Abstract
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are one of the essential components of the soil microbiome playing a crucial role in nutrients cycling and mediation of plant responses to different environmental stresses. They also play pivotal role in controlling soil erosion, enhancing phytoremediation, and eliminating other harmful microorganisms and then sustaining agroecosystem. Several studies have investigated the positive effects of mycorrhizal symbiosis as biofertilizers those are capable of reducing use of chemical fertilizer by 25–90% particularly NPK depending on crop species, soil type, and management practices, while increasing productivity in the range of 16–78%. Similarly, AMF can also act as bio-controllers and decrease the application rate and frequency of pesticides. This is directly translated to the primary role of AMF in the sustaining agriculture services. Thus, understanding the interaction between AMF-soil, and plant plays a vital role in benefitting societies and agro-industries. In this regard, this review attempted to explore how can AMF symbiosis reduce agro-chemicals and maintain sustainable human welfare. It also addresses impact of agrochemicals on crop production and the main factor influencing the success of AMF symbioses. Generally, if this is applied wisely it keeps the food safe, the soil healthy, the water clean, the climate stable, and the ecosystem flourishing.
Keywords
- AMF symbioses
- argo-chemical
- biofertilizer
- bio-controllers
- agro-ecosystem
1. Introduction
Rapidly growing human population and modern agricultural system resulted in increased demand for agro-chemicals such as pesticides, fertilizers, preservatives, and disinfectant [1, 2] in which their excessive and indiscriminate use severely affects biodiversity, air, water, and soil healthy [1, 3, 4, 5]. They might also exert deleterious effects on human health and exacerbate subsequent socioeconomic effects on communities’ livelihoods by disturbing the ecological balance [2, 3, 5, 6, 7]. Furthermore, climate change, an ever-increasing human population, depletion of global rock phosphorus, and growing energy prices make current fertilizer production unsustainable and represent sizeable challenges to global food security [8]. These disastrous consequences promote new strategies that can reduce and/or substitute agrochemicals in sustainable way without jeopardizing human health and ecosystem services [2, 9].
Considering such alarming situations, beneficial microbial inoculants are proposed as a “clean and ecofriendly” option in agriculture sectors for their potential role in food safety and sustainable crop production [3, 10, 11]. They act as biofertilizers, bioherbicide, biopesticides, and biocontrol agents, which minimize the negative impact of chemical input and consequently increase the quantity and quality of produced food [2]. Among soil microbe, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) symbiosis is one of the most promising that partially or fully supplement agrochemicals and reduce their consecutive negative impacts [12, 13].
AMF promote plant growth by bringing morpho-physiological and biochemical changes in host plants by serving as “biofertilizers and bio-protectors” in sustainable way [14, 15] and providing water and mineral nutrients to the plant [16, 17]. This services can occur through the direct pathway (by roots) and by AMF pathway [13, 18, 19, 20]. Furthermore, it boosts the health of the subsequent crop by improving soil aggregation, providing nutrients, enhancing abiotic stress tolerance, protection against pathogens [9, 12], and altering the accumulation of contaminants in plants and is essential for the sustainable management of agricultural ecosystems and biodiversity [1, 16, 21, 22, 23]. It is the key for production of pesticide-free food crops and ensuring that high yields correspond [23, 24].
In general, it is more effective for improvement of crop yield, growth, and development in areas with low levels of agrochemical inputs (e.g., Africa and South America) [25, 26, 27]. Similarly, low soil fertility optimizes the expression of the multiple beneficial effects of AMF in agro-ecosystem and reduces nutrient seepage to the environment [10, 28]. This relationship is the best scenario and alternate technology for both farmers and society to increase the utilization efficiency of scarce nonrenewable fertilizers such as rock phosphate [18, 29], and use of agrochemicals is catastrophically hampered ecosystem [6, 30]. This is also a strategy to enhance the sustainability of agricultural systems through promoting internal regulatory ecosystem processes while reducing chemical fertilizer use without the concomitant loss of crop yield [26, 31]. However, the application of AMF has not been fully adopted by farmers so far [26]. Therefore, to optimize AMF effects on nutrient bioavailability and ecosystem service to achieving future food security in more sustainable agricultural systems, understanding the linkage of AMF with soil and plant nutrient dynamic plays a vital role for benefitting societies and agro-industries. In this regard, this chapter attempted to summarize published results on contribution of AMF in reducing agrochemical use in agriculture for sustainable maintenance of human welfare and ecological service. It also addresses main factor influencing the success of AMF symbioses and inoculation.
2. Characteristics of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF)
Mycorrhizal (fungus-root) fungi are specialized members of the vast population of microorganisms, which are morphologically and physiologically diverse in nature that colonize the rhizosphere [16]. Among mycorrhizal symbiosis, AMF symbiosis is one of the most ancient and widespread than other types of mycorrhizal associations [16, 32]. It is belong to the Phylum
AMF is the name given to the endosymbiotic association of a plant root and a fungus from the
In AM roots the fungus penetrates intercellularly and intracellularly into the root cortex, whereas in ectomycorrhizal (ECM) roots the fungus only penetrates intercellularly into the root cortex (Figure 1) [17]. An ECM root is characterized by the presence of three structural components: a sheath or mantle,
AMF produce a high number of spores that grow faster even under different stress conditions [40] and produce thick-walled hyphae that penetrate the host root and extend from the roots out into the soil where they interface with soil particles [9]. Then they create a network of extraradical mycelium structure, which increases the fungal absorbing surface and facilitates the translocation of mineral nutrients from soil to host plants (Figure 1) [10, 16]. Despite its coenocytic nature, the mycelium that is formed within the root, the intraradical mycelium (IRM) differs morphologically and functionally from the ERM, the mycelium that grows into the soil. The ERM absorbs nutrients from the soil and transfers these nutrients to the host root. The IRM on the other hand releases nutrients into the interfacial apoplast and exchanges them against carbon from the host [17, 18]. Such a fungal structure represents one of the critical elements of the AMF symbiosis and provides increased surface area for nutrient uptake and bridges nutrient depletion zones [10, 37]. These extraradical hyphae acquire phosphate and initiate the colonization of other species [34, 41].
3. Contribution of AMF to plant productivity and agroecosystems
Sustainability of agricultural ecosystems can be restored by stimulating soil life and internally regulated ecosystem processes [31]. The real significance of mycorrhizal fungi is that they connect the primary producers of ecosystems and enable the flow of energy-rich compounds required for nutrient mobilization [32]. Mycorrhizal fungi are one of the commonly occurring living organisms in soil providing many ecosystem services, including N-fixation, soil carbon cycling, plant nutrition, soil erosion control by soil binding capacity [13], soil pollutants remediation, biodiversity, plant water economy [42], and enhanced C-sequestration [22]. AMF and rhizobia can act synergistically and stimulate plant productivity by supplying different limiting nutrients to the plant (e.g., N by rhizobia and P by AM fungi) [43].
Enhanced nutrient uptake and stress resistance are some of the mechanisms by which AM fungi can enhance plant productivity. AMF symbiosis is probably more favorable in conservative and sustainable agriculture to having the potentiality of major beneficial functions such as: (1) increased productivity in the range of 16–78% by gaining more N, P, and other less mobile nutrients increased [24, 43]; (2) increased water uptake and water holding capacity that initiate drought tolerance; (3) increased tolerance to other abiotic stresses such as soil salinity, heavy metal toxicity, etc.; (4) overcoming biotic stresses and offering bio-protection against pathogen; (5) improved soil quality; (6) enhanced plant vigor and yield, thus leading to the production of safe and high-quality foods, able to promote human health (Figure 2) [16, 44]. This is determined by fungal the strain, climate, soil type, and cultural practices (fertilization level) in which the soil type is the fundamental criterion to determine effective AMF symbiosis strains or species [24]. It is also to improve soil fertility, as they produce glomalin upon accumulation in soil that aids soil in soil stabilization [42, 45]. Furthermore, AMF prevent leaching losses, phosphorus (60%), and ammonium (7.5%) from grassland microcosms during periods of heavy rainfall that cause top environmental threats to ecosystems worldwide [46].
AMF fungi receive 100% of their carbon from the plant, and this increase in carbon flow to the roots, estimated at up to 20% of the plant’s photosynthate, translates to a huge amount of carbon worldwide that plays a significant role in carbon cycling between the atmosphere and biosphere [34]. Bender et al. [47] have demonstrated that AMF contribute to reducing emissions of N2O by increasing N immobilization into microbial or plant biomass, which results in the reduction of soluble N in the soil and, consequently, in a limitation of denitrification. Thus, AMF could have an indirect influence on potent greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions through change of the physical conditions of soil that influence the production and transport of GHG in soil [26].
The AMF symbiosis can reduce nutrient loss from ecosystems in three main ways: (1) by improving crop nutrient extraction capacity [43] allowing the production of good yield at lower levels of soil fertility; (2) by increasing soil aggregation via physical particle enmeshment and cementing with “sticky” exudates, which results in better soil nutrient storage and retention [48]; and (3) by promoting growth of host crops, thus increasing the size of this desirable nutrient sink [46]. On average, plants inoculated with
4. Impact of agrochemicals on crop production and ecosystem service
Excess use of agrochemicals caused tremendous a reduction in soil macro-fauna diversity and promotes the accumulation of toxic compounds in soils that severely harm the environment [6, 30]. Pesticides significantly reduced the diseases and increased the grain yield, yet more resistant pesticides to degradation by abiotic (physical, chemical, and other factors) and biotic (living organisms in the soil food web) agencies, leach into the lower strata of the soil, then absorbed by plant roots, and accumulate in the food chain and are ultimately biomagnified in the food web that is hazardous to human health. They may also affect non-target crop and potentially non-target endangered species by transporting from the sprayed area to non-target areas [6].
Several synthetic fertilizers contain acid radicals, such as hydrochloride and sulfuric radicals, and hence increase the soil acidity and adversely affect soil and plant health [2]. Highly persistent and toxic agrochemicals are available in water, fish, vegetables, and human fluids, which are in turns hazardous to human and ecosystem [30]. These chemical inputs gain access into human body systems through three major means: (i) oral ingestion, (ii) infiltration through the skin, and (iii) breathing causing chronic disease [30] from respiratory disorders and musculoskeletal illnesses due to lack of knowledge of the caution code for hazardous agrochemicals.
5. The possible mechanism of AMF for improving nutrients bioavailability and reducing chemical fertilizer
5.1 How can AMF symbiosis reduce chemical fertilizer?
5.1.1 Increasing the surface area for nutrient absorption of plant roots
The uptake of mineral nutrients from the soil by plants is greatly aided by mutualistic associations with mycorrhizal fungi, which have two pathways for nutrients uptake such as direct pathway that involves the uptake of nutrients via high- or low-affinity uptake transporters in the plant root hairs and the mycorrhizal pathway that involves rapid uptake and translocation of nutrients by fungal transporters in the ERM along the intraradical mycelium (IRM) to the plant root cortex [18, 34, 50, 51]. AMF colonization enhances plant growth performance, root morphology, and leaf nutrient levels that could greatly increase the root-soil interface area [52, 53]. AMF extraradical hyphae can reach a soil volume beyond the nutrient and water depletion zone of roots and may extend up to 8 cm from the root surface, and 1 g of soil contains up to 200 m fungal hyphae [10, 15]. This length is a common parameter used to quantifying fungal hyphae, which greatly increases the surface area for the uptake of immobile nutrients particularly P, N, and Cu [15]. Extraradical hyphae explore soil volumes for nutrient extraction [27] by physically and enzymatically expanding the rhizosphere. Furthermore, fungal hyphae are much thinner than roots and are therefore able to penetrate smaller pores and extract water under dry conditions [54]. It is also improving the efficiency of nutrient cycling and reducing nutrient losses from the soil-plant system [46] that ensures adequate nutrient availability in infertile or less fertile soil.
In additionally water, fungi are able to extract and assimilate soil P from non-plant-available forms such as DNA or P bound to mineral particles [8]. The AMF hyphal network is also able to uptake K and other important micronutrients such as Mg, Zn, Cu, Ca, S, Na, Mn, B, Mo, Fe, Al, and Si, essential for plant growth [16] and led to a mobilization of starch reserves in the apex of grapevine in winter, which was possibly responsible for enhancing root development [44, 55]. Mycorrhizal infection enhances plant growth by increasing nutrient uptake and significant delivery system for P (80%), Cu (60%), N (25%), Zn (25%), and K (10%) via increases in the absorbing surface area, by mobilizing sparingly available nutrient sources, or by excretion of chelating compounds or ectoenzyme [56].
5.1.2 Induces the expression of plant nutrient transporters
It is well known that AMF symbiosis specifically induces the expression of plant Pi transporters (PT4) (Figure 3) [3, 33] reducing the risk of wasteful P loss, thus preserving the quality of water and aquatic ecosystems [46]. In addition to the Pi transporters, mycorrhiza-inducible ammonium transporters (AMT) that not only deliver nutrients to the root cells but also trigger signaling that enables conditions for arbuscule maintenance [26]. Furthermore, the reviews [26] describe that the role AMF symbiosis improves the sulfur, K, and Zn nutritional status of the host plant, affecting the expression of plant transporters. AMF also produce other hydrolytic enzymes such as pectinase, cellulase, hemicellulases, xylanase, and chitinase, which may participate in key steps to mineralize organic chemicals [1].
5.1.3 Reduce biotic and abiotic stress
Mycorrhizal fungi have also a lot of “non-nutritional” effects on plant physiology often alleviating plant stress caused by biotic and abiotic factors such as promoting osmotic adjustment under drought and salinity stresses [16, 57]. AMF symbiosis can also stimulate the synthesis of plant secondary metabolites, which are important for increased plant tolerance to abiotic and biotic stresses. A plant that is associated with diverse community of AMF may have a sort of “insurance” against fluctuating condition [12] through enhancing the activities of antioxidant enzymes (such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), peroxidase (POD), and glutathione reductase (GR) [58]) and reduction in H2O2 production, then protecting plant cells from deleterious impact of reactive oxygen species (ROS). In plant tissues, excessive ROS induce oxidative damage of lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids that influence normal structure and function. AMF alleviate the oxidative stress from contaminants via mediating the plant antioxidant system, allowing plants to grow better under contamination stress [1] and contribute to better growth under normal as well as stress conditions [59]. This healthy and better growth plant increases nutrient capture by AMF crops [60].
Several studies suggest that enhanced tolerance of AMF plants to water deficit may involve modulation of drought-induced genes by enhancing osmotic adjustment, gas exchange, and water use efficiency of the host plants [57, 61]. This may play a role in the increased tolerance of AMF plants to stress while increasing plant biomass and uptake efficiency of immobile nutrients such as P, Zn, and Cu and decreasing metal toxicity to plants. Therefore, application of AMF in agriculture is used to reclamation waste places to productive agriculture field, which is a promising alternative to conventional fertilization practices, with a view to sustainable agriculture [26].
5.1.4 Improve synergistic interaction of beneficial soil microorganism
AMF colonization can induce quantitative and qualitative changes in root exudates and subsequently modify microbial community structure of the rhizosphere [58]. Particularly, extraradical mycelium fungi provide a direct pathway for translocation of photosynthetically derived carbon to microsites in the soil and a large surface area for interaction with other microorganisms [32]. This enhances synergistic interaction of soil microorganism such as nitrogen fixation P solubilization and the production of phytohormones, siderophores, and antibiotics [37] and then reduces N and P chemical fertilizer application by 10–25% [3, 62], resulting in better root nodulation, nutrient uptake, and plant yield [9]. Rhizobia and AMF fungi often interact synergistically, and their exoenzymes play pivotal roles in accessing, mobilizing, and transferring nutrients [27]. Dual inoculation of such fungi with a Rhizobium and other bacterium on plant enhanced the growth and other beneficial effects, namely resistance to disease and tolerance to adverse soil and climatic conditions [63]. Similarly, co-inoculation of AMF with rhizobium stimulated the N fixation efficiency while improving N transfer and P uptake resulting in the yield advantages of legume/non-legume intercropping [39, 64].
Use of selected native bacterial consortiums reduces the use of nitrogen fertilizer by up to 25%, increasing the productivity of rice cultivation [65]. Other researchers reported that only 25–50% of the recommended N, P, and K rates were required by inoculated crops compared with non-inoculated plants. While the rate of 75% N, P, and K was required by other crops (potato, tomato, pepper, and plantain). Thus, the use of AMF inoculation could lead to reduction of agrochemicals application and reduces their potentially negative impact agro-ecosystem.
5.1.5 Improve soil rhizosphere and plant absorption efficacy
AMF fungal mycelia can facilitate the formation of water-stable soil aggregates via biological, biophysical, and biochemical-based mechanisms such as entanglement and enmeshment of soil particles by AMF extraradical mycelia, production of mucilages, glycoprotein, glomalin (the soil organic matter pool), polysaccharides, and other extracellular compounds [48]. The AMF extraradical hyphal length significantly decreased total soil loss by increasing soil cohesion [66]. This improves plant absorption efficacy for water and nutrients of the low mobility in soil [10]. They also alter the rates of above- and below-ground litter decomposition due to chemical changes in the roots and interactions with the decomposer fungi [15]. Furthermore, increased soil stability can reduce soil erosion, loss of nutrients and organic matter leading to increased aeration and water-holding capacity. This improved soil structure is not only influencing the behavior of organic contaminants in soil, but also helps to maintain high microbial activity, accelerating the biodegradation process, and ultimately enhancing crop safety.
5.2 AMF symbiosis for uptake and translocation of phosphate
Even though phosphorus is a major essential nutrient for plants growth and development, its excess application causes eutrophication of water [67]. It is also bound to Ca and Mg in alkaline soils and readily complexed to charged Al and Fe oxides in acidic soils [68], resulting in a decline of directly absorbed Pi (inorganic phosphate) by the plant root. The arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) increase its exploitation of organic P or orthophosphate ions through the organic ions and siderophore production [32] and the changes in sorption balance of soil solution caused by microbial biomass turnover in the rhizosphere [69] besides increasing the absorbing surface area. AMF-induced enhancement in phosphatase activity could possibly mediate the release of organically bound phosphorous, hence increasing transport and uptake of phosphorous in AMF inoculated plants [59]. The mycorrhizal plants displayed a larger phosphorus inflow than the non-mycorrhizal controls [51]. Likewise, AMF fungi possess high-affinity inorganic phosphate (Pi) transporters, which are localized to the extraradical hyphae of G.
5.3 Transport and assimilation of nitrogen in AMF symbiosis
Plants take up more NH4+ via the AM fungal from soils in very low concentrations than NO3− in agricultural soils due to its more efficient energetic and relatively immobile in the soil solution [19, 38, 39, 50], which is highly influenced by agricultural management decision [70]. This may be due to A high-affinity ammonium (NH4+) transporter (AMT2;2) is also localized in the AMF [17]. There are two possible reasons why N delivery by the fungus was negligible for nitrate-N; (1) the hyphal ability to acquire nitrate was very low due to poor development of the extraradical hyphae in comparison with the ammonium supply related to high mobility of nitrate; and (2) the assimilation and deliver rate of nitrate was low [38]. After uptake of N from the soil it is assimilated into Arginine (Arg) in ERM and translocated to IRM, then Arg is broken down to NH4+ via the catabolic arm of the urea cycle and reassimilated by plant through mycorrhiza-inducible transporters (Figure 4) [50, 71, 72]. The experiments of [71] show that fungi directly take up inorganic nitrogen and incorporate into amino acids and then transfer N from extraradical mycelium to the host plant without carbon.
Even though contribution of the AMF symbiosis to crop N nutrition is often thought to be small, as inorganic N(NO3+ or NH4+) in soil is much more mobile, and unlike ecto- and ericoid mycorrhizas organic N is not available for AMF due to lack of saprotrophic ability [18, 60]; several studies confirmed that AMF are able to take up organic N sources from the soil mainly in the form of amino acids using
In sustainable system, mineral N levels should be kept low as NO3+ can be reduced to N2O, a potent greenhouse gas, or lost from the soil-plant system through leaching [46] and negatively impacting surface and ground water quality. Therefore, presence of AMF fungi in the plant-soil system can enhance mineralization of N from organic residues in soil, and the N released can be better used by plants tapping AMF networks located in the vicinity of mineralizing residues [46]. In AM root organ cultures, more than 21% of the total N in the roots was taken up by the ERM [73]. Similarly, Tanaka and Yano [38] demonstrated that maize leaves obtain up to 75% of the N taken up by AMF due to high expression levels of
5.4 Metal ions transfer in AMF symbiosis
Besides providing resistance to disease and drought, AMF supply a range of limiting nutrients including copper, iron, and zinc to the plant in exchange for carbon [43]. Even though the roles of arbuscular mycorrhizal in the uptake of K, Ca, Mg, and S are poorly understood, numerous studies also reported that AMF increase uptake of K, Ca, and Mg [74]. AMF fungi can increase host plant uptake of K and modulate plant responses to long-term K limitation, by preventing ROS production and upregulating specific genes, including an ortholog of the plasma membrane K+/H+ exchanger
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) enhance the nutritional state of their host plant through acquiring and delivering a proportion of resource to their hosts and play potential role in sustainable crop production [75]. The utilization of microbial products has several advantages over conventional chemicals for agricultural purposes [2]: (i) microbial products are considered safer than many of the chemicals now in use; (ii) neither toxic substances nor microbes themselves will be accumulated in the food chain; (iii) self-replication of microbes circumvents the need for repeated application; (iv) target organisms seldom develop resistance as is the case when chemical agents are used to eliminate the pests harmful to plant growth; and (v) properly developed biocontrol agents are not considered harmful to ecological processes or the environment. Rini et al. [76] concluded that AMF application reduced 50% of compound fertilizer needed for oil palm seedlings. Hence, AMF is considered to be a good replacement for inorganic or chemical fertilizer in the future.
5.5 How AMF symbiosis reduces use of pesticides and other chemicals?
5.5.1 Bioremediation
A wide range of toxic pollutants including heavy metals are disposed of daily to the soil and water, which are the most are the most serious disaster affecting humans, plants, and the environment negatively [77, 78]. The conventional remediation methods cause high cost, intensive labor, irreversible changes in soil properties, and disturbance of native soil microflora. Thus, researchers obtain a novel approach called phytoremediation, which is an economically feasible and sustainable option to clean up heavy-metal-contaminated sites. It refers to a green technology that uses plants and associated soil microbes to reclaim HM and radionuclides from the environment by various detoxification mechanisms including phytoextraction, rhizofltration, phytostabilization, phytodesalination, photodegradation, and phytovolatilization; [77, 78, 79], which is one of the low-cost remediation techniques used by microorganisms to remove heavy metals [42].
AMF alleviate heavy metal toxicity due to the ability of fungal hyphae to bind heavy metals outside and inside the roots and restrict their uptake to upper parts [51, 59]. This binding ability is due to AMF hyphae being capable of secreting a glycoprotein called glomalin, which can bind heavy metals and subsequently remove heavy metals absorbed by the plants from contaminated soil. Glomalin can develop the properties and structure of the soil, which helps to enhance soil fertility by linked with soil carbon [42]. This binding of heavy metal to the cell walls of the fungal hyphae in roots and not release to the shoot as the presence of free amino acids, hydroxyl, carboxyl, and other groups are containing the cell wall of fungi representing as act as a filtration barrier against the transfer of heavy metals to plant shoots. Furthermore, metal dissolution by fungi may take place through proton-promoted or ligand-promoted mechanisms and organic acids provide both a source of protons for solubilization and metal-chelating anions to complex the metal cations [32]. The work of [40] suggested that mycorrhizal symbiosis becomes a promising and suitable as phytostabilizers of Cd stressed soil. Similarly, three arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) from
5.5.2 As biocontrol agents (biopesticides, bioherbicides)
To prevent environmental pollution and occupational diseases, proactive preventative actions are needed [5]. AMF are particularly important in organic and/or sustainable farming systems that rely on biological processes rather than agrochemicals to control plant diseases. AMF can act as bio-controllers that allow host plants to grow healthier and decrease the application amount and frequency of pesticides and other environmentally harmful agrochemical products [1]. These processes protect plants against soil-borne pathogens and assist in contaminant removal [7] and reduce pesticide application via enhanced crop resistance to pathogens and improved competition with weeds [1]. The use of AMF as safe and sustainable biostimulators and bio-protectants is very promising alternative, as it does not harm the environment, resulting in sustainable food production [82].
The complex interactions between plant, pathogen, and AMF symbiosis can enhance host plant resistance or tolerance to root pathogenesis [83]. The major mechanisms related to bio-protection role of AMF are indirect mechanisms such as enhanced mineral nutrition status of plants (enhance resistance and tolerance), changes in root architecture (e.g., increase in lateral branches and cell wall lignification), competition for infection sites (the pathogen never penetrated arbuscule-containing cells), change in rhizodeposition (alter the chemotaxis to the roots by the pathogens), and activation of plant defense responses [83]. The mechanisms of biocontrol exercised by most microbial inoculants could be attributed to release of extracellular hydrolytic enzymes, competition for nutrients and secondary metabolites toxic to plant pathogens at very low concentrations [84].
AMF plants may be more appealing to herbivores, reduce disease symptoms for some disease, and more attractive to pollinators due to their altered architecture and improved nutrient status [12]. An interesting issue in mycorrhizal plant-parasite interaction is a recently reported potential of mycorrhiza to provide partly protection and control of Striga [85, 86]. They observed as AMF negatively impacted on Striga seed germination, reduced the number of Striga seedlings attaching and emerging, and delayed the emergence time of Striga both in pot and field experiments. Exudates from mycorrhizal sorghum plants resulted in much lower germination of Striga seeds than exudates of non-mycorrhizal sorghum plants. AMF also have an indirect beneficial effect by enhancing the fitness of the cereal host and thereby allowed the host to withstand Striga damage better. Therefore, AMF might be able to substitute for reduced fertilizer and biocide inputs in organic systems, which is not permitted in organic systems [74], while increasing productivity in the range of 16–78% by gaining more N, P, and other less mobile nutrients increased [24].
5.6 Factors affecting AMF-soil-environmental symbiosis
Mycorrhizal symbioses in agro-ecosystems are affected by various factors including species compatibility with the target environment, the degree of spatial competition with other soil organisms in the target niche, and the timing of inoculation [26, 87]. AMF symbiosis and growth are also influenced by the host plant genotype (for instance, legumes more mycotrophic than grasses [39]), AMF species, soil fertility, and percentage of root infection [13, 37, 56]. A very challenging for large-scale production of AMF is its obligate symbionts behaviors [26, 12] and having high degree of genetic and lack of a uninucleate cell stage in the life cycle of AMF [33]. Similarly, equally or even better performance of indigenous AMF [10] than commercial or culture collection isolates is another headache for producers [26], which may cause potential environmental risks without providing higher plant benefits [27]. This promotes encouraging farmers to autonomously produce their AMF to make technology affordable and sustainable.
Application of agrochemicals also reduces network complexity and the abundance of AMF particularly, the nutritional status of the plant and surrounding environment such as P [28, 51]. Because high levels of P repressed the expression of genes encoding carotenoid and strigolactone biosynthesis enzymes in plants, suggesting that high levels of P directly inhibit spore germination by reducing strigolactone biosynthesis then reducing the Pi flux from AM fungi, which in turn reduces the amount of carbohydrates transferred to AM fungi [51]. This reduces abundance of AMF in soil (e.g., by fertilization) could reduce the importance of AM fungi for ecosystem functioning, including their ability to reduce nutrient leaching losses [46].
Furthermore, land uses, crop rotations, and soil features affect the AMF diversity and their community functioning due to changes in soil physical and chemical characteristics [88]. Less-intensive tillage is a viable strategy for enhancing root colonization by indigenous AMF across soil types and crop species [27]. Reduced tillage, manures, and cover crops are recognized as a practical way to maintain high population of functional effective AMF eventually to support sustainable crop production [89]. This is true if you did not use herbicide such as glyphosate that hinders and detrimental for subsequent AMF recovery. This specificity suggests that crop species in rotations may influence the quality of the AMF population in the soil of a following crop [10]. Once AMF biodiversity is restored and well-established with AMF-friendly management before and after cultivation mycorrhizal hyphal network will remain unaltered and infective in the future [26].
Generally, for increasing effectiveness and success AMF inoculation reducing tillage rate, bare fallows, agrochemicals usage, and use of non-mycorrhizal crops in rotation vital for enhancing abundance and contribution of AMF fungi as ecological services in agriculture [22]. The review of [60] summarize the management of the AMF symbiosis is achievable through a variety of agronomic practices, in particular: (1) tillage, (2) crop nutrition, (3) grazing, and (4) integrated pest management, as well as by (5) the selection of crop genotypes and crop rotation sequences, (6) the use of AMF inoculants, and (7) the use of biotechnologies that enhance the AMF symbiosis of crop plants. Thus, understanding best management practice of AMF in crop production would insure good extraradical mycelium development leading to soil quality improvement and reduced activity of soil-borne pathogens [10].
6. Concluding remarks
Harnessing natural resources including beneficiary microorganisms is one of the most effective approaches to improving farm productivity and food quality in a sustainable way. Microbial inoculant technology will ensure healthy food security for the future population. AMF efficiently use for agricultural productivity in sustainable manner in which the diversity and function of soil microorganism is the decisive issue in the agrarian activities and ecosystem service [23]. AMF might be able to substitute chemical fertilizer and biocide inputs in organic systems [74], while increasing productivity in the range of 16–78% by gaining more nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and other less mobile nutrients increased [24]. This role of AMF can reduce the catastrophic effect indiscriminate use of agrochemicals in agricultural sectors and promotes. Hence, reintroducing AMF into agro-systems may also improve nutrient use efficiency, water-use efficiency, and tolerance to pathogens and herbivores [12]. Finlay [32] suggests more research on AMF as its relevant species have not yet been investigated since there has been a general concentration on agricultural systems in which additions of inorganic fertilizers, pesticides, and plant breeding may have selected against arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi with the capacity to mobilize organic substrates.
Mycorrhizal symbioses in agro-ecosystems are affected by various factors including all biotic, abiotic, and agronomic management factors related to complex interaction of soil-AMF and host plant. Thus, selection of new crop varieties giving yields on poor soils and in low fertilization conditions and understanding compatible management practice in crop production that would ensure good extraradical mycelium development leading to improvement of soil quality and crop productivity in holistic manner is paramount importance for successful exploitation of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi.
Acknowledgments
The authors are highly thankful to researchers whose findings are included directly or indirectly in preparing this manuscript.
Abbreviations
AMT | ammonium transporters |
AMF | arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi |
SYM | common symbiosis |
ECM | ectomycorrhizal |
ERM | extraradical mycelium |
GHG | greenhouse gas |
IRM | intraradical mycelium |
PT4 | Pi transporters |
ROS | reactive oxygen species |
References
- 1.
Wang F, Adams CA, Yang W, Sun Y, Wang F. Technology benefits of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in reducing organic contaminant residues in crops: Implications for cleaner agricultural production cleaner agricultural production. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology. 2019; 0 :1-33. DOI: 10.1080/10643389.2019.1665945 - 2.
Alori ET, Babalola OO. Microbial inoculants for improving crop quality and human health in Africa. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2018; 9 :1-12. DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.02213 - 3.
Bhardwaj D, Ansari MW, Sahoo RK, Tuteja N. Biofertilizers function as key player in sustainable agriculture by improving soil fertility, plant tolerance and crop productivity. Microbial Cell Factories. 2014; 13 (66):1-10 - 4.
Teklewold H, Kassie M, Shiferaw B, Köhlin G. Cropping system diversi fi cation, conservation tillage and modern seed adoption in Ethiopia: Impacts on household income, agrochemical use and demand for labor. Ecological Economics. 2013; 93 :85-93. DOI: 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2013.05.002 - 5.
Wimalawansa SA, Wimalawansa SJ. Agrochemical-related environmental pollution: Effects on human health. Global Jourmal of Biology, Agriculture & Health Science. 2014; 3 (3):72-83 - 6.
Rajbhandari BP, Bassi A, Ramyil C, Regmi R, Rijal J. Related papers an overview of agrochemicals and their effects on environment in Nepal. Applied Ecology and Environmental Sciences. 2014; 2 (2):66-73. DOI: 10.12691/aees-2-2-5 - 7.
Rathore KS, Singh S, Sharma AK. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi: Next generation bioagents for sustainable agriculture. In: et al, Saxena AK, editors. Everyman’s Science. 6th ed. Vol. LIII(2). Kolkata: INDIAN; 2018. pp. 85-89 - 8.
Thirkell TJ, Charters MD, Elliott AJ, Sait SM, Katie J. Are mycorrhizal fungi our sustainable saviours? Considerations for achieving food security. Journal of Ecology. 2017; 105 :921-929. DOI: 10.1111/1365-2745.12788 - 9.
Javaid A. Role of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in nitrogen fixation in legumes. In: Khan MS, Musarrat J, Zaidi A, editors. Germay: Springer Wien New York; 2010. pp. 409-426 - 10.
Hamel C, Strullu D. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in field crop production: Potential and new direction. Canadian Journal of Plant Science. 2006; 86 :941-950 - 11.
Dobo B. Effect of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and rhizobium inoculation on growth and yield of Glycine max L . varieties. International Journal of Agronomy. 2022;2022 :1-10 - 12.
Hart MM, Trevors JT. Microbe management: Application of mycorrhyzal fungi in sustainable agriculture. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 2005; 3 (10):533-539 - 13.
Piotrowski JS, Rillig MC. Succession of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi: Patterns, causes, and considerations for organic agriculture. Advances in Agronomy. 2008; 97 (07):111-130. DOI: 10.1016/S0065-2113(07)00003-X - 14.
Qiu B, Wang Y. Phylogenetic distribution and evolution of mycorrhizas in land plants. Mycorrhiza. 2006; 16 :299-363. DOI: 10.1007/s00572-005-0033-6 - 15.
Soka G, Ritchie M. Arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis and ecosystem processes: Prospects for future research in tropical soils. Open Journal of Ecology. 2014; 4 (1):11-22 - 16.
Smith SE, Read D. Mycorrhizal Symbiosis. 3rd ed. Elsevier; 2008 - 17.
Bücking H, Liepold E, Ambilwade P. “The role of the mycorrhizal symbiosis in nutrient uptake of plants and the regulatory mechanisms underlying these transport processes,” in Plant Science, Dhal NK Sahu.S.C., London: Intechopen; 2012. pp. 107-138 - 18.
Smith FA, Smith SE. Roles of arbuscular mycorrhizas in plant nutrition and growth: New paradigms from cellular to ecosystem scales. Annual Review of Plant Biology. 2011; 62 :227-250. DOI: 10.1146/annurev-arplant-042110-103846 - 19.
Smith FA, Smith SE. What is the significance of the arbuscular mycorrhizal colonisation of many economically important crop plants? Plant and Soil. 2011; 348 :63-79. DOI: 10.1007/s11104-011-0865-0 - 20.
Lurthy T, Pivato B, Lemanceau P, Mazurier S. Importance of the rhizosphere microbiota in iron biofortification of plants. Frontiers in Plant Science. 2021; 12 (744445):1-24. DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2021.744445 - 21.
Koide RT. Commentary functional complementarity in the arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis. The New Phytologist. 2000; 147 :233-235 - 22.
Gianinazzi S, Gollotte A, Binet M-N, van Tuinen D, Redecker D, Wipf D. Agroecology: The key role of arbuscular mycorrhizas in ecosystem services. Mycorrhiza. 2010; 20 :519-530. DOI: 10.1007/s00572-010-0333-3 - 23.
Mulugeta TE. The role of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on agricultural crop productivity and ecosystem service: A review. International Journal of Agroforestry and Silviculture. 2021; 9 (2):1-9 - 24.
Rivera R, Fernández F, Fernández K, Ruiz L, Sánchez C, Riera M. Advances in the management of effective arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis in tropical ecosystems. In: Chantal H, Christian P, Editors. Mycorrhizae in Crop Production. Madison: Taylor & Francis; 2007. pp. 151-195. DOI: 10.1300/5425 - 25.
Igiehon NO, Babalola OO. Biofertilizers and sustainable agriculture: Exploring arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 2017; 101 :4871-4881. DOI: 10.1007/s00253-017-8344-z - 26.
Berruti A, Lumini E, Balestrini R, Bianciotto V. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi as natural biofertilizers: Let’s benefit from past successes. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2016; 6 :1-13. DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2015.01559 - 27.
Schaefer DA, Gui H, Mortimer PE, Xu J. Arbuscular mycorrhiza and sustainable agriculture. Circular Agricultural Systems. 2021; 1 (6):1-7 - 28.
Franz S, Der Heijden V, Marcel GA, Franz S, Der Heijden V, Marcel GA. Establishment success and crop growth effects of an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus inoculated into Swiss corn fields. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 2019; 273 :13-24 - 29.
Hinsinger P, Betencourt E, Bernard L, Brauman A, Plassard C, Shen J. P for two, sharing a scarce resource: Soil phosphorus acquisition in the rhizosphere of intercropped species. Plant Physiology. 2011; 156 :1078-1086. DOI: 10.1104/pp.111.175331 - 30.
Fianko JR, Donkor A, Lowor ST, Yeboah PO. Agrochemicals and the Ghanaian Environment, a Review. Journal of Environmental Protection. 2011; 2 :221-230. DOI: 10.4236/jep.2011.23026 - 31.
Bender SF, Wagg C, Van Der Heijden MGA. An underground revolution: Biodiversity and soil ecological engineering for agricultural sustainability. Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 2016; xx (yy):1-13. DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2016.02.016 - 32.
Finlay RD. Ecological aspects of mycorrhizal symbiosis: With special emphasis on the functional diversity of interactions involving the extraradical mycelium. Journal of Experimental Botany. 2008; 59 (5):1115-1126. DOI: 10.1093/jxb/ern059 - 33.
Bonfante P, Genre A. Mechanisms underlying beneficial plant—Fungus interactions in mycorrhizal symbiosis. Nature Communications. 2010; 1 (48):1-11. DOI: 10.1038/ncomms1046 - 34.
Harrison MJ. Signaling in the arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis. Annual Review of Microbiology. 2005; 59 :19-42. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.micro.58.030603.123749 - 35.
Pepe A, Giovannetti M, Sbrana C. Different levels of hyphal self-incompatibility modulate interconnectedness of mycorrhizal networks in three arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi within the Glomeraceae. Mycorrhiza. 2016; 26 :325-332. DOI: 10.1007/s00572-015-0671-2 - 36.
Hodge A, Helgason T, Fitter AH. Nutritional ecology of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Fungal Ecology. 2010; 3 (4):267-273. DOI: 10.1016/j.funeco.2010.02.002 - 37.
Giovannini L et al. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and associated microbiota as plant biostimulants: Research strategies for the selection of the best performing Inocula. Agronomy. 2020; 10 (106):1-14 - 38.
Tanaka Y, Yano K. Nitrogen delivery to maize via mycorrhizal hyphae depends on the form of N supplied. Plant, Cell and Environment. 2005; 28 :1247-1254 - 39.
Ingraffia R, Amato G, Frenda AS, Giambalvo D. Impacts of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on nutrient uptake, N2 fixation, N transfer, and growth in a wheat/faba bean intercropping system. PLoS One. 2019; 14 (3):1-16 - 40.
Abdelhameed RE, Metwally RA. Alleviation of cadmium stress by arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis. International Journal of Phytoremediation. 2019; 0 :1-9. DOI: 10.1080/15226514.2018.1556584 - 41.
Turrini A, Avio L, Giovannetti M, Agnolucci M. Functional complementarity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and associated microbiota: The challenge of translational research. Frontiers in Plant Science. 2018; 9 (1407):10-13. DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2018.01407 - 42.
Herath B, Kwa M, Jpd L, Pn Y. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi as a potential tool for bioremediation of heavy metals in contaminated soil. WJARR. 2021; 10 (03):217-228 - 43.
van der Heijden MGA, Bardgett RD, van Straalen NM. The unseen majority: Soil microbes as drivers of plant diversity and productivity in terrestrial ecosystems. Ecology Letters. 2008; 11 :296-310. DOI: 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2007.01139.x - 44.
Kuila D, Ghosh S. Current research in microbial sciences aspects, problems and utilization of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) application as bio-fertilizer in sustainable agriculture. Current Research in Microbial Sciences. 2022; 26 :325-332. DOI: 10.1016/j.crmicr.2022.100107 - 45.
Leifheit EF et al. Multiple factors influence the role of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in soil aggregation—A meta-analysis. Plant and Soil. 2014; 374 (1/2):523-537 - 46.
van der Heijden MGA. Mycorrhizal fungi reduce nutrient loss from model grassland ecosystems. Ecology. 2010; 91 (4):1163-1171. DOI: 10.1890/09-0336.1 - 47.
Bender SF et al. Symbiotic relationships between soil fungi and plants reduce N2O emissions from soil. The ISME Journal. 2014; 8 :1336-1345. DOI: 10.1038/ismej.2013.224 - 48.
Rillig MC, Mummey DL. Mycorrhizas and soil structure. The New Phytologist. 2006; 171 :41-53 - 49.
Saia S, Benítez E, Settanni L, Amato G. The effect of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on total plant nitrogen uptake and nitrogen recovery from soil organic material. The Journal of Agricultural Science. 2013; 1 :1-9. DOI: 10.1017/S002185961300004X - 50.
Bücking H, Kafle A. Role of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in the nitrogen uptake of plants: Current knowledge and research gaps. Agronomy. 2015; 5 :587-612. DOI: 10.3390/agronomy5040587 - 51.
Wang W, Shi J, Xie Q , Jiang Y, Yu N, Wang E. Nutrient exchange and regulation in arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis. Molecular Plant. 2017; 492 :1-31. DOI: 10.1016/j.molp.2017.07.012 - 52.
Shao Y et al. Mycorrhiza-induced changes in root growth and nutrient absorption of tea plants. Plant, Soil and Environment. 2018; 64 (6):283-289 - 53.
Fan L, Dalpé Y, Fang C, Dubé C, Khanizadeh S. Influence of arbuscular mycorrhizae on biomass and root morphology of selected strawberry cultivars under salt stress. Botany. 2011; 403 :397-403. DOI: 10.1139/B11-028 - 54.
Allen MF. Linking water and nutrients through the vadose zone: A fungal interface between the soil and plant systems. Journal of Arid Land. 2011; 3 (3):155-163. DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1227.2011.00155 - 55.
Nicolás E et al. Effectiveness and persistence of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on the physiology, nutrient uptake and yield of crimson seedless grapevine. The Journal of Agricultural Science. 2014; 2014 :1-13. DOI: 10.1017/S002185961400080X - 56.
Marschner H, Dell B. Nutrient uptake in mycorrhizal symbiosis. Plant and Soil. 1994; 159 (1):89-102 - 57.
Khan MS, Zaidi A, Musarrat J. Microbial Strategies for Crop Improvement. Dordrecht Heidelberg London New York: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg; 2009 - 58.
Lenoir I, Fontaine J, Sahraoui AL. Phytochemistry arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal responses to abiotic stresses: A review. Phytochemistry. 2016; xxx :1-12. DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2016.01.002 - 59.
Allah EFA, Abeer H, Alqarawi AA, Hend AA. Alleviation of adverse impact of cadmium stress in sunflower ( Helianthus annuus L.) by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Pakistan Journal of Botany. 2015;47 (2):785-795 - 60.
Yang C et al. Management of the arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis in sustainable crop production. In: Solaiman ZM et al., editors. Mycorrhizal Fungi: Use in Sustainable Agriculture and Land Restoration, No. 41. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg; 2014. pp. 89-122 - 61.
Ahmad P, Rasool S. Emerging Technologies and Management of Crop Stress Tolerance. Vol. 2. UK: Elsevier Inc.; 2014 - 62.
Adesemoye AO, Kloepper JW. Plant-microbes interactions in enhanced fertilizer-use efficiency. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 2009; 85 :1-12. DOI: 10.1007/s00253-009-2196-0 - 63.
Sadhana B. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) as a biofertilizer—A review. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences. 2014; 3 (4):384-400 - 64.
Meng L, Zhang A, Wang F, Han X, Wang D, Li S. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and rhizobium facilitate nitrogen uptake and transfer in soybean/maize intercropping system. Frontiers in Plant Science. 2015; 6 :1-10. DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2015.00339 - 65.
Ríos-ruiz WF, Torres-chávez EE, Torres-delgado J, Rojas-garcía JC, Bedmar EJ, Valdez-nuñez RA. Rhizosphere Inoculation of bacterial consortium increases rice yield ( Oryza sativa L.) reducing applications of nitrogen fertilizer in San Martin region, Peru. Rhizosphere. 2020;14 :100200. DOI: 10.1016/j.rhisph.2020.100200 - 66.
Mardhiah U, Caruso T, Gurnell A, Rillig MC. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal hyphae reduce soil erosion by surface water flow in a greenhouse experiment. Applied Soil Ecology. 2016; 99 :137-140. DOI: 10.1016/j.apsoil.2015.11.027 - 67.
Conley DJ et al. Controlling eutrophication: Nitrogen and phosphorus. Ecology. 2009; 323 :1014-1015 - 68.
Hinsinger P. Bioavailability of soil inorganic P in the rhizosphere as affected by root-induced chemical changes: A review. Plant and Soil. 2001; 237 :173-195 - 69.
Raimi A, Adeleke R, Roopnarain A. Soil fertility challenges and Biofertiliser as a viable alternative for increasing smallholder farmer crop productivity in sub-Saharan Africa. Cogent Food & Agriculture. 2017; 9 (1):1-26. DOI: 10.1080/23311932.2017.1400933 - 70.
Thirkell T, Cameron D, Hodge A. Contrasting nitrogen fertilisation rates alter mycorrhizal contribution to barley nutrition in a field trial. Frontiers in Plant Science. 2019; 10 (1312):1-9. DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2019.01312 - 71.
Govindarajulu M et al. Nitrogen transfer in the arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis. Nature. 2005; 435 :819-823. DOI: 10.1038/nature03610 - 72.
Tian C, Kasiborski B, Koul R, Lammers PJ, Bucking H, Shachar-Hill Y. Regulation of the nitrogen transfer pathway in the arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis: Gene characterization and the coordination of expression. Plant Physiology. 2010; 153 :1175-1187. DOI: 10.1104/pp.110.156430 - 73.
Jin H, Pfeffer PE, Douds DD, Piotrowski E, Lammers PJ, Shachar-Hill Y. The uptake, metabolism, transport and transfer of nitrogen in an arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis. The New Phytologist. 2005; 168 :687-696 - 74.
Gosling P, Hodge A, Goodlass G, Bending GD. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and organic farming. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 2006; 113 :17-35. DOI: 10.1016/j.agee.2005.09.009 - 75.
Göhre V, Paszkowski U. Contribution of the arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis to heavy met phytoremediation. Planta. 2006; 223 (6):1115-1122. DOI: 10.1007/s00425-006-0225-0 - 76.
Rini MV, Yansyah MP, Arif MA. The application of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi reduced the required dose of compound fertilizer for oil palm ( Elaeis Guineensis Jacq.) in nursery. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. 2022;1012 :1-7. DOI: 10.1088/1755-1315/1012/1/012011 - 77.
Mohebbi AH, Harutyunyan SS, Chorom M. Phytoremediation potential of three plant grown in monoculture and intercropping with date palm in contaminated soil. International Journal of Agriculture and Crop Sciences. 2012; 4 (20):1523-1530 - 78.
Ali H, Khan E, Sajad MA. Chemosphere phytoremediation of heavy metals—Concepts and applications. Chemosphere. 2013; 91 :869-881 - 79.
Liu X, Li X, Ong SMC, Chu Z. Progress of phytoremediation: Focus on new plant and molecular mechanism. Journal of Plant Biology & Soil Health. 2013; 1 (1):1-5 - 80.
Mishraa V et al. Synergistic effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and plant growth promoting rhizobacteria in bioremediation o ... Synergistic effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal. International Journal of Phytoremediation. 2016; 18 (7):697-703. DOI: 10.1080/15226514.2015.1131231 - 81.
Kumar A, Verma JP. Does plant-microbe interaction confer stress tolerance in plants: A review? Microbiological Research. 2018; 207 :41-52. DOI: 10.1016/j.micres.2017.11.004 - 82.
Albuquerque M. Bioprotection by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in plants infected with Meloidogyne nematodes: A sustainable alternative. Crop Protection. 2020; 135 :105203. DOI: 10.1016/j.cropro.2020.105203 - 83.
Harrier LA, Watson CA. The potential role of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi in the bioprotection of plants against soil-borne pathogens in organic and/or other sustainable farming systems †. Pest Management Science. 2004; 60 :149-157. DOI: 10.1002/ps.820 - 84.
Rani A, Singh R, Kumar P, Shukla G. Pros and cons of fungicides: An overview. IJESRT. 2017; 6 (1):112-117 - 85.
Lendzemo VW. The Tripartite Interaction between Sorghum, Striga Hermonthica, and Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi. Wageningen; 2004 - 86.
Lendzemo VW, Van Ast A, Kuyper TW. Can arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi contribute to Striga management on cereals in Africa? Outlook on Agriculture. 2006; 35 (4):307-311 - 87.
Verbruggen E, Van Der Heijden MGA, Rillig MC, Kiers ET. Mycorrhizal fungal establishment in agricultural soils: Factors determining inoculation success. The New Phytologist. 2013; 197 :1104-1109 - 88.
Ontivero RE et al. Impact of land use history on the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal diversity in arid soils of Argentinean farming fields. FEMS Microbiology Letters. 2020; 367 :1-11 - 89.
Gupta MM, Chourasiya D, Sharma MP. Diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in relation to sustainable plant production systems. In: Satyanarayana T, et al, editors. Microbial Diversity in Ecosystem Sustainability and Biotechnological Applications. Madhya Pradesh, India: Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd; 2019. pp. 167-187