Language Use and Linguistic Performance in Peer Counselling within a Religious Tertiary Education Context

Abstract

Peer counselling practices within religious-based higher education institutions involve intricate interplays of religion, culture, and spiritual values. Drawing data from peer counselling practices within Indonesian Islamic Universities, this study delves into the roles of language use, speech acts, and lexicon selection in establishing a counselling milieu that nurtures and responds to the needs of counselees. The study underscores the significance of understanding the nuances of language and speech acts in religion-centered counselling. Languages like Arabic and regional dialects, such as Base Sasak, not only serve as communication tools but also as cultural and spiritual connectors. Counselors’ speech acts, exemplified by “Accomplishing Addressee”, “Expressing Empathy and Understanding”, “Offering Suggestions” and “Instructions,” and so forth, not only disseminate information but also honor cultural and religious tenets, shaping an effective support system. Successful religion-oriented counselling necessitates a tailored approach that respects cultural and religious contexts, ensuring language and speech acts harmonize with local value systems.

1. Introduction

In the context of religious tertiary education, peer counselling plays an important role in providing emotional and social support to students. This chapter investigates the use of language and linguistic performance in the context of peer counselling in an Islamic institution di Indonesia, a multicultural country with the highest number of Muslims. The focus of the discussion includes word choices, communication strategies, the use of certain religious expressions, and the religious and cultural dimensions existing in its practices. The main objective of this chapter is to understand the role and impact of language use and linguistic performances in shaping the effectiveness of peer counselling at Universitas Islam Negeri Mataram as the selected study location [1, 2]. Besides, in the loci, peer counselling has special dynamics because it involves a religious dimension. Therefore, it is important to understand how language use and linguistic performance can influence interactions in this context. Through direct observation, interviews, and content and discourse analysis approaches, this chapter yields valuable insights into the importance of language and effective communication in supporting peer counselling in religious-based higher education institutions.

This chapter also has particular relevance in exploring the dynamics of culture, identity, and religious values in the context of peer counselling in religion-based higher education institutions. In a religion-based higher education environment, the religious dimension plays a significant role in student life, including in peer counselling. Therefore, a deeper understanding of language use and linguistic performance in this context can provide valuable insights for peer counselling practitioners. With a better understanding of language use and linguistic performance in peer counselling, we can improve the quality of peer counselling interactions and provide better support to students. In addition, this research can also open the door for further thinking about how culture, identity, and religious values can influence the dynamics of peer counselling in religion-based higher education institutions. As such, it is hoped that this chapter will provide valuable insights into language use and linguistic performance in peer counselling at faith-based higher education institutions, as well as enrich the practice of peer counselling in this context.

In the context of peer counselling at religion-based higher education institutions, the use of language and linguistic appearance plays an important role in shaping the effectiveness of interactions between peer counselors and students who receive counselling; the use of appropriate language, sensitive choice of words, and effective communication strategies can improve the quality of peer counselling interactions [3]. In the context of religious higher education, the use of certain religious language can also strengthen religious identity and provide depth in communication between peer counselors and students. In addition, linguistic performance can also play an important role in peer counselling. Style of speech and verbal expression can affect the effectiveness of communication and the influence of peer counselors on students [4]. Therefore, an understanding of language use and linguistic performance in peer counselling in faith-based institutions is very relevant and can provide practical guidance for peer counselors.

In this chapter, we will use an observation approach, discourse transcription, and qualitative analysis to collect and analyze data. We will involve participants in peer counselors and students receiving counselling in the context of religious higher education; the data was generated from Islamic University in Indonesia. Through careful analysis, we hope to identify effective patterns of language use, word choice, speech styles, and communication strategies in peer counselling in faith-based institutions. In addition, we will also explore the relationship between language use, linguistic performance, and religious identity in the context of peer counselling. In a faith-based higher education environment, the religious dimension has a strong influence on students’ lives, and the use of language and linguistic appearance can be a means of reinforcing religious values and supporting students’ spiritual growth [1]. The results of this study are expected to make a significant contribution to the development of effective and rooted peer counselling practices in faith-based higher education institutions. With a better understanding of language use and linguistic performance, peer counselling practitioners can improve their skills in building mutually supportive relationships and facilitating students’ personal and spiritual growth.

In addition, this research also has important implications in exploring the dynamics of culture, identity, and religious values in the context of peer counselling. In faith-based higher education institutions, these factors play a central role in shaping students’ experiences and supporting them in navigating emotional, social, and spiritual challenges. By considering the religious dimension in peer counselling, practitioners can accommodate the special needs of students in their religious context. Through a holistic and integrated approach, this research is expected to provide valuable insights for peer counselling practitioners, higher education policy decision-makers, and faith-based higher education institutions in developing more effective counselling programs. This research can also provide a foundation for broader future research on peer counselling in religious contexts and enrich our understanding of the role of language, communication, and identity in the formation of effective counselling relationships.

2. Introduction to peer counselling in Islamic-based universities

Peer counselling is a form of counselling performed by individuals with the same background and status, such as classmates or fellow college students. This approach emphasizes the support, assistance, and understanding provided by peer individuals in helping others overcome their personal and academic problems by relying on a self-approach to the Divine or God Almighty by carrying out His commands and avoiding His prohibitions known as the expression الأمر بالمعروف والنهي عن المنكر which means Committee of the Promotion of Virtue and Prevention of Vice. In religion-based tertiary institutions, peer counselling is a very relevant method since it combines religious principles and spiritual values to help others. This approach seeks to understand and provide support by referring to religious values that teach compassion, empathy, forgiveness, and brotherhood. Peer counselors were selected based on a deep understanding of religious values and the ability to provide emotional and social support; they must also maintain confidentiality and ethics in counselling, and respect the counselees’ privacy [5].

Religious tertiary institutions, especially in Indonesia, offer a unique educational environment, where cultural, spiritual, moral, and religious aspects play a central role in student life [6]. Peer counselling in religious colleges is becoming increasingly important because of the complexity of the challenges students face in combining academic education with spiritual growth. Therefore, the topic of exploring the reasons for and significance of language use and linguistic performance in the context of peer counselling at religious colleges is relevant and needs further investigation. One of the main reasons for investigating language use and linguistic performance in peer counselling at religious colleges is the importance of holistic counselling support. Peer counselling, which is carried out by fellow students with the same religious background, can provide appropriate support spiritually and morally. Therefore, investigations into language use and linguistic performance in this context can help to understand the specific ways in which peer counselors can address complex religious and spiritual issues.

It is also important to consider the influence of culture and religious norms in peer counselling at religious colleges [7]. Each religious college has distinctive religious traditions and practices, and this can influence the way peer counselling is carried out and accepted by students. This investigation can help identify appropriate language skills and linguistic performance to create a culturally and religiously sensitive counselling environment. The context of peer counselling at religious colleges also highlights the importance of the spiritual dimension in language use and linguistic performance. Talking about religious and spiritual issues requires empathetic communication skills so that the messages of peer counselors can be well received by students. Investigation of effective language use, and good linguistic performance in this context can increase the depth and quality of the counselling session. The significance of investigations into language use and linguistic performance in peer counselling at religious colleges goes beyond the individual benefits. By understanding effective ways of communicating, peer counselors can build trust and better relationships with students, so that they feel supported in their spiritual journey. This can have a positive impact on the overall spiritual and emotional well-being of students, as well as create an enabling climate for the growth of congregations in religious colleges.

3. Linguistic performances in Islamic peer counselling

The practice of peer counselling at Islamic-based universities involves five main stages in their linguistic performance, namely Introduction, Opening, Core, Re-orientation, and Closing. In the Introduction stage, several speech acts generally occur; the first is Opening Greetings, where peer counselors use the greeting ٱلسَّلَامُ عَلَيْكُمْ (peace be upon you) from Arabic as an opening greeting before starting the counselling session. Then, Self-Disclosure occurs, where the counselor and counselee introduce themselves to create an intimate atmosphere and reduce awkwardness. In addition, Accomplishing Addressee also occurs in this stage, where the counselor and the counselee agree on the names or titles they use to address each other during the counselling session. During the Introduction stage, some counselors also ask where the counselee is from, and if they identify themselves as coming from the same area or regional family, they will switch their language to their regional language. This aims to create a bond and closeness between the counselor and the counselee by using language that is familiar to the counselee. However, afterward, the counselor and counselee returned to using Indonesian to ensure effective communication (will be explained in the next sub-section). The speech acts occurred align with the commissive and assertive classes of acts in Speech Act Theory, where the speaker commits to some future action or states facts or beliefs [8]. The act of switching to regional languages to create a bond and closeness between the counselor and the counselee can be seen as a strategic use of language to foster rapport and trust, which is crucial for effective counselling [9, 10].

Next, there is Ensuring Confidentiality, in which the counselor explains the importance of maintaining the confidentiality of the counselling session. This aims to ensure that counselees feel safe and trust to speak openly about their problems. It means that the Introduction stage serves to introduce counselors and counselees, create a comfortable atmosphere, and explain important aspects of the counselling session, including the role of the counselor, and the principles of openness and confidentiality. At this stage, the peer counselor uses a variety of speech acts to achieve this goal, and the language used may vary depending on the region of origin and the counselee’s preferences. Thus, the Introduction stage plays an important role in building relationships and ensuring the successful practice of peer counselling in an Islamic-based university environment.

At the opening stage of peer counselling, there is one speech that acts as the main focus, namely Seeking Pre-Session Information, yet this stage contains some very important information for peer counselors to understand. The information sought at this stage relates to the current condition of the counselee. The questions that become the leading discussion at this stage focus on several aspects, including the current physical and mental conditions, the counselee’s preferred mode of transportation, and the counselee’s previous experiences related to peer counselling practices. The importance of pre-session information seeking is based on the desire of peer counselors to understand more deeply about the counselee’s condition and background before starting a counselling session. By obtaining relevant information about the physical and mental condition of the counselee, the counselor can identify changes in emotions or feelings that the counselee may be experiencing.

In addition, questions regarding the mode of transportation chosen by the counselee also help the counselor understand the logistical constraints that the counselee may face in attending counselling so that they can have a deeper understanding of the counselee to provide more appropriate solutions or support. Also, information regarding the counselee’s previous experience with peer counselling practices is an important consideration in the pre-session information-seeking stage. This prior experience includes whether the counselee has previously attended counselling or been involved in a peer-to-peer guidance program. By knowing the counselee’s previous experience, the counselor can develop an approach that is appropriate to the level of experience and needs of the counselee, so that counselling sessions can run more effectively and usefully. This pre-session information-seeking stage is a very relevant initial foundation in building peer counselor relationships with counselees and helps set direction and focus in counselling sessions. The information obtained at this stage provides a more comprehensive picture of the counselee’s condition and needs so that the counselor can provide support that is more directed and under the counselee’s needs.

In the 3rd stage, namely the core stage, the practice of peer counselling focuses more on the counselor’s request to the counselee to tell the problem. This stage is the core of the counselling session, where the peer counselor gives full attention and listens with empathy to understand the problems faced by the counselee. During the core stage, several speech acts occur, including “Expressing Empathy and Understanding”, “Offering Advice”, and “Instruction”. The speech act “Expressing Empathy and Understanding” is carried out by peer counselors to show empathy and understanding of the counselee’s feelings, problems, and experiences. In this stage, peer counselors try to validate the counselee’s feelings and try to re-imagine what the counselee feels to show that they are truly understood. This aims to create a sense of trust and comfort for counselees so that they feel more open to talking about the problems they are facing. The act of “Expressing Empathy and Understanding” can be viewed as an expressive speech act, where the counselor expresses feelings and attitudes, whereas the acts of “Offering Advice” and “Instruction” are directive speech acts, where the counselor suggests possible courses of action or provides guidance to the counselee [8, 9].

Furthermore, the speech act “Offering Advice” is carried out by peer counselors when it is deemed necessary to provide advice or suggestions to counselees regarding the problems encountered. However, it is important to note that in peer counselling practice, giving advice is not always the main focus, as more emphasis is placed on listening and providing emotional support. Advice is given carefully and based on a deep understanding of the counselee’s problems. In addition, there is also a speech act “Instruction”, in which peer counselors provide instructions or guidance to counselees regarding concrete steps that can be taken to overcome their problems. Instructions can be in the form of how to deal with certain situations, techniques for managing emotions, or steps toward positive change. This instruction is delivered to help the counselee reach a better solution. The core stage is the most essential part of peer counselling practice, where the counselee feels heard and supported and can open up to share the problems he is facing. Through a combination of speech acts “Expressing Empathy and Understanding”, “Offering Advice”, and “Instruction”, peer counselors try to provide meaningful and useful support for counselees to face their life challenges.

The 4th stage, namely the re-orientation stage, begins with the counselor’s efforts to ensure understanding regarding the suggestions and instructions that have been given to the counselee (Confirming Understanding). At this stage, the peer counselor will ask the counselee to ensure that the counselee comprehensively understands the advice and instructions given. Peer counselors will also ask questions regarding how the counselee responds and feels about these suggestions and instructions. If a positive mutual agreement (mutual agreement) is reached between the counselee and the counselor regarding the clarity and helpfulness of the suggestions and instructions provided, the conversation will proceed directly to the 5th stage, which is the closing stage. In the closing stage, the peer counselor will end the counselling session by conveying a positive impression, hope, and support to the counselee. However, If a negative mutual agreement (mutual disagreement) arises between the counselee and the counselor regarding the suggestions and instructions given, then the seeking post-information stage will occur. At this stage, the counselling session will return to a stage similar to stage 3, with additional leading questions related to the changes desired by the counselee. Peer counselors will try to go deeper to understand what the counselee expects and look for ways that are more appropriate to help the counselee deal with his problems. The Re-orientation stage involving the speech act of Confirming Understanding can be seen as a commissive speech act in Searle’s Taxonomy of Speech Acts [11], where the counselor commits to ensuring clarity and understanding; the phenomenon of catharsis, where the counselee experiences a release of pent-up emotions through expressing their pain, also aligns with the expressive function of language in Speech Act Theory [8].

The re-orientation stage is important in the practice of peer counselling, where the peer counselor seeks to ensure that the advice and instructions that have been given have been well understood by the counselee. If there is an agreement, this stage will be the entrance to the closing stage, where the counselling session will end with hope and support. However, if there is disagreement, the seeking post-information stage will provide an opportunity for peer counselors to more deeply understand the counselee’s needs and expectations to achieve counselling goals. An interesting point regarding the core and reorientation stages is the negative correlation between the level of familiarity or comfort of the counselee with the counselor with the turn-taking; the emotionally closer the interlocutors, the less turn-taking occurs, and this phenomenon is called catharsis. Catharsis refers to the moment in which a person can let go of past pain by expressing clearly and thoroughly all the pain that is felt [12]. In a religious context, catharsis can be interpreted as a transcendent experience that liberates or cleanses the soul [13]. With this cathartic phenomenon, the core and reorientation stage in peer counselling at the Islamic University in Indonesia becomes more meaningful, since it creates opportunities for counselees to open their hearts and express their feelings more freely and deeply.

The final stage, namely the closing stage, usually consists of three stages of speech acts that aim to give a positive final impression to the counselee. First, the counselor will remind again that the problems the counselee is facing are a test from God (Reminder). This is done to provide spiritual support and remind the counselee about the deep meaning of the trials he is facing, as well as strengthen ties with the religious values he believes in. Then, in the next stage, the counselor will close the counselling by expressing the hope that the counselee will get better in the future and hope to meet again with the counselee in better condition (Hope). This delivery of hope aims to provide encouragement and enthusiasm for the counselee to continue trying to overcome his problems and look at the future with optimism. The final stage in closing is closing the conversation (Closing Greeting). The closing of this conversation is usually done by using greetings in Arabic, as was done at the opening stage. One example of a greeting used is السَّلَامُ عَلَيْكُمْ. The use of greetings in Arabic gives a polite final impression and strengthens the bond of brotherhood between peer counselors and counselees. This closing stage is an important moment in the practice of peer counselling, where the peer counselor provides the last support and encouragement to the counselee before the counselling session ends. In addition, this stage also reflects the application of religious and spiritual values in peer counselling in a religion-based tertiary institution, where religious values become an integral part of the counselling process. Besides, the Closing stage including the speech acts of Reminder, Hope, and Closing Greeting, serves to provide spiritual support, encouragement, and a polite farewell and can be categorized as expressive, commissive, and declarative in Searle’s Taxonomy of Speech Acts respectively [11].

The following is a flowchart (Figure 1) of the practice of peer counselling at Islamic Universities in Indonesia.

Figure 1.

A flowchart of the practice of peer counselling at Islamic universities in Indonesia.

4. Lexical and language use in Islamic peer counselling

In the practice of peer counselling at Islamic Universities in Indonesia, word choice or lexical use has an important role in creating a counselling environment that is under religious and cultural values in the university environment. The use of certain words may reflect a more sensitive and relevant approach to the cultural, spiritual, moral, and religious aspects that are important to counselees. Based on its function, there are lexical groupings that cover several categories, namely Lexicon with Islamic Values, Cultural Values, Social Ethical Values, Practical Values, and Learning Values. Lexicons with Islamic values refer to groups of words, phrases, or sentences related to Islamic religious teachings and values. In counselling practice, this lexicon functions as a tool to understand and apply Islamic values in the context of problem-solving. Phrases or words in this group are often taken from Arabic and are generally found in the Al-Qur’an or the Hadith of the Prophet. Some of them have also become part of daily expressions among Indonesian people, regardless of their cultural background.

Some Lexicon with Islamic Religious Values used in peer counselling practice are ٱلسَّلَامُ عَلَيْكُمْ which is an opening greeting in Islam, بِسْمِ اللَّهِ الرحمن الرَّحِيمِ (In the name of Allah, The Most Gracious and The Most Merciful) which is an opening sentence before starting any form of acts in Islam, Taqwa (devotion to Allah), Tawakkal (surrender to Allah), Muhasabah (self-examination), أَسْتَغْفِرُ ٱللَّٰهَ (forgiveness of sins), الْحَمْدُ للَّهِ (praise be to God), إِنَّا لِلَّٰهِ وَإِنَّا إِلَيْهِ رَاجِعُونَ (To Allah we belong and to Him, we will return), Akhirat (life after death), and Hikmah (wisdom in thinking and acting). The use of a Lexicon with Islamic religious values in peer counselling practice aims to introduce spiritual and moral dimensions in the counselling process. By understanding and applying Islamic religious values, counselors can provide support under Islamic teachings and present a positive perspective in dealing with the problems faced by counselees.

Lexicons with cultural values are a group of words that include terms, phrases, or sentences related to cultural values and norms that are lived and held by individuals or groups of people within a certain cultural scope. The function of this lexicon is to understand and appreciate cultural aspects in counselling so that counselors can be aware of the cultural differences and uniqueness of each counselee. For example, in the practice of peer counselling, a Lexicon with Cultural Values can be seen in the use of native language by counselors and counselees when recognizing speakers who come from the same area, regional group, or community group. The use of addressees that are characteristic of a certain area in Indonesia, such as “Ton” (an abbreviation of Semeton which means sibling in the Sasak language), “Mbaq” (as a call for a woman’s address), and the use of regional terms such as “Sarong” (a term that is more typically used in certain areas for a wide piece of cloth sewn at both ends so that it is shaped like a pipe/tube).

The lexicon with cultural values in peer counselling practices aims to understand the counselee’s cultural background, respect the cultural values they maintain, and build good relationships based on respect for diverse cultures. The use of cultural lexicons also reflects wisdom in creating a more friendly atmosphere in the counselling process. In the context of counselling, this lexicon helps counselors respond to counselees’ problems and challenges by considering the cultural context that is an integral part of their lives. The use of the lexicon with cultural values in counselling is significant in dealing with existing cultural diversity. Also, by understanding and using the appropriate cultural lexicon, counselors can create an inclusive environment and provide more effective support to clients from diverse cultural backgrounds [14]. This also encourages the growth of mutual understanding and reduces the potential for cultural conflict in the counselling process. In recognizing and applying relevant cultural values, counselors can build stronger relationships with counselees and help them better achieve their counselling goals.

Lexicons with social ethical values are a group of words or phrases related to ethical values and social norms in interactions and relationships between individuals in society. In the practice of peer counselling at the Islamic University, some of the social ethics practiced include greetings and courtesy, empathy, respecting privacy, respecting each other, not judging, being responsible, listening wholeheartedly, providing positive support, not forcing opinions, and forgiving and forgive; it is a development of the concept of social ethics in public services in Indonesia which was compiled by Bisri and Asmoro [15]. Examples of the use of the lexicon with social ethical values in peer counselling practice are as follows: greetings and courtesy are used as greetings in communication, such as selamat siang (good afternoon) when greeting each other. When listening to the counselee’s complaints, the counselor shows empathy by saying, “Saya sangat memahami perasaanmu dan siap mendengarkan keluh kesahmu (I do understand your feelings and am ready to give all attention)” When talking about personal matters, the counselor respects the counselee’s privacy by saying, “Tidak perlu takut untuk bercerita, apa pun yang kamu ceritakan akan tetap menjadi rahasia antara kita (No need to be afraid to tell, whatever you tell will remain our secret).” Mutual respect is also upheld, as in the sentence, “Setiap orang memiliki perasaan dan pandangan yang berbeda, kita harus saling menghormati perbedaan itu (Everyone is entitled with their views, we should respect each other’s differences)”.

Furthermore, based on the norm adopted in Indonesia, it is compulsory for counselors to listen to their counselees wholeheartedly and in an unjudged manner. Also, in providing positive support, counselors offer encouragement with phrases like, “Ada saya disini, yok kita bisa lalui ini samaan (I am always here for you, and we’ll get through this together)” When the counselee is not ready to talk about something, the counselor should not push their point by saying, and the counselor also shows their ability to apologize for any possible counselees’ uncomfortable or mistreatment experiences. The use of a lexicon with social ethical values is important in peer counselling practice to create a safe, respectful, and supportive environment in understanding one’s feelings and personal experiences. By using this lexicon, counselors can more effectively help counselees deal with problems ethically respond to their needs, and respect existing social values. That way, the relationship between counselor and counselee can run harmoniously and bear positive results in the counselling process.

Lexicons with practical value are words or phrases related to practical values or usefulness in various situations, including in the practice of peer counselling at the Islamic University in Indonesia. These words or phrases are used to facilitate communication between counselors and counselees, and usually, the interlocutors have the same or similar understanding regarding the meaning of the words or phrases used. Examples of lexicons with practical value in counselling conversations are solusi (solution), teknik relaksasi (relaxation technique), hetset (headset), rileks (relax), daring (online), target (target), fokus (focus), efisien (efficient), prioritas (priority), and emosi (emotion/anger). These words are often used in the context of counselling to convey ideas, strategies, or plans of action that can help counselees overcome problems or challenges they face. The use of a lexicon with practical value is very important in peer counselling practice. By using the words - words or phrases that are practical and familiar to counselors and counselees, the communication process becomes more effective and efficient. Counselors can provide suggestions, techniques, or strategies that are useful and easy for counselees to understand, so it is hoped that counselees can more easily implement these solutions in everyday life Thus, a lexicon with practical value plays a role in helping the counselee achieve the goal of positive change and development in the counselling process.

Lexicons with learning value are words or phrases related to the process of learning, increasing knowledge, and self-development. In the context of peer counselling practice at Islamic Universities in Indonesia, a lexicon with learning values will focus on how counselors help counselees understand, reflect on, and learn from experiences and problems encountered. Examples of lexicons with learning values from counselling conversations include self-awareness, reflection, learning from experience, increasing problem-solving skills, self-adjustment, improving coping skills, understanding emotions, developing resilience, increasing independence, and self-acceptance. The use of the lexicon with this learning value helps the counselor to guide the counselee in contemplating and understanding experiences and learning from the problems encountered. By focusing on learning and self-development, the counselee is expected to be able to face the future stronger and wiser. In peer counselling, this lexicon plays an important role in facilitating the counselee’s growth and self-understanding and helping them achieve positive changes in their lives.

Concerning languages, in the practice of peer counselling at religious colleges, three languages exist, namely Bahasa Indonesia, Base Sasak (Regional Language), and Arabic. Indonesian is the language of instruction most commonly used in counselling interactions, given its role as a lingua franca in Indonesia. In addition, regional languages are also often heard in the early stages of counselling, especially Sasak, where their use serves as a sign of intimacy between counselor and client [14]. The use of this regional language is especially relevant when the counselor and client come from the same community group so that it can strengthen mutual understanding and become the basis for building better relationships [16]. It does not just stop there, Arabic also has a significant role in peer counselling at religious colleges. The use of Arabic in counselling sessions aims to strengthen the impact and impression of the counselling process itself. In a religious context, the use of Arabic is believed to bring stronger and deeper spiritual values, by emphasizing that every problem faced by humans is a consequence of a violation of religious orders and moral teachings [17].

The use of these three different languages has a distinctive role and function in facilitating counselling interactions between counselor and client. First, Indonesian serves as the main language of instruction in counselling sessions. The use of Bahasa Indonesia allows counselors and clients to communicate easily and understand each other, regardless of their cultural and ethnic backgrounds. Indonesian has a central role in creating an inclusive space and providing an equal platform for counselors and clients to talk about their various problems and personal experiences [18]. In the context of peer counselling, the use of Indonesian also allows counselling messages to be more easily understood and accepted by counselees because this language is the official language that is commonly understood by many people in Indonesia. Second, Base Sasak, which is the regional language, plays an important role in the early stages of counselling, especially when the counselor and client come from the same community group or have a similar cultural background. The use of Sasak language in counselling interactions indicates closeness and familiarity between counselor and client, which can create a climate of mutual trust and help build closer relationships. Local languages can also be a tool for strengthening cultural identity and shared experiences, thereby enabling the counselor to better understand the background and context of the client’s life.

Last, Arabic has a special role in peer counselling at religious colleges, especially because of its Islamic-based environment. The use of Arabic in counselling sessions provides a deeply spiritual and religious dimension. In this context, Arabic is used to reinforce counselling messages related to religious teachings and moral values. The use of Arabic confirms the view that all the problems and challenges faced by clients originate from violations of religious teachings, and peer counselling aims to guide them toward understanding and improvement in the context of spirituality and religion. Thus, the use of Bahasa Indonesia, Base Sasak, and Arabic in peer counselling at religious colleges reflects an effort to create effective and relevant interactions with clients’ cultural and religious contexts. The roles and functions of each of these languages help create safe and inclusive spaces, strengthen interpersonal relationships, and provide a deep spiritual and moral dimension in the counselling process [19].

5. Religious and cultural dimensions in peer counselling

Based on previous findings, religious and cultural dimensions play a crucial role in peer counselling practices at Islamic Universities in Indonesia. In previous counselling conversations, it is clear that the use of Arabic as the Language of Religion and Regional Language (Sasak Language) as the Native Language had a significant effect on the interaction and relationship between the counselor and the counselee. Arabic brings a deep spiritual dimension to counselling. Lexicons with Islamic religious values in Arabic embed Islamic religious teachings and values into the conversation, connect each counselee’s problems with religious teachings and morality, and assume that the problems encountered are related to actions that are not following Islamic teachings. The use of Arabic is a means of conveying counselling messages related to religious values so that counselors can provide an Islamic perspective in dealing with counselee problems and challenges.

It is significant to note that Indonesia’s status as a country with the largest Muslim population in the world influences the religious dimension in the practice of peer counselling at Islamic Universities in Indonesia. Even though Arabic is not a language that is widely spoken in Indonesia, almost all Indonesians, regardless of their background, are very familiar with expressions originating from the Qur’an and Hadith, and are often used by preachers and religious leaders in daily life. This causes many speakers to associate these expressions with belonging to the Islamic Religion. Therefore, the term “Religious Language” is more appropriate to be used as a substitute for “Arabic” in the context of counselling conversations, to emphasize that the use of these expressions is voluntary and has Islamic meaning.

Furthermore, the use of regional languages, especially Sasak, as native languages, has an important role in creating a cultural dimension in the practice of peer counselling at Islamic Universities in Indonesia. In counselling conversations, the use of lexicons with social ethical values that use regional languages helps build a climate of mutual trust and intimacy between counselors and clients, especially when they come from the same community group or have similar cultural backgrounds. Local language also functions as a tool to strengthen cultural identity and find common experiences, so that counselors can better understand the background and context of the client’s life. This creates an inclusive space and facilitates deeper interactions, where clients feel valued and understood within their cultural context. By integrating local languages ​​into counselling conversations, counselors can convey messages of social ethics and cultural values ​​more effectively, thereby enabling counselees to respond and implement solutions that are relevant to their cultural and life contexts.

The religious and cultural dimensions in peer counselling practices at Islamic Universities in Indonesia have the goal of creating an inclusive, respectful, and supportive counselling environment. By using Arabic and regional languages, the counselor can strengthen the cultural identity and spiritual values of the counselee, as well as better understand the social-ethical values that apply in religious and cultural contexts. This creates a strong emotional and spiritual bond between the counselor and the counselee so that counselling becomes more effective in providing assistance and support according to the needs of the client. The use of these languages also reflects the importance of creating effective interactions with clients’ cultural and religious contexts, so that the counselling process can take place harmoniously and produce positive results in helping clients achieve psychological and emotional well-being.

6. Islamic peer counselling, language choices, and general clinical counselling

By examining the role of religious language (Arabic as the Language of Religion) and regional language (such as Sasak as the Native Language) in peer counselling in Islamic-based universities in Indonesia, the previous explained findings introduce novel contributions to the field of counselling; these elements bring a unique perspective compared to general clinical counselling. Unlike general clinical counselling, these findings highlight the integration of religious and cultural identity in the counselling process. The use of Arabic as the Language of Religion is more than a linguistic choice; it signifies the spiritual identity of the counselee and helps in framing their problems within a religious context. This connection to spirituality allows the counselee to relate their experiences and struggles to their faith, potentially leading to more meaningful and relatable counselling experiences. In this context, the Arabic language serves as a conduit for expressing the counselee’s beliefs, values, and emotions in a manner that aligns with their religious framework. By incorporating the Language of Religion into the counselling process, counselors can create a safe and supportive environment where counselees feel understood and acknowledged in the depths of their spiritual existence. Furthermore, this use of religious language can assist in the process of catharsis, as it enables counselees to articulate their pain and struggles within a familiar religious lexicon. This articulation can serve as a form of release, allowing counselees to let go of emotional burdens and find comfort in their faith.

The use of the regional language Sasak in this context is a unique cultural aspect specific to the Indonesian context. It goes beyond the usual strategies employed in clinical counselling, which often focus on the clinical aspects of communication and rapport-building. By leveraging the cultural ties inherent in the use of a regional language, the counselling process becomes deeply rooted in the local cultural context. Using Sasak serves to establish a sense of familiarity and comfort, as it creates a shared cultural background between the counselor and the counselee. This shared cultural understanding can help to bridge any potential gaps in communication and understanding, fostering a stronger connection between the counselor and the counselee. Moreover, by using a language that is familiar and holds cultural significance, counselors can show respect for the counselee’s cultural background, validating their experiences and creating a space where they feel seen and heard. This validation can contribute to a feeling of safety and trust, which are crucial components of the counselling relationship.

Furthermore, the phenomenon of catharsis in this context is indeed multifaceted and extends beyond the traditional psychological concept of releasing emotional tension. It intertwines deeply with the cultural and religious dimensions of the counselling process in a religious-based higher education institution in Indonesia. The use of specific religious and regional languages acts as a catalyst for catharsis by creating a sense of familiarity, understanding, and connection. The religious language (Arabic as the Language of Religion) ties the counselling process to the counselee’s spiritual beliefs, providing a frame of reference that aligns with their religious identity. In this context, catharsis becomes an experience of spiritual cleansing, where the counselee can articulate their pain and struggles in a language that holds deep spiritual significance. Similarly, the use of the regional language (Sasak) allows the counselee to express themselves in a language that is intimately tied to their cultural background. This creates an environment of trust and comfort, allowing the counselee to open up and share their experiences more freely. The cathartic experience, in this case, becomes a liberating experience that connects the counselee with their cultural roots and shared experiences. Therefore, in this setting, catharsis is not just a psychological release but a holistic experience that encompasses emotional, spiritual, and cultural dimensions. It is a process through which the counselee can find liberation and healing by connecting deeply with their cultural and religious background through the use of specific religious and regional languages.

The findings also highlight the unique and context-specific nature of speech acts like “Offering Advice” and “Instruction” in a religious-based counselling setting. In this environment, the choice of language and communication strategies goes beyond generic advice and is intricately tailored to align with the counselee’s religious beliefs and cultural values. The speech act “Offering Advice” is performed with a profound understanding of the counselee’s spiritual and cultural context, ensuring that the guidance provided resonates with their religious beliefs. This might include integrating references from religious texts, using religious terminology, and framing advice in a manner that reflects the counselee’s religious worldview. Similarly, the speech act “Instruction” involves providing concrete steps and guidance that are culturally and religiously appropriate. This might involve suggesting actions or behaviors that are in line with the counselee’s cultural norms and religious practices. This level of customization and sensitivity in language use and communication strategies distinguishes this form of counselling from general clinical counselling, which might not incorporate such a deep level of cultural and religious consideration. It demonstrates how the peer counselors in this religious-based higher education institution are adept at incorporating the cultural and religious dimensions into their counselling practices, ensuring that their communication is both relevant and meaningful to the counselees.

7. Conclusion

In peer counselling practices in religion-based higher education institutions, an in-depth understanding of the dimensions of religion, culture, and religious values has a central role. The language used in counselling, including the selection of the lexicon and the performance of speech acts, has a significant impact on the effectiveness of the interaction between the counselor and the counselee. In the context of religion-based higher education, the religious dimension has a major influence on students’ lives, and an understanding of the use of language with religious values becomes very relevant. The use of religious languages, such as Arabic, and regional languages, such as Base Sasak, are not only tools of communication but also transmitters of cultural complexity, identity, and religious values. The use of language with religious values brings a deep spiritual dimension to counselling, linking the counselee’s problems with religious teachings and morality. This helps the counselor to provide views that follow the beliefs and cultural context in dealing with the counselee’s problems.

Besides, understanding the speech acts that occurred also has an important role. Speech acts are applied carefully based on a deep analysis of the counselee’s problems. To ensure effectiveness, the language used must be sensitive to cultural and religious values. In its practices, this understanding of language use and linguistic performance helps build an emotional and spiritual connection between counselor and counselee. Choosing the right lexicon and style of language reinforces the counselee’s cultural identity and spirituality. In religious-based higher education institutions, religious and cultural dimensions are important elements in counselling, able to provide deeper support according to the counselee’s needs. Through an integrated approach that considers religious and cultural dimensions, peer counselling practitioners can improve the quality of counselling interactions. Understanding language use and linguistic performance also opens up opportunities for further development of how culture, identity, and religious values influence counselling practice. Finally, this chapter provides important insights into language use and linguistic performance in counselling at faith-based higher education institutions, as well as makes a valuable contribution to the development of counselling practice in this context.