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Rodents (Order Rodentia) are one of the most speciose and diversified groups of terrestrial mammals with several beneficial roles in nature. They constitute 2277 known species which make up 42% of total mammal fauna. They are reported to inhabit in all continents except Antarctica and several small islands. They perform several beneficial roles in the environment. Despite of several beneficial roles, rodents are also a source of zoonotic pathogens. Rodents are important reservoirs of evolving zoonotic diseases because they come into close contact with livestock in the agricultural background and humans in urban zones. Almost 10% of the rodent population is either a carrier or reservoir of zoonotic pathogens of public health significance. Rapid development of agricultural and industrial change throughout the globe, has led to a significant increase in zoonotic borne disease of rodents. Rodents transfer pathogenic agents to humans through direct contact, and animals or via contamination of human food, water with rodents’ stool, or through urine. Arthropod vectors on the skin of several rodents are also able to carry zoonotic pathogens. Several factors regulate human rodent pathogen transmission like rodent population handling, human socio-economic lifestyle, and even war. Human activities such as animal trade, migration, urbanization, and large-scale traveling are facilitating factors in rodent-pathogens transfer.
Department of Zoology, Government Graduate College Pattoki (Kasur), Punjab, Pakistan
Sara Hayee
Department of Zoology, Government Graduate College Samanabad, Lahore, Pakistan
Muhammad Idnan
Department of Wildlife and Ecology, University of Okara, Pakistan
Faheem Nawaz
Institute of Zoology, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
Sadaf BiBi
Department of Zoology, Concordia College Khudian Khas (Kasur), Pakistan
*Address all correspondence to: naveed.akhtar430@gmail.com
1. Introduction
The term “rodent” is derived from the Latin word “rodere” which means “to gnaw”. Rodents (Mammalia; Rodentia) are one of the largest and diversified groups of mammals characterized by peculiar dentation consisting of single pair of continuously growing incisors in both jaws and a set of chewing teeth [1]. With 2277 discovered species from 33 different families, they comprise more than 42% of global mammalian biodiversity [2, 3, 4]. Most living rodents are thermally sensitive and have a compact bodies. They inhibit in all regions of the earth from the tropics to Polar Regions and from sea level to high mountain climate except Antarctica and some isolated islands [3, 5]. They range in size from the tiny pygmy mouse (Mus minutoides) which weighs almost seven grams to 50 kg of American capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) [6]. Rodents are important herbivores and various seed predators. The high compatibility makes rodents one of the best-suited mammals for living in various territories [2].
Rodents perform several beneficial roles in the ecosystem including soil digging and mixing, facilitation of biotic recovery, insect control, dispersal of seed and spores, vegetative succession, pollination, and regulation of the nutrient cycle [7, 8]. They are important in maintaining the health of grassland and forest [10]. Humans consume more than 71 1genera and 89 species of rodents in their diet especially in the tropical world [10]. For example, Cambodia exports almost two tons of wild rats to Vietnam per day during the peak season of rats [11].
Despite of several beneficial roles in the ecosystem, rodents are reported to play many disservices through their role as pests of cropland. They cause massive damage to standing crops and stored grains. About 1% of the cereal crops of the world are destroyed by rodents annually [12]. Additionally, rodents are important reservoirs of zoonotic diseases. They are a carrier of contagious diseases and hosts of many infectious parasites. They also cause significant economic losses by feeding on stored grains, spoiling food supplies, and transferring infectious pathogens to human beings. Rodents host a great diversity of zoonotic pathogens than any other mammalian order, and together with bats and other primates, they harbor the majority of zoonotic viruses. Rodents are vectors, reservoirs and carry a diversity of pathogens including helminthes, bacteria, viruses, and zooanthroponoses [8]. They are considered the most important hosts of infectious diseases and are responsible for more than 80 diseases including plague, leptospirosis, and hemorrhagic fever (Figure 1) [14].
2. Historical background of rodents borne zoonosis
A zoonotic disease is a disease or infection that can be transferred from vertebrate animals to human beings or from human beings to vertebrate animals. Most of the diseases affecting human beings are of animal origin [15]. It is estimated that 60% of human emerging infections are zoonotic and more than 70% of these pathogens are originated from wildlife species [16]. In recent decades, the newly emerged human diseases were animal in origin and were directly associated with animal-based food [17, 18]. Among the human pathogens, about 61% are zoonotic in nature [19]. Zoonoses can be categorized into different groups viz.; bacterial zoonoses, viral zoonoses, parasitic zoonoses, fungal zoonoses, chlamydial zoonoses, and protozoan zoonoses [15].
Rodents are among the most important hosts of infectious diseases globally [20, 21]. Rodents are known to be the reservoir of at least 60 zoonotic diseases. They are known to play an important role in the transmission and spread of diseases [13, 22, 23, 24]. They can act as definite hosts as well as intermediate hosts of zoonotic and vector-borne diseases. Rodents-borne zoonotic diseases can be divided into two main categories i.e., directly or indirectly transmitted diseases. The first category includes those zoonotic diseases which are directly transmitted by biting or inhaling germs present in the fecal matter of the rodents, whereas in the second category, humans are infected by rodent-contaminated water or urine and through consuming rodents as food [7]. Rodents could also amplify and transfer diseases transmitted by arthropod vectors. Also, rodents accidentally eaten by the livestock, could mediate disease transmission to humans if livestock products were not properly processed prior to consumption (Figures 2 and 3) [24].
Figure 2.
Two different pathogens transmission pathways through rodents [13].
Figure 3.
The ways of transmitting disease from rodents to humans.
The history of rodent-borne zoonotic diseases is linked with the plague, a bacterial infection caused by Yersinia pestis which is transmitted to humans through the bite of a flea. The plague is carried by small rodents such as rats and mice which have lived among human and their food supplies for centuries. Although the presence of the plague has been noted throughout human history, there have been three major epidemics that have been particularly devastating to the human population [25].
Major rodent-borne zoonotic diseases include plague, leptospirosis, hemorrhage fever with renal syndrome, and HPS. Rodents that are captured from wild populations or domesticated outdoors may carry zoonotic pathogens. They are reported to be reservoir hosts for at least 80 zoonotic diseases that represent a serious threat to public health [13, 26]. They play an important role in the transmission of diseases in different ways [27]. In terms of public health, rodents zoonotic transmission includes salmonellosis, plague, leptospirosis, leishmaniasis, toxoplasmosis, rat-bit fever, taeniasis-like Capillaria hepatica, zoonotic babesiosis, Lassa fever, hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS), and the hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome (HCPS), both caused by Hantavirus. In addition, other Arenaviruses are responsible for South American Hemorrhagic Fevers (SAHF) [22]. Rodents may also harbor different complex bacteria like Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Mycobacterium microti, and Escherichia coli [28]. They are also good reservoirs of different disease-causing pathogens including agents of tularemia, tick-born relapsing fever, Lyme disease, ehrlichiosis, bartonellosis, listeriosis, and Q fever (Figure 4) [7].
Figure 4.
Prediction of the hotspot of rodent-borne zoonotic diseases based on sustainable development land use change scenario [29].
3. Current status of rodent borne zoonotic diseases
Most outbreaks of novel pathogens have been observed when infectious agents are spread from animals to humans [30, 31, 32]. It has been reported that over one billion people get affected by zoonotic diseases. Considering public health priority, zoonotic pathogens are wild reservoirs [33]. Many zoonotic diseases caused by viruses, bacteria, helminths, fungi, and protozoa are transmitted by 217 species of rodents which harbor about 66 zoonoses [31]. It is expected that zoonotic disease will prevail in the regions where humans are having more contact with wildlife [34]. Land use change is a current issue when the relationship is considered between rodents and humans. This results in a significant loss of biodiversity and degradation of the natural ecosystem; a problem worldwide now [35]. It has resulted in the emergence of zoonotic diseases [31]. Many studies have revealed that land use change caused increased interaction between wildlife, domestic and synanthropic animals, and humans. Since such types of interactions are favorable to cross-species pathogen transmission so disease emergence is automatically promoted [36]. In recent times, when humanity has faced the current COVID-19 pandemic, it is worth mentioning that zoonotic infections can bring disastrous effects on public health and the world economy [37, 38]. Now it is possible to find out the wild species of rodents which cause these diseases with remarkable accuracy using various tools and techniques. The current hotspots of rodent diversity are more common in Europe, Coast of South America, North America, Russia, and some parts of East and Central Asia [39]. Rodent-based zoonotic infections can be transmitted by two methods; direct method or indirect method.
3.1 Diseases directly spread by rodents
Rodents are capable of direct disease transmission in various ways. An infected rodent can transmit disease by biting. A person can become infected when breathing in contaminated air or eating contaminated food. Direct contact by touching an infected rodent’s eyes, nose, or mouth brings the same results. Even touching of excreta and urine of infected rodents may cause transmission of a causative agent.
3.2 Disease indirectly spread by rodents
Rodents are important vertebrate hosts for many other organisms. They may be bitten by fleas, ticks, mosquitoes, and mites. Since these organisms feed on host blood, the rodent becomes infected easily. Diseases can be transmitted to man from infected rodents due to food consumption of any intermediate host like cockroaches and beetles [40].
4. Role of Peridomestic rodents as reservoirs for foodborne zoonotic pathogens
Peridomestic rodents are the rodent types living in and around human habitations. The role of this category of rodents is very important in zoonotic disease spread due to its close association with humans. Sadly, it is also linked to poverty, because unprivileged house infrastructure and poor living conditions bring exposure to rodents [41]. When foodborne pathogenic human diseases are taken into consideration, the uniting factor comes to be associated with peridomestic rodents [42]. Peridomestic and commensal rodents are of special importance regarding global health initiatives. It is due to the fact native and regional invasive species of rodents like mice and rats get benefits from human activities especially due to agricultural practices. These rodents transmit diseases to poultry, livestock, and raw products by infecting the farm environment [43]. Since it has been reported that an infected rodent releases a huge number of viruses in its urine, the contamination of stored is also a major reason for disease transmission in humans through rodents. The pathogens are amplified in any environment because of the daily basis deposit of urine and fecal pellets. For example, a single rodent when gets a chance to live or enter in a farmland, can introduce up to 23 million of Salmonella bacteria within one day [44].
5. Factors determine rodent born zoonotic Spillover
Rodents are globally famous and abundant for extreme population fluctuations that manifest eruptive zoonotic outbreaks [45]. These fluctuations are heterogonous and include climatic conditions, density dependence, food availability, predation rates, and land use change [46]. Complexities of zoonotic transmission, including seasonality of rodent abundance, changes in land use creating artificial habitats, and diversity of transmission modes, cause many zoonotic disease systems to be considered as unique, with a need for control efforts tailored to the ecological nuances of each system. The ecological phenomenon which involves pathogenic transmission between different species with the crossing of the species barrier is known as zoonotic spillover, host jump, and zoonotic transfer [47, 48]. A spillover can also be defined as parasite cross-transmission in a host population not infected earlier [49]. Human history is full of epidemics and disease outbreaks. Some of the diseases reach different continents. About 60% of all human infectious diseases have zoonotic origin [50]. Animal handling, poaching, meat consumptions, and use of animal-derived products are some factors that are linked with spillover events [51]. In addition to food consumption, many animals are sold in markets as pets, for medicinal gains and cultural practices, etc. Pathogenic transmission occurs not only due to meat, blood, and biofluids but also due to contaminated surfaces and aerosols [52, 53]. Spillover is a multifactorial complex process. The increased risk of spillover is associated with prevalence and infection intensity in host reservoirs. The distribution and density of an infected are also determining factors of a spillover [48]. It is important to understand all the factors which bring about zoonotic spillover considering the host species, environment, and pathogen (Figure 5).
Figure 5.
Pathways increasing transmission from rodent-borne pathogens (a). Contact between rodents and humans increases transmission risk; either with rodents moving into human dwellings and environments or with (b). Humans moving into rodent habitats or using rodents as a natural resource [46].
5.1 Land use change
Land use change is the conversion of natural vegetation to anthropogenic habitats. As discussed earlier, land use change promotes disease transmission. The real mechanism behind this is not known. Land use change results in the extinction of local species. It causes modification of host abundance and community structure. This brings a change in pathogen transmission dynamics [54]. The host and pathogen association is changed due to host communities. Ultimately, pathogenic prevalence is enhanced in a host which adapted to human-dominated landscapes. Changes in land use design modify ecological interactions between local communities. So, there is an increased possibility of zoonotic diseases emergence such as Nipah virus, Lyme disease, encephalitis, Hantavirus, and plague [55]. The whole world has recently evidenced this through the COVID-19 pandemic. Zoonotic diseases can have catastrophic effects on public health and the world economy [37]. The shared socioeconomic pathway narratives have captured future land use setups. It predicts about land change use of the future which is based on the high demand for energy and food by a growing population [56].
5.2 Environmental variations
Humans, animals, and the environment play a significant role in the emergence and transmission of different infectious diseases [57]. Environmental variations are also associated with species distribution, abundance, and richness. Due to the anthropogenic emission of greenhouse gases, there is an increase in temperature globally. This has an impact on the distribution of vectors. It also increases the risk of vector-borne zoonotic diseases [58]. The spread of Hantavirus in China hosted by rodents is also considered due to anthropogenic human activities [59]. Rodents make up about 42% of mammals. They damage our forests, farmlands, and agriculture and transmit diseases yet they are important in ecosystem maintenance [60]. Rodents are preyed upon by many other species. Because of their short life span and high reproductive potential, they are very responsive to global changes. Extrinsic and intrinsic factors influence the population abundance of small rodent species [61]. Many environmental factors like rainfall, photoperiod, and temperature affect the reproduction of rodents [62].
5.3 Types of pathogens transmitted by rodent
Various types of rodents transmitted by rodents include mainly bacteria, viruses, some protozoan parasites, and nematodes. We will discuss each category briefly.
5.3.1 Bacterial diseases
A number of rodents are host to bacteria. Many bacterial infections are being transmitted to humans by rodents [63]. Some of the important pathogenic bacteria are discussed here:
An important pathogenic bacterium is Yersinia pestis whose natural host is the rat. This bacterium may infect about 200 different species of rodents. It is a gram-negative facultative anaerobic bacterium that causes plague in humans. It causes three types of infections which include pneumonic, bubonic, and septicemic. It is transmitted to humans by biting infected fleas [64]. This bacterium is involved in rodent flea life cycle and causes plague. Moreover, some ectoparasites like ticks are also infected with this bacterium. Thus, infected rodents and vectors like ticks and fleas are everlasting sources of Y. pestis. This type of life cycle is called as enzootic cycle [65].
Leptospira is a pathogenic spirochete. This genus has about 22 known species [66]. It causes leptospirosis a worldwide major zoonotic disease [41, 67]. This bacterium may be transmitted by direct or indirect methods, for example, through dirty surroundings and infected hosts [68]. Among rodents, their main host is rats including two important species; Rattus rattus and Rattus norvegicus. This bacterium is particularly present in the proximal part of rat renal tubules [69]. Leptospirosis symptoms involve headache, chills, fever, conjunctivital suffusion, etc. [70].
Salmonella genus belongs to Enterobacteriaceae, a rod-shaped bacterium that is gram-negative. The two main species of Salmonella include Salmonella typhi and Salmonella paratyphi. When this pathogen lives in the gastrointestinal tract of its host, it remains asymptomatic for most time [71]. This pathogenic bacterium is a curse for farm animals. Infected rodents are a big threat to whole livestock. From here the infection leads to many food chains. So, it is very important to remove its infestation at an early stage [13]. Not only bacterial, but rodents are also capable of transmitting viral diseases.
5.3.2 Viral diseases
A number of viral diseases are spread by rodents. Some of these diseases are discussed here:
Hantaviruses are viruses that are transmitted by a number of rodents. It can cause hemorrhagic fever leading to hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome (HCPS) and renal syndrome (HFRS). Its first outbreak happened in 1993 in South West USA and resulted in a high number of deaths [72]. Hantavirus belongs to the family Hantaviridae and has four genera which include Mobatvirus, Thottimvirus, Loanvirus, and Orthohantavirus. Hantavirus can be transmitted directly to humans by rodent biting. But it affects lesser individuals. It is spread more commonly by food contamination with the infected host’s saliva or urine [73].
Another important virus spread by these creatures is Rotavirus belonging to Reoviridae. This virus causes gastroenteritis especially affecting young children. It causes severe dehydrating diarrhea. It has been estimated that about 2 million people are hospitalized and outpatients which visit globally are about 25 million (WHO). Rotavirus causes diarrhea which is a leading cause of high mortality rate in children. Mice are the carrier agents of this virus. This virus is transmitted through the fecal-oral route and airborne infection [74].
Recently coronavirus shook the whole world. It is enveloped RNA-containing virus which mainly affects the respiratory system. From 2019 to 2022, it affected millions of people. Nearly three years passed and the whole world is still struggling to understand the extent of the pandemic. Coronavirus also known as SARS-CoV-2 causes a sequence of pneumonia [75]. It has been reported that bats and rats are the primary resources of coronaviruses. The pathogenic behavior of this virus has been detected in cattle, mice, and rats [76]. Coronaviruses from rats are very contagious and spread through aerosols, fomites, and direct contact [77].
The Hepatitis E virus also known as HEV causes liver cirrhosis. It is transmitted through the GIT tract or from the fecal-oral route. This virus has become a serious problem where global public health is concerned [78]. This RNA-containing virus belongs to the family Hepeviridae. Its origin is not known. Now it has been detected that HEV is found in animals like rodents, deer, and rabbits. It is transferred in man by eating, meetings or any direct or indirect means [79]. In Germany, a research work isolated this virus from R. norvegicus. Some studies show that some of the murine rodents are able to transfer this virus to man (Table 1) [97].
Lassa fever is a disease spread by the Lassa virus. This virus belongs to the family Arenaviridae. A species of mouse Mastomys natalensis is the only known non-human host of this virus [98]. It has been reported that humans are infected with the Lassa virus when they come in contact with the feces, urine, and blood of the infected Mastomys rats [99]. Arenavirus and cowpox are also zoonotic viruses. Humans, cows, cats, and many other zoo animals are the hosts of the cowpox virus [100]. Each species of these viruses is linked to related species of rodents [101].
Rodents live in close proximity with humans. These organisms are kept as pets. They are a constant threat because of gnawing damage to food storage, crops, and health. They are important competitors for food with humans [13]. It is necessary to look for preventive measures to minimize the economic loss as well as the transmission of diseases to humans which is a more important and serious issue. With the use of proper rodent control procedures, it is possible to minimize the cases of rodent-borne diseases. People should be guided when handling rodents as their pests. People working in forests, croplands, and farms should also be trained well not to handle any food directly. Rodent infestation is the main reason for disease spread in and around the home of any human. Good housing infrastructure and construction can help to minimize rodent invasion. This point is an integral part of the prevention strategy. Discourage rodent infestation by removing uncovered food items, water, and possible shelter. Do not touch rodent droppings or excreta directly. Removal of possible nesting sites from the property is also helpful. All the holes along the exterior of the home should be closed with the use of recommended rodent-proofing material. Garbage, debris, and clutter should be removed on daily basis. Rodents like rats and mice avoid the smell. Mint plants can be planted in gardens and can be kept at home for this purpose.
In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, there is a lot of attention needed to understand the role of rodents in emerging zoonotic diseases so that one health approach may be adopted to combat future pandemics. The rapid development of industry, agriculture, urbanization and the intensity of the interactions between people, rodents, and the environment is enhancing the chances of zoonotic spillover and challenge for the healthcare system. This situation is a bit severe in developing countries where changing the distribution and abundance of available hosts or reservoirs is impacting pathogen persistence. These variations in the behavior movement pattern and immune status of the host are altering the susceptibility and transmission prospects of rodent-borne zoonotic infections. Changes in the utility of the environment also increase the chance of human rodents interaction and subsequently enhance disease prevalence. In developing countries with poor sanitation, high-density housing and increased flooding are increasing human-rodent interactions and subsequent disease transmission.
Rodents are the most diversified group of mammals and their proximity help in the transmission of various zoonotic diseases. They act as reservoirs hosts for many important zoonotic pathogens posing a serious health threat to human beings causing massive morbidity and mortality globally. Rodents’ population fluctuate in abundance over both seasonal and multiannual time scales, their population dynamics affect infection dynamics of rodent-borne diseases.
Exposure to zoonoses from ectoparasites, blood, and urine while handling rodents to be used for food is another possible risk that deserves attention. Considering their extensive distribution globally, it is crucial to pay more attention to their role in the dispersion of infectious diseases for healthier control of the diseases. To better understand disease ecology and parasite transmission, it must be considered that not all hosts are equally involved in parasite transmission as some species (and individuals) can be responsible for a disproportionate number of transmission events (Paull et al.). There is severe need for understanding the drivers of rodent-borne zoonotic infections transmission. Surveillance of different pathogens in rodents at the different animal-human interfaces is highly recommended. To avoid multidrug resistance (MDR) in the different bacterial-borne rodent infections, continuous monitoring of the evolution of known pathogens and their detection using different in-vitro and in-vivo models is needed. There is the utmost need for the development of better treatment plans including vaccines for rodent-borne zoonotic diseases.
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Written By
Naveed Akhtar, Sara Hayee, Muhammad Idnan, Faheem Nawaz and Sadaf BiBi
Submitted: 09 February 2023Reviewed: 12 February 2023Published: 17 March 2023
Open access peer-reviewed chapter
