, a group of people who share a concern or liking for something that adds value to them and their society. In normal circumstance during the story telling sessions in Africa, despite the digital story telling paradigm shift to digital spaces, majority of people were involved. Story telling sessions were also held during initiation ceremonies among some communities to enable the young people understand their societies and their role in the society. With digital story telling sessions, this scenario has changed a bit as the young can watch stories through YouTube, Facebook, Instagram and many others. This is quite a big shift from the traditional ways of storytelling which comes with new benefits and challenges.

The invention of the printing press changed the way stories were told in the traditional societies. Books and other printed material became available and stories could now be read. This era now gave anew understanding to the concept of storytelling, as children’s aptitude increased and they could now learn in general things in schools and other settings. By learning how to put words and sentences together, it makes it easier for them to communicate and express themselves freely. Reading or telling stories was also believed to restore leaners emotions and this could help in balancing mental health. According to students can now subscribe to stories via a YouTube and other channels and post them to Facebook or share on twitter, whatapps and other social media platform which reaches a wider audience within the shortest time possible [29].

In Africa, storytelling was considered as a way of carrying on people’s legacy, preserving culture, learning new cultures and staying alive. Several stories were composed for war heroes, kings and others who have served the society well. The bad were not well enumerated in the stories. This was notices in case studies form both Kenya and Nigeria Storytelling can be a way of making human connections. Jenikns noted that

“As humans groups become sufficiently large, complex and diversified, they suffer an erosion of the cohesion and stability that they formerly had. Patterns of behavior become uncertain and insecure. Men find themselves in novel situations and relationships that are not covered by common usage become uncertain”…p. 337

Story telling was well related to the place. In traditional Africa societies, stories were told by the elderly and the wise in place designated for them. But with digital technology, this scenario has changed. The most significant place for story telling in African communities was at the fire place which could mostly be outside or in a designated house in case of rain and other threats. The instinctual urge to gather around a fire is a primal one and as ancient as time itself. Fire has always had the capacity to draw people together.

“Stories in popular culture such as Star Wars, Game of Thrones, Harry Potter, or superhero sagas in the Marvel universe, are examples of stories which are increasingly told across a wide range of media, from novels and books to (animated) television series and feature films, jigsaw puzzles and computer games, online blogs, vlogs, webisodes, social media, and so-called mobisodes—short episodes made specifically for viewing on mobile phones” [30].

The invention of the printing press drastically changed the storytelling format. Story telling was verbal because the written language only came to Africa in the late 16th century. Only then missionaries and explorers begin to put an alphabet to the spoken African languages. Before that, for thousands of years, African stories, fables and myths was carried forward verbally from generation to generation, and sadly quite often forgotten.

Most traditional African traditional folk tales, myths and fables have common message to tell us. They have a moral point to them, or is use to educate, or entertain, or to explain behavior, educate on. African mythology stories generally all have a specific moral theme to share and learn. The folk tales and stories of the San, the Igbo, Yoruba, Hausa, Swahii, Luo and others connect to origins of people and their way of life which is worth preserving. Digital devices have the opportunity of doing this and allowing this stories to be stored for several years and available either in the open source or prescribed source. This can help preserve the community’s culture for use by future generation.

Story tellers had a way of dressing which was unique and served a purpose. This is applicable both in the traditional and digital spaces where story tellers tend to be unique in one way or the other. This could be to attract attention or a sense of identity for an individual or the society (Figure 1).

Figure 1.

A story teller dressed in traditional attire.

Clothing for story telling: Who are they?

Storyteller are ordinary people in the society who have artistry skills, talented, trained, resected men and women in the society or at times have been experienced a number of storytelling sessions hence want to share their stories with others. At times story tellers could be visitors or eye witnesses of different historical events who are called upon to narrate the story to others. Achebe Chinua [31] in his book “Things Fall Apart” noted that the most accomplished storytellers are initiates (griots, or bards), who have mastered many complex verbal, musical, and memory skills after years of specialized training. This training often includes a strong spiritual and ethical dimension required to control the Special Forces believed to be released by the spoken/sung word in oral performances. Poulos [32] posited that the production of all the other human speech sounds (the other consonants, as well as all the vowels) began to take place from approximately 50,000 years ago. This was dependent on the gradual development of a well-proportioned vocal tract which included the mouth, the area behind the mouth (the pharynx), the nasal passages, and the all-important larynx with its vocal cords. Three airstream mechanisms evolved for the production of all speech sounds, and they evolved gradually in successive stages (Figure 2).

Figure 2.

Bushmen of southern Africa has a rich story-telling culture.

Agatucci (n.d) posited to understand why do stories get told in the first place? Orature fulfills a much wider function than just keeping people happy. Of course, it entertains, but it also informs and instructs (Agatucci n.d.). It sets models for human and cultural behavior and establishes and reinforces social and political order within African communities ([33, 34], 2). Linguistik et al. [35], in their annotation a story from the Ega people living in the Côte d’Ivoire in the region of Divo in the Diés Canton, stated that, unlike in the proposal for a paradigm for African storytelling, which involved five constituents, the Ega only need two people to tell a story—the one who actually tells the story and the one who listens to it. There is no particular “dress code” for story tellers and it is not possible to tell by the clothes, ornaments or jewellery who is going to be in which role (i.e. ,story teller, chorus, and responders). Usually, the roles change throughout a session anyway and it is everybody’s turn to tell a story at one point. Again, if someone fails to do so, the punishment is frightening—this time something bad is going to happen to the mother: “sa merè va blanchir.”

7. Modern story telling

In modern times, social network sites (SNSs) such as MySpace, twitter, Facebook, WhatsApp. Cyworld, Bebo and others have attracted millions of users, many of whom have integrated these sites into their daily practices. As of this writing, there are hundreds of SNSs, with various technological affordances, supporting a wide range of interests and practices. While their key technological features are fairly consistent, the cultures that emerge around SNSs are varied. Most sites support the maintenance of pre-existing social networks, but others help strangers connect based on shared interests, political views, or activities. Some sites cater to diverse audiences, while others attract people based on common language or shared racial, sexual, religious, or nationality-based identities. Sites also vary in the extent to which they incorporate new information and communication tools, such as mobile connectivity, blogging, and photo/video-sharing [36].

Social construction as the background and overarching theory behind the process of learning contributes to the broader understanding of how learning occurs and how knowledge is constructed in the classroom [37]. Aseey [38] noted that with more electronic devices available for leaners and other education stakeholders, it is necessary to harness video games for learning and teaching purposes to allow for innovation, discovery, critical thinking, and experiential learning among learners. This relates to storytelling in the digital age where children can use various devices to get and read stories.

Stories can also help people understand and resonate with their circumstances like during COVID 19 pandemic one the scholars of online learning had this to say; what is the story we are telling ourselves as we step back;

“..What is the story we are telling ourselves as we leave lockdown? Is it the story of how we were initially rocked by the enormity of death and suffering this pandemic brought to every corner of the world but gradually adapted in creative and innovative ways. Is it a story of terrible things that happen to us or a story of how life has a way of continually renewing itself? It is the story about helplessness in the face of catastrophe or a wakeup call to how our everyday actions can unintentionally harm each other or save each other’s lives. Is this pandemic an aberration or a warning light, a glimpse into our collective future, where the truth of our interdependence—on each other and on this earth—will come home with even more devastating force?” [39].

Okatch [21] stated that urbanization and digital divide has brought new changes in the society which affects the way people live, relate and gather information. He further noted that the youth, which are the majority of the current population in developing countries like Kenya seems not to have had a chance to hear night stories from their grandparents. Traditional tales from Africa and African stories, myths, traditional tales which light up the African growing up the society is missed through new innovations and inventions (Figure 3).

Figure 3.

The new generation gathering to hear stories.

The new technologies and ways of storytelling comes up with a lot of sharing and knowledge exchange. The new normal is complex but allows easy flow of stories shared on social media sites like WhatsApp, twitter, Facebook and others. Matt Gallivant had this to say about sharing;

“There are too many benefits to living with a certain degree of openness for Digital Natives to “grow out of it.” Job opportunities, new personal connections, professional collaboration, learning from others’ experiences, etc., are all very powerful benefits to engaging openly with others online, and this is something that Gen Y understands intuitively. When Gen Y gives birth to their first “Gen Z” child, they will not close themselves off to the world, they will post pictures, videos and anecdotes not only to share their happiness, but to elicit tips from their social grid on how to deal with the challenges of parenthood. The same goes for other aspects of their life: Which car to buy? Which recipe to use? Which book to read or movie to watch?”—Matt Gallivan, senior research analyst, audience insight and research, National Public Radio (US).

Digital transformation offers a path to economic growth and social well-being (Figure 4). However, divides in Internet access and uptake of digital technologies—across countries and regions, gender, age, income or skills can perpetuate inequality. Online content sharing services, like social media, allow people to communicate, build communities and share knowledge. But the spread of harmful content, including misinformation and disinformation, can polarize society and undermine democracy. Digital technologies can help tackle environmental issues through accurate predictions and increased efficiencies, but can also mean increased energy use and e-waste [40]. p1.

Figure 4.

A small girl reading stories from a printed story book—Digital verses offline.

8. Conclusion

The paper relates to how the concept of storytelling has changed from the tradition to the current spaces. Kenya and Nigeria are both leading ICT countries with high concentration of electronic devices which can be used for story telling purposes across board. Others parts of Africa too have embraced technology and new devices for various uses. The story narratives from the current perspectives of learners and the society in digital spaces is quite disruptive. With technology, stories can also be found on YouTube sites with links, eBooks, kindle and in many more formats. But as media becomes all-powerful, man becomes more invisible. The interpersonal relations that connect children youth, adults and their societies through story telling are lost. The aspect of communal learning in the eyes of African folklore being is replaced by individual or online learning. Relations which could build up individuals are replace by technological devices, media sites and links replace the fire place and community story telling joints are erase. The human voice which has been in use for centuries is facing challenge as Robots another devices can do that. Creative writing is also under a major threat as Artificial intelligence (AI) and other writing aids generated through technology penetrate and overrule the writing spaces. The position of storytelling could improve or get lost in the process. The human experience of space-time relationships is winding out. There is need for more research on digital devices and use in the society.