Chemical composition of lignocellulosic materials.
Abstract
Biosorption onto lignocellulosic products such as coffee residues and esparto fibers in natural and modified forms have been identified as a potential alternative to the existing biosorbents applied for dye removal from wastewater. The efficiency of each material has been discussed with respect to the operating conditions and the chemical modifications. The investigated thermodynamics and kinetics studies were exposed also in terms of equilibrium isotherms and fitted kinetic models. Moreover, the crucial role of the chemical structures of the cellulosic fibers as an affecting factor on the mechanism of the adsorption process was evaluated and compared. The different treatment methods showed an improvement in terms of removal and maximum adsorption capacity. In fact, in some cases the removal capacity can be increased to 99% and the maximum adsorption capacity can reach 67 mg/g. On the other hand, the different investigations showed that the study data fitted to the known model such as Langmuir isotherm and pseudo-second-order kinetic.
Keywords
- dye
- biosorption
- lignocellulosic products
- adsorption isotherms
- kinetics
1. Introduction
Water pollution due to the rejected industrial hazard has become global issue of concern. Many industries such as textile industry use dyes to color their products and thus produce wastewater containing organics with a strong color. Dyes are used in different industries such printing, textile and cosmetic. Therefore, an important quantity of these dyes is rejected in the environment, thus causing a real ecotoxicity for human and animal health [1, 2]. Dyes are reported toxic, non-degradable, and harmful to the environment and human and animal health [3, 4]. Generally, based on their solubility and chemical characteristics, the dyes are categorized into acid, basic, direct, mordant, vat, reactive, disperse, azo and sulfur dyes [5, 6]. Among the most common methods for the removal of dyes from wastewaters include adsorption, chemical precipitation, coagulation-flocculation, ion exchange, membrane technology, and electrochemical methods [7]. Adsorption is one of the most commonly used techniques for the removal of dyes from wastewater [4]. While other methods limit their applications based on the high cost of materials used, researchers have turned their attention to develop easily available, low-cost, renewable, green, and efficient adsorbents such as agricultural wastes [8, 9, 10, 11]. The coffee residue and the esparto fiber were the typical lignocellulosic wastes and by-products, respectively. The coffee residue can be obtained during the treatment of raw coffee powder with hot water or steam for the instant coffee preparation. Every year an important quantity of coffee can be collected and different wastes can be rejected during the preparation of coffee powders from coffee beams which can cause environment pollution [12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19]. So, collection of these wastes was investigated by different researchers for their use as adsorbent materials in the wastewater treatment. On the other hand, Esparto grass (
2. Characterization of the coffee waste and esparto fiber
The interests in utilization of agricultural wastes have been significantly increased and many attempts have been made regarding the use of lignocellulosic materials (either natural substances or agro-industrial wastes and by-products) as economic and eco-friendly options. Agricultural wastes such as lignin, cellulose and hemicelluloses are characterized by high molecular weights. The major chemical constituents of this lignocellulosic biomass include cellulose; hemicellulose, lignin, and their percentage dry weight composition are approximately 39, 31, and 18 wt%, respectively [1]. Cellulose is a linear polymer of β-d-glucopyranose sugar units. The average chain has a degree of polymerization about 9000–10,000 units. Hemicelluloses are amorphous polysaccharide polymers with a low degree of polymerization compared to cellulose. Lignin is a heterogeneous, complex and large molecular structure with cross-linked three-dimensional phenyl-propane polymer of phenolic monomers. Lignins have a highly branched structure, amorphous and made by cross-linking phenolic precursors. The chemical composition of the two lignocellulosic materials is presented in Table 1.
2.1. Composition and functional groups
The type of functional groups and chemical components in lignocellulosic wastes and by-products are similar but in different amounts [21]. They play an important role in dyes sorption. Lignocellulosic based cellulose hemicellulose and lignin contain different functional groups such as hydroxyl, ether, and carbonyl [22, 23]. The cellulose in the esparto fiber form long chains (or elemental fibrils) linked together by hydrogen bonds and van der Waals interactions Cellulose is usually presented as a major crystalline fraction associated to a minor amorphous. Lafi et al. [24] found that the composition of esparto fiber was 45.3% cellulose, 23.7% hemicelluloses, 23.9% lignin, and 2.1% ash. According to Boehm method [25], the functional groups at the surface of esparto were carboxylic 0.58 mmol/g and basic 0.4 mmol/g, followed by phenolic 0.96 mmol/g and lactonic 0.03 mmol/g. However, the composition of coffee residues was 45% water, 13% protein, 14% lipids, 26% carbohydrates, and 2% ash [23]. The functional groups at the surface of coffee residue were carboxylic 0.225 mmol/g and basic 0.1 mmol/g, followed by phenolic 0.27 mmol/g and lactonic 0.015 mmol/g. These results indicate that the differentiation of the surface chemistry of coffee residues and esparto fibers is directly related to the surface treatment before the adsorption process (Table 2).
Coffee residue | Esparto fiber | ||
---|---|---|---|
Elemental analysis (wt%) | C | 65.8 | 44.3 |
H | 28.4 | 6.5 | |
N | — | 0.6 | |
O | — | 46.5 | |
Others | 5.7 | 2.1 | |
Cellulose | 8.6 (glucose) | 45.3 | |
Hemicellulose | 36.7 | 23.7 | |
Lignin | — | 23.9 | |
Protein | 13 | — | |
Lipids | 14 | — | |
Carbohydrates | 26 | — | |
Water | 45 | — | |
Ash | 2 | 2.1 |
Adsorbant | pHPZC | SBET (m2/g) | Boehm titration | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Carboxylic | Lactonic | Phenolic | |||
Esparto fiber | 6.3 | 20.7 | 0.58 | 0.03 | 0.96 |
Coffee residue | 5.3 | 2.9 | 0.225 | 0.015 | 0.27 |
2.2. FTIR and SEM
FTIR technique has been used to identify functional groups before and after modification of lignocellulosic materials
Adsorbant | Wavenumber (cm−1) | Assignment (functional groups) | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|
Coffee residue | 3446 | Bonded O▬H | |
2924 | C▬H | ||
2852 | CH2 | ||
1728 | C〓O stretching vibration | ||
1658 | COO | ||
1535 | N▬H | [26] | |
1454 | C〓O | ||
1382 | COO | ||
1165 | C▬O▬C stretching vibration | ||
1029 | C〓O stretching vibration | ||
Esparto fiber | 3700–3000 | free O▬H, O▬H stretch, and inter-chains H-bonds | |
2918 | Asymmetrical stretch vibration ▬CH3 | ||
2844 | Symmetrical stretch vibration\▬CH2 | ||
1721 | C〓O stretching vibration | ||
1658 | COO | [24] | |
1514 | N▬H amine/amide groups | ||
1246 | Symmetric stretching COO | ||
1165 | C▬O▬C vibration | ||
1033 | Stretching vibration of C▬O▬H |
3. Treatment methods of coffee waste and the esparto fiber
After the material is collected, simple pretreatment is required, including washing and drying. The purpose of washing is to remove impurities that can affect the adsorption process [26, 27]. Coffee waste and esparto fiber have the following advantages: (i) porous or various cavity structures, (ii) cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin structures with abundant functional groups (e.g., ▬C〓O, ▬COO−, ▬COOH and ▬OH). These functional groups can be involved in adsorption process after simple pretreatment. Lafi et al. [26] used coffee waste after washing and drying to remove CV and TB and obtained adsorption amounts of 125 and 142.5 mg/g, respectively. On the other hand, esparto grass fibers were used to remove CV and TB [24]. The investigation showed that the adsorption capacity was more important with coffee waste (CW), and this result was attributed to the higher lignocellulosic amount in CW. It can be seen that unmodified material have also the potential to adsorb dyes. The treatment methods of coffee waste and the esparto fiber include physical, acid alkali, and others treatment. The physical treatment changes the particle size and surface area of the adsorbent to increase the removal rate [30]. Delil et al. [31] used ultrasonic technology to treat SCG. The particle size was reduced and the surface area was increased from 3.58 to 1.13 m2/g. In addition, the Zeta potential of this treated SCG became more negative, which enhanced the adsorption of Cd (II). Nabais et al. [32] concluded that esparto fibers have an interesting potential for the production of activated carbons using carbon dioxide as activation agent. The acid treatment leads to structural changes in coffee waste. These changes are accompanied by an increase in the number of acid groups such as the carboxyl group or an introduction of other functional groups to improve its adsorption capacity [33, 34, 35]. Ahsan et al. [35] modified spent coffee grounds (SCG) using sulfuric acid as a sulfonating agent. The introduction of sulfonic acid as polar functional groups made the adsorbent surface electronegative with this modification, the adsorption capacity of methylene blue (MB), tetracycline (TC), and chromium (VI) reached 812, 462, and 302 mg/g, respectively. In another study, Raffas et al. [36] prepared activated carbons by the pyrolysis of coffee grounds impregnated by phosphoric acid at 450°C with different impregnation ratios: 30, 60, 120, and 180 wt.%. The lower impregnation ratios (<120 wt.%) led to the best microporous and acidic activated carbons whereas higher impregnation ratios (>120 wt.%) yielded to mesoporous carbons with specific surface areas as high as 925 m2/g, pore volume as large as 0.7 cm3/g, and neutral surface. The adsorption uptake of Nylosan Red (N-2RBL: anionic dye of diameter ≈ 2 nm) onto this carbon is 1.75-fold higher than that of a commercial activated carbon (SBET ≈ 1400 m2/g). Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and potassium hydroxide (KOH) are the commonly used reagents for alkali modification that can increase the surface area, pore volume, and some functional groups of coffee waste [37]. An alkali treatment using NaOH was used to modify coffee husk (NaOH-CFCB) [38]. This investigation showed functional groups at the surface of adsorbent and an increase of surface area and pore volume. In another study, Lafi et al. [39] used potassium acetate to activate coffee waste to prepare activated carbon coffee waste (ACCW). The potassium acetate modification created functional groups on the surface of the adsorbent, and also increased the surface area and pore volume, which showed an imported adsorption performance for CR. Several researchers applied cationic surfactant, magnetite nanoparticles, or other chemicals (such as cetyltrimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB), cetylpyridinium chloride (CPC), dodecyltrimethyl ammonium bromide (DTAB), and N, N-dimethyldodecylamine N-oxide (DDAO) [28, 27] to modify coffee wastes for removing dyes. Cationic surfactant can enhance the hydrophilicity of the surface of coffee wastes, and alter the surface charge characteristics. Khataee et al. [40] synthesized a new adsorbent based Fe3O4-loaded waste coffee (Fe3O4-CHC) by precipitation method. Using this adsorbent, the decolorization rate of acid red 17 (AR 17) decreased from 100% to 74% with the increase of the initial dye concentration. Methylene blue (MB), methyl orange (MO) and rhodamine B (Rh B) were removed from water using CG4 adsorbent abtained from catalyzed waste coffee grounds by FeCl3 [41]. The removal rates of MB, MO, and Rh B by CG4 were 93.8%, 92.9%, and 94.1%, respectively, after ten cycles. The adsorbent prepared by using a magnetic treatment, the adsorbent can be also prepared. However, the continuous adsorption–desorption cycle reduces the adsorption efficiency under acid condition by ion leaching [42]. Moreover, the use of large quantities of magnetic adsorbents can also lead to serious environmental problems [43].
The acid treatment introduces some functional groups and increases the porosity and the surface area. These modifications improve the adsorption capacity. However, the strong acid reagents used are expensive and corrosive, which limit their industrial application. The alkali treatment can transform coffee waste materials to adsorbents with high adsorption capacity. However, the appropriate ratio must be used when the base solution is used.
4. Adsorption of dyes
Most of dyes are not degradable and can cause carcinogenicity, mutagenesis in humans, and can affect the photosynthesis of aquatic organisms [44, 45]. Therefore, it is necessary to treat toxic dyes in wastewater. The following investigations describe the use of coffee waste and esparto fiber to adsorb dyes form wastewater.
Coffee husk was activated using H3PO4 to remove MB [46]. Under these acidic conditions, the negative charges on the surface of the adsorbent attract cationic MB contrary to alkaline conditions that increase the repulsive forces. Therefore, the MB removal rate and the maximum adsorption capacity were about 96.9% and 6.82 mg/g, respectively. Tran et al. [47] also used coffee husk to remove MB. It was found that the activated carbon at 108°C followed by KOH treatment had a high adsorption capacity for MB. The adsorption reached equilibrium rapidly (
Adsorbent | Adsorbate | Process variables of adsorption | Adsorption isotherm | Adsorption kinetic | qmax | Ref. | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
m (g/L) | C (mg/L) | Contact time | pH | T (°C) | ||||||
Coffee ground powder | RhB | 1 | 7.18 | 3 h | 2 | 19 | L | PSO2;PSO1 | 5.26 | [48] |
Coffee ground powder | Rh6G | 1 | 6.65 | 3 h | 2 | 19 | L | PSO2;PSO1 | 17.37 | [48] |
Coffee wastes | CV | 5 | 80–400 | 20 min | 6 | 20 | L | PSO2 | 125 | [26] |
Coffee wastes | TB | 5 | 80–400 | 20 min | 6 | 20 | L | PSO2 | 142.5 | [26] |
Coffee waste CTAB | MO | 2 | 20–120 | 4 h | 3.5 | 25 | L | PSO2 | 58.82 | [27] |
Coffee wastes-CPC | MO | 2 | 20–120 | 4 h | 3.5 | 25 | L | PSO2 | 62.5 | [27] |
Coffee residues AC at 400°C | MR | 0.05 | 5–50 | 60 min | 10 | 25 | L-F | PSO2 | — | [57] |
Coffee residues AC at 500°C | MR | 0.05 | 5–50 | 60 min | 10 | 25 | L-F | PSO2 | — | [57] |
Coffee residues AC at 600°C | MR | 0.05 | 5–50 | 60 min | 10 | 25 | L-F | PSO2 | — | [57] |
Magnetic coffee silverskin | MB | 0.005 | 25–1000 | 6 h | 8 | 20 | L | PSO2 | 556 | [58] |
Magnetic green coffee | MB | 0.5 | 50 | 30–300 min | 5.5 | 20 | — | PSO2 | 66.2 | [59] |
Magnetic coffee silverskin | MB | 0.5 | 50 | 30–300 min | 5.5 | 20 | — | PSO2 | 99 | [59] |
Magnetic spent coffee grounds | MB | 0.5 | 50 | 30–300 min | 5.5 | 20 | — | PSO2 | 78.1 | [59] |
Coffee residues | MB | 20 | 10–100 | 18 min | 10 | 30 | L | — | 4.68 | [60] |
Coffee residues | MB | 0.5 | 50 | 24 h | 7.5 | 25 | L | PSO2 | 112 | [61] |
Pyrolized coffee residues | MB | 0.5 | 50 | 24 h | 7.5 | 25 | L | PSO2 | 132 | [61] |
Coffee residues | MB | 7 | 5–60 | 180 min | — | 27 | F | PSO2 | 6.69 | [62] |
Coffee husks | BY 3G-P | 2 | 15–550 | — | 2 | 20 | L | PSO2 | 24.04 | [63] |
Coffee wastes | RR 3BS | 0–15 | 0–1000 | 24 h | 2–12 | 25 | L–F;L | PSO2; PSO1 | 179–241 | [64] |
RBRN | 0–15 | 0–1000 | 24 h | 2–12 | 25 | — | — | — | [64] | |
RR 3BS | 0–15 | 0–1000 | 24 h | 2–12 | 25 | — | — | — | [64] | |
Coffee husks | FG | 1 | 10–100 | 100 min | 2 | — | L–F | PSO1 | 96.6 | [65] |
Coffee husks | MB | 1.6 | 20 | 50 min | 5 | 30 | L | PSO2 | 6.82 | [46] |
Coffee husk | MB | 1.2 | — | — | — | — | F | PSO2 | 78 | [47] |
Coffee husk waste | MB | — | 500 | 720 min | 7.8 | — | L | PSO2 | 418.78 | [47] |
Coffee grounds waste | RhB | — | 200 | — | 9 | 20 | L, R–P | — | 50.59 | [49] |
Spent coffee grounds | MG | 0.001 | 50–250 | 90 min | — | 30 | L | PSO2 | — | [50] |
Coffee husks | MG | 0.2 | 25–150 | 120 min | 6.8 | 50 | S | PSO2 | 264.81 | [51] |
Spent coffee grounds | CR | 2 | 50 | 60 min | 5 | 37 | L | PSO2 | — | [52] |
Coffee waste | CR | 4 | — | 120 min | 3 | 25 | L | PSO2 | 90.90 | [39] |
Coffee husks | CV | — | 12.24 | — | 4 | 25 | L–F | PSO2 | — | [53] |
Spent coffee grounds | CV | 2 | 100 | 40 min | 6 | — | L | PSO2 | 63.3 | [54] |
Spent coffee grounds | AYD | 0.6 | 35 | 150 min | — | 25 | L | PSO2 | 2.58 | [55] |
Coffee grounds | OG | 1 | 20–200 | 250 min | 6 | 25 | L | PSO2 | 72 | [56] |
Coffee residue -DDAO | MR | 2 | — | 240 min | 3.5 | 25 | L | PSO2 | 76.22 | [22] |
Coffee residue -DTAB | MR | 2 | — | 240 min | 3.5 | 25 | L | PSO2 | 66.66 | [22] |
Esparto grass fiber | CV | 2 | 20–100 | 150 min | 7 | 25 | L | PSO2 | 43.47 | [24] |
Esparto grass fiber | TB | 2 | 20–100 | 150 min | 7 | 25 | L | PSO2 | 40 | [25] |
Modified extracted cellulose | MR | 4 | 20–100 | 4 h | 3.7 | 25 | L | PSO2 | 16.95 | [29] |
5. Adsorption isotherm and kinetic
5.1. Adsorption isotherms
The determination of the adsorption isotherms allows an understanding of the interaction between dyes and the adsorbents. Different adsorption isotherm models (Table 5) were used to describe the adsorption process such as Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin, Redlich-Peterson, and Dubinin-Radushkevich [4, 5, 6, 8, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70]. Langmuir and Freundlich are the most widely used as adsorption isotherm models. These models are only applicable where sufficient time is provided to allow equilibrium between the dye in solution and the dye adsorbed on the adsorbent. During the adsorption process, the dye are expected to be in contact with the adsorption sites and thus retained on the adsorbent surface [5]. Due to the different sources and processing conditions of coffee waste and the different nature of various dyes, the adsorption process could be different. Murthy et al. [71] describes the adsorption process of MB removal using coffee husks by the Freundlich model, which suggests that the adsorption is heterogeneous and multi-layered. However, the Langmuir model describes the adsorption process of MB removal using coffee husks waste, which can describe that the adsorption process follows monolayer adsorption with a uniform distribution of active sites at the surface of adsorbent [47]. In the process of adsorbing CV, both the Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm models fitted to the experimental data of CV removal using coffee husks as adsorbent. However, other investigations describe that the Langmuir model fitted more to the experimental data regarding the CV removal [53, 54].
5.2. Adsorption kinetic
The kinetic model gives information about the rate of the adsorption process, and can also explain the mechanism involved in the removal of dye. Several kinetic models have been applied to the adsorption process, such as pseudo-first-order kinetic, pseudo-second-order kinetic, intraparticle diffusion model, and Elovich model [72, 73, 74, 75, 76]. In the case of coffee waste, pseudo-second kinetic describe the adsorption process for the removal of dyes. The adsorption by coffee waste is mainly physiosorption, which is the main limiting factor affecting the adsorption rate of the whole adsorption process. In the adsorption processes using modified coffee waste to remove MO, pseudo-second-order kinetic model describes the process, indicating that physiosorption and hydrophobic interactions are involved [27]. In the case of OG, the quasi-second-order kinetic model describes well the adsorption process. On another note, the results of the diffusion model showed that the adsorption of OG by modified coffee grounds was also controlled by intraparticle diffusion [56]. In the case of adsorption of Fast green dye using coffee husks, the process can be described by a pseudo-first-order kinetic model [65]. Table 6 presents a list of equations used to determine the kinetic behavior of various dyes from wastewater by using coffee wastes and esparto fibers.
6. Mechanism of adsorption
The main constituents of lignocellulosic materials contain various functional groups that play an essential role in dyes adsorption. The mechanism of adsorption relies on the adsorbent characteristics (e.g., surface area, porosity, and surface functional groups) [23]. Molecular properties of dyes (e.g., molecular size, aliphatic vs. aromatic and hydrophobicity), solution properties (pH, ionic strength, and temperature), and the interactions between functional groups of adsorbent and dyes are often involved in the adsorption mechanism [77]. The surface charges of adsorbent and adsorbate id related to the pH, and it is one of the important factors that control the adsorption process. The adsorption regulation could be achieved by measuring the point of zero charges (pHPZC) of sorbents using the zeta potential [78]. At pH < pHPZC, protonation of functional groups leads to a positively charged adsorbent that can successfully remove the anionic sorbates. Kyzas et al. [79] reported that the determination of pHPZC played an important role to explain the possible pH-mechanism regarding the adsorption of reactive dye (RB) onto UCR. The pHpzc was about 3.2–3.4 and negatively charged surface of UCR was occurred when the pH values above of 3; however, positively charged occurred at lower pH values. Therefore, at pH < 3.5, the adsorption process involves electrostatic interaction between UCR+ and SO3− of dyes, and at pH > 3.5. The interactions decrease because the dye is still negatively charged, illustrating the reduction of dye (RB) removal. In the case of basic dye (BB), the molecule presented constant positive charge; the UCR was protonated in acidic pH values. Therefore, the adsorption process is very limited. However, increasing the pH of the solution (pH > 3.5) the surface of UCR is charged negatively. In this case, the deprotonation of the surface of UCR is taken place, and transformed to the negatively charged form which provides electrostatic interactions favorable for adsorbing cationic species. In alkaline conditions, the increase of pH solution would convert more groups to ▬O− and ▬COO−, providing electrostatic interactions for cationic species removal. Based on these findings, the more significant adsorption mechanisms of dyes onto coffee residue is through electrostatic interaction. If the pH > pKa, the sorbate surface charge is negative; however, at pH < pKa, the sorbate exists in a positively charged surface. Thus, the adsorption capacity of the adsorbent can be altered by changing the pH solution. Reffas et al. [36] investigated the adsorption of methylene blue and Nylosan Red N-2RBL onto activated carbons prepared by the pyrolysis of coffee grounds. In the case of MB, the mechanism can be explained on the basis of an electrostatic interaction between the ionic dye molecule and the charged carbon substrate. At pH 6, the CGAC30, CGAC60 and CGAC120 activated carbons are negatively charged (pH > pHPZC ≈ 3.7) while the CGAC180 and CAC are positively charged (pH < pHPZC). Therefore, electrostatic repulsion between the MB cation (at pH 6) and CGAC180 (or CAC) is not in favor of adsorption.
In another study Murthy et al. [51] reported that the adsorption of MG by ACH was carried out by van der Waals force and electrostatic interaction. It was also controlled by membrane and intra-particle diffusion. The adsorption was accelerated with the increase of temperature and concentration. Furthermore, Shen and Gondal [48] examined the adsorption mechanism of Rh B and Rh 6G using CGP as adsorbents. The results involve electrostatic interaction and molecular interaction and the adsorption capacity decreased to 0.9 μmol/g for Rh B and 5.5 μmol/g for Rh 6G after 5 cycles. Based on FTIR analysis, Lafi et al. [43] found that the mechanism of adsorption could be explained by the hydrogen bonding and the electrostatic interaction between CR and oxygen-containing functional groups on the activated carbon surface. Cheruiyot et al. [53] provide that the electron sharing or exchange between WCH and CV indicates that the adsorption process is controlled by chemisorption. In another study [27], through the FTIR characterization and mechanism analysis, it was indicated that the process of adsorption of MO may involve hydrophobic–hydrophobic interaction and electrostatic interaction. Based on the FTIR characterization and the proposed adsorption mechanism, Lafi et al. [28] concluded that zwitterionic surfactant (DDAO) is the most efficient for the adsorption of MR onto coffee residues (CR). The mechanism involves different types of interaction such as hydrogen bonds, electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions. Lafi et al. [35] also investigated the adsorption capacity of esparto grass fibers (EGF) for TB and CV removal. Infrared spectroscopy demonstrated that several functional groups were involved in CV and TB binding on EGF such as ester, hydroxyl and amino groups. Binding seemed to be more related to chemisorption with hydrogen atoms of non-ionized carboxyl groups. Sorption behavior of modified extracted cellulose (MEC) from
Therefore, isotherms and kinetics models, along with thermodynamic parameters and activation energy, can clarify the physisorption or chemisorption characteristics of an adsorption process.
Different methods of dyes adsorption on coffee waste and esparto fiber adsorbents or and the adsorption mechanisms are schematically presented in Figure 2.
7. Conclusions
This chapter was devoted to the use of lignocellulosic material based coffee residues and esparto fibers in the adsorption of dyes from wastewater. This Lignocellulosic material was investigated in natural and modified forms, and showed a potential use as adsorbents in the detoxification of water using the adsorption process. These adsorbents were characterized using different analytical methods such as FTIR, SEM, and BET. In term of kinetic and thermodynamic, this chapter demonstrated that the different experimental data fitted to the known models. We believe that Lignocellulosic material could be used in industrial water purification by removing undesirable chemicals, biological contaminants, and gases from water.
Abbreviations
AC | activated carbon |
AH | activated the hydrothermal carbon |
ACH | acid-activated coffee husk |
AR17 | acid red 17 |
AYD | aniline yellow dye |
ACCW | activated carbon coffee waste |
BC | biochar |
BET | Bruner-Emmett-Teller |
BPA | bisphenol A |
BY | Brilliant yellow 3G-P |
CH | coffee husk |
CR | congo red |
CV | crystal violet |
CW | coffee waste |
CR | coffee residue |
CGW | coffee ground waste |
CGP | coffee ground powder |
CTAB | cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide |
CPC | cetyl pyridine chloride |
CGAC | coffee grounds activated carbon |
CAC | commercial activated carbon |
DTAB | dodecyltrimethyl ammonium bromide |
DDAO | N, N-Dimethyldodecylamine N-oxide |
ECW | exhausted coffee waste |
EGF | esparto grass fiber |
FG | Fast green |
FTIR | Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy |
Fe3O4-CHC | Fe3O4-loaded coffee waste hydrochar |
HC | hydrochar |
HAC | coffee husk |
KOH | potassium hydroxide |
ICO | International Coffee Organization |
MB | methylene blue |
MO | methyl orange |
MR | methyl red |
MG | malachite green |
MEC | modified extracted cellulose |
MCW | Fe3O4 loaded magnetic coffee waste |
MCRs | modified coffee residue |
NaOH | sodium hydroxide |
N-2RBL | Nylosan Red |
NaOH-CFCB | NaOH-modified coffee husk |
NaOH-SCG | NaOH-modified waste coffee grounds |
OG | orange G |
pHPZC | pH the point of zero charge |
PBD | Plackett-Burman design PPy polypyrrole |
PSO1 | pseudo-first-order |
PSO2 | pseudo-second-order |
Rh B | rhodamine B |
Rh 6G | rhodamine 6G |
RH | rice husk |
RSM | response surface methodology |
RB | Remazol Brilliant Blue RN |
RR | Remazol Red 3BS |
RB | reactive dye |
BB | basic dye |
SAC | spent coffee |
SCG | spent coffee ground |
SEM | scanning electron microscope |
SCGB | spent coffee grounds derived biochar |
SMCW | surface modified coffee waste |
SCBC | spent coffee grounds biochar |
TC | tetracycline |
TB | toluidine blue |
UCR | untreated coffee residue |
UACW | ultrasonic assisted coffee waste |
WCH | waste coffee husk |
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