Abstract
Herbs and spices are used in all cultures as natural foodstuffs and for medicinal purposes. Siphonochilus aethiopicus, Monodora myristica and Crateva adansonii are some of the spices which are not commonly used. They improve the taste of food, and through their anti-oxidant, anti-microbial and anti-fungal properties, they could act as food preservatives. There is an accumulation of evidence for the usage of these spices medicinally as anti-inflammatory, anti-plasmodial, anti-sickling, anti-oxidant and chemopreventive agents. There have also been investigations to identify the active constituents of these spices and to verify their pharmacological actions. This article aims at reviewing the available data on these investigations and the basis for usage in several diseases and conditions.
Keywords
- Siphonochilus aethiopicus
- Monodora myristica
- Crateva adansonii
- herbs
- spices
1. Introduction
Aromatic herbs and spices are widely used in Nigeria for culinary and medicinal purposes. While some are quite common and used worldwide, others like: wild ginger
Thus, in addition to imparting characteristic pleasant flavours, certain herbs and spices prolong the storage life of foods by preventing rancidity through their anti-oxidant activity or through bacteriostatic or bactericidal activity [6]. Consequently, herbs and spices have medicinal values, anti-oxidant and anti-microbial properties [7], and some do contain potent phytochemicals, which provide significant protection against cancer [8].
Wild ginger is an herb with perennial tuberous roots giving rise to annual leafy stems which grows in sub-Saharan Africa especially in savannah regions or regions with dry season [9]. It belongs to the family Zingiberaceae and has leafy shoots (pseudo-stem) which grow to about 35 cm high after flowering and is common throughout the West African region and elsewhere in tropical Africa [9]. The rhizomes which have a terrific scent of violets and ginger are spindle shaped and are about 5 cm by 1 cm, arranged radially on lateral roots that spread fairly readily underground [9]. The Nigerian variety flowers between April and May after the early rains and the flowers, which appear before the leaves, come up in considerable quantity followed by the leaves and the pseudo-stem [10]. The flowers, just borne above ground level in inflorescences separate from the leafy shoot, are purple with white corolla tube and a yellow flare on the central petal and are 7–10 cm long [9]. The leafy shoot dries up between September and December after which it falls off. The herb is found in the wild and could also be cultivated.
The South African variety is a deciduous aromatic plant, bisexual or female, up to 1 m high and sprout annually from the underground stem in spring [11]. The leaves are glabrous and 30–400 × 50–90 mm in size, light green, lance shaped and borne on the end of stem-like leaf bases [11, 12]. Between October and February, it gives faintly scented flowers that are white to bright pink with yellow markings on lip, white corolla tubes 30–40 mm long and tepal lobes 60–80 mm wide [12]. The tremendously attractive flowers often appear before the leaves in spring, perhaps to allow them to be more visible to pollinators [13]. They may also vary in colour from bright pink, purple-pink, yellow to white with a yellow centre and are delicately scented. About 15 flowers are produced per plant over the flowering season, each lasting a single day [14].
The roots, tubers and rhizomes of wild ginger are used for their aroma and medicinal properties in the West and South of Africa. While they are used as spice by the Igede people of Benue State of Nigeria [15], others mainly use them in traditional medicine for colds, coughs, influenza, hysteria, pain and malaria amongst other ailments [16, 17]. It is also used by Zulu people as a protection against lightning and snakes [18]. Infusions of the rhizome and roots are anti-inflammatory (prostaglandin synthetase inhibition), bronchodilatory, smooth muscle relaxant, mild sedative, anti-candidal and used to treat headache, influenza, mild asthma, sinusitis, sore throat, thrush, epilepsy, hysteria and relieve dysmenorrhoea [11] or administered to horses as prophylactics against horse sickness [19]. It is in such popular demand and coupled with the method of harvesting which involves removal of the entire rhizome that it has become extinct in certain areas [20]. The plant does not set much seed and splitting rhizomes is the best available option for plant propagation [14].
The seeds of
The leaves of sacred garlic pear
This review identifies lesser known aromatic plants in Nigeria and current reports on their utilization, constituents and properties. The aim is to provide an insight into the health-promoting potentials of biologically active constituents of: wild ginger
2. Constituent phytochemicals
The sensory perception of wild ginger depends on a variety of odorants including esters, monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, aldehydes, pyrazines and thiophenes which are important for the mild and pleasant aroma both in the fresh and in roasted spice as against the hot/pungent flavours of ginger and other Zingiberaceae [35]. Aroma extracts dilution analysis (AEDA) employing the gas chromatography/olfactometry (GC/O) technique was reported for the organoleptic evaluation of these odorants and their odour quality together with quantification from GC-FID/GC-MS profiles [35]. Thus, the sweet/fruity ester flavours, methyl-2-/-3-methyl butanoates and derivatives of the apple flavour were reported to be the most important odorants perceived at the highest dilution of the aroma extract of the fresh spice [35]. These were followed by the monoterpene β-phellandrene which has a terpenish/woody odour and is also important for the aroma of ginger and dill [35–37]. Another sweet/fruity flavour propyl-2-methylbutanoate also an apple flavour follows before the roasty/earthy smelling 2-isopropyl-3-methoxypyrazine and 2-isobutyl-3-methoxypyrazine which are known to have a hot/paprika taste and are also present in paprika pepper and chillies [35–38]. The sesquiterpene curzerenone (sweet/coconut-like) is perceived at the next significant dilution together with the roasty/potato-like methional [35]. In the roasted sample, terpenish/woody β-phellandrene is the most important odorant followed by the roasty/earthy smelling pyrazines before the sweet/fruity flavoured butanoates. The pungent smelling principle 2-acetyl thiophene, which is absent in the fresh sample, is next followed by the sesquiterpene curzerenone (sweet/coconut-like) together with the roasty/potato-like methional [35].
Principal component analysis using GC shows that the constituents of wild ginger are mostly sesquiterpenes as against monoterpenoids or diterpenoids [16, 35, 39]
A yield of 45-6g kg−1 essential oils containing 75% monoterpene hydrocarbons; the major compounds being: α-phellandrene (50–4%), α-pinene (5–5%) and myrcene (4–35%) has been reported for the African nutmeg [40]. Few sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (3%) and oxygenated compounds such as germacrene-D-4-ol (9–5%) were also reported as against another report of 25.48% germacrene-D-4-ol [41]. Meanwhile, an essential oil yield of 6.2% (dry weight basis) has also been reported [42]. Prenylated indole alkaloids are considered a chemotaxonomic marker of the genus, and 5-formyl indole and 5-(3-oxo-but-1-enyl) indole as shown in Figure 2 have been reported from
The volatile oils of the sacred garlic pear whole plant reportedly show 43.5 and 41.1% oxygenated monoterpenes and aliphatic compounds, respectively. The major constituents are linalool (30.2%) and nonanal (17.2%), and it contains no sesquiterpene hydrocarbons [45]. The leaves are also known to have a disagreeable smell when crushed [29]. The triterpenes: oleanolic acid and 4-epi-hederagenin were isolated from the 1:1 C2H2:MeOH extract of its seed as shown in Figure 3 [46]. Then, the hexane extract of the leaf yielded the antibiotic aurantiamide acetate while the ethyl acetate extract afforded ethyl pyropheophorbide A, purpurin-18 ethyl ester and pyropheophorbide A as also shown in Figure 3 [31]. Additionally, the triterpene lupeol was also isolated from a 1:1 dichloromethane/methanol fraction of the leaf as illustrated in Figure 3 [47].
It has been reported that the leaf and rhizome extracts of
The in vitro anti-proliferative properties of the essential oils of wild ginger against MCF-7 cancer cells were reported [52]; indeed, it has been suggested that the presence of antiseptic monoterpenoids contributes to its bioactivity [11]. In vitro cytotoxicity determinations of the crude rhizome extract and isolated constituents using five cell lines: SH-SY5Y, Jurkat, L929, Hep G2 and Hs 27 were also carried out [39].
The
Additionally, the in vitro anti-plasmodial activity for the ethanolic extracts and isolated eudesmane sesquiterpenoids of
The crude seed extract of
Again, there are reports on the in vitro
Also, the crude seed extracts of
In vitro
In vitro
Additionally, there is a report on the in vitro anti-trypanosomal activity of the leaf extracts and isolated aurantiamide acetate, ethyl pyropheophorbide A, purpurin-18 ethyl ester and pyropheophorbide A against the African trypanosome
3. Conclusion
Overall, organoleptic studies encourage the increased utilization of wild ginger, African nutmeg and sacred garlic pear to flavour foods. Moreover, a significant number of in vitro and laboratory animal studies support and explain the folk medicinal usage of these herbs and spices. These spices have anti-microbial, anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory and in some instances anti-plasmodial and anti-cancer actions. As several metabolic diseases and age-related degenerative disorders are closely associated with oxidative processes in the body, further clinical studies on the use of these spices or their constituents as sources of anti-oxidants and anti-inflammatory agents are needed.
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